Sufis

Sufism ( or ) is a mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic purification, spirituality, ritualism, and asceticism.

Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as "Sufis" (from , ), and historically typically belonged to "orders" known as (pl. ) — congregations formed around a grand (saint) who would be the last in a chain of successive teachers linking back to Muhammad, with the goal of undergoing (self purification) and the hope of reaching the spiritual station of . The ultimate aim of Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by endeavoring to return to their original state of purity and natural disposition, known as .

Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history, partly as a reaction against the expansion of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri. Although Sufis were opposed to dry legalism, they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic jurisprudence and theology. Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, remain adherents of Sunni Islam, certain strands of Sufi thought transferred over to the ambits of Shia Islam during the late medieval period. This particularly happened after the Safavid conversion of Iran under the concept of ''irfan''. Important focuses of Sufi worship include , the practice of remembrance of God. Sufis also played an important role in spreading Islam through their missionary and educational activities.

Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in the modern era and attacks from fundamentalist Islamic movements (such as Salafism and Wahhabism), Sufism has continued to play an important role in the Islamic world. It has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West and generated significant academic interest.

Definitions

The Arabic word (), generally translated as Sufism, is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism. The Arabic term has been used in Islamic literature with a wide range of meanings, by both proponents and opponents of Sufism. Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the sunnah (exemplary teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), gave definitions of ''tasawwuf'' that described ethical and spiritual goals and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. Many other terms that described particular spiritual qualities and roles were used instead in more practical contexts.

Some modern scholars have used other definitions of Sufism such as the "intensification of Islamic faith and practice" and the "process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals".

The term Sufism was originally introduced into European languages in the 18th century by Orientalist scholars, who viewed it mainly as an intellectual doctrine and literary tradition at variance with what they saw as sterile monotheism of Islam. It was often mistaken as a universal mysticism in contrast to legalistic orthodox Islam. In recent times, historian Nile Green has argued against such distinctions, stating, in the Medieval period Sufism and Islam were more or less the same. In modern scholarly usage, the term serves to describe a wide range of social, cultural, political and religious phenomena associated with Sufis.

Sufism has been variously defined as "Islamic mysticism",Martin Lings, ''What is Sufism?'' (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), p.15 "the mystical expression of Islamic faith", "the inward dimension of Islam", "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam", the "main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization" of mystical practice in Islam, and "the interiorization and intensification of Islamic faith and practice".

Etymology

The original meaning of ' seems to have been "one who wears wool (')", and the Encyclopaedia of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable". Woolen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ' on linguistic grounds.Rashid Ahmad Jullundhry, ''Qur'anic Exegesis in Classical Literature'', pg. 56. New Westminster: The Other Press, 2010.

Another explanation traces the lexical root of the word to ' (), which in Arabic means "purity", and in this context another similar idea of as considered in Islam is ''tazkiyah'' (, meaning: self-purification), which is also widely used in Sufism. These two explanations were combined by the Sufi ''al-Rudhabari'' (d. 322 AH), who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity."

Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ("the people of the suffah" or the bench), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of ''dhikr''. One of the most prominent companions among them was Abu Hurayra. These men and women who sat at the Prophet's Mosque are considered by some to be the first Sufis.

History

Origins

The current consensus is that Sufism emerged in the Hejaz, present day Saudi Arabia and that it has existed as a practice of Muslims from the earliest days of Islam, even predating some sectarian divides.

Sufi orders are based on the ' () that was given to Muhammad by his companions (''ṣahabah''). By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the ''sahabah'' had committed themselves to the service of God.

Sufis believe that by giving (pledging allegiance) to a legitimate Sufi shaykh, one is pledging allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad is established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst the ''sahaba'' who have directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by the ''hadith'', which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate." Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in ''Tasawwuf''. Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as sheikh of the principals and practices of ''Tasawwuf''.

Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering the divine mysteries" more than Islam required, such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. Hasan al-Basri, a tabi', is considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart".

Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history, partly as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri.

Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development. Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.

Later developments of Sufism occurred from people like Dawud Tai and Bayazid Bastami. Early on Sufism was known for its strict adherence to the sunnah, for example it was reported Bastami refused to eat a watermelon because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it. According to the late medieval mystic, the Persian poet Jami, Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died c. 716) was the first person to be called a "Sufi". The term also had a strong connection with Kufa, with three of the earliest scholars to be called by the term being Abu Hashim al-Kufi, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abdak al-Sufi. Later individuals included Hatim al-Attar, from Basra, and Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi. Others, such as Al-Harith al-Muhasibi and Sari al-Saqati, were not known as Sufis during their lifetimes, but later came to be identified as such due to their focus on tazkiah (purification).

Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarani

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