Robert Henryson
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Robert Henryson (
Middle Scots Middle Scots was the Anglic language of Lowland Scotland in the period from 1450 to 1700. By the end of the 15th century, its phonology, orthography, accidence, syntax and vocabulary had diverged markedly from Early Scots, which was virtual ...
: Robert Henrysoun) was a poet who flourished in Scotland in the period c. 1460–1500. Counted among the Scots ''
makar A makar () is a term from Scottish literature for a poet or bard, often thought of as a royal court poet. Since the 19th century, the term ''The Makars'' has been specifically used to refer to a number of poets of fifteenth and sixteenth cen ...
s'', he lived in the
royal burgh A royal burgh ( ) was a type of Scottish burgh which had been founded by, or subsequently granted, a royal charter. Although abolished by law in 1975, the term is still used by many former royal burghs. Most royal burghs were either created by ...
of
Dunfermline Dunfermline (; , ) is a city, parish, and former royal burgh in Fife, Scotland, from the northern shore of the Firth of Forth. Dunfermline was the de facto capital of the Kingdom of Scotland between the 11th and 15th centuries. The earliest ...
and is a distinctive voice in the
Northern Renaissance The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps, developing later than the Italian Renaissance, and in most respects only beginning in the last years of the 15th century. It took different forms in the vari ...
at a time when the culture was on a cusp between
medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...
and renaissance sensibilities. Little is known of his life, but evidence suggests that he was a teacher who had training in law and the
humanities Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture, including Philosophy, certain fundamental questions asked by humans. During the Renaissance, the term "humanities" referred to the study of classical literature a ...
, that he had a connection with
Dunfermline Abbey Dunfermline Abbey is a Church of Scotland parish church in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland. The church occupies the site of the ancient chancel and transepts of a large medieval Benedictine abbey, which was confiscated and sacked in 1560 during the S ...
and that he may also have been associated for a period with
Glasgow University The University of Glasgow (abbreviated as ''Glas.'' in post-nominals; ) is a public research university in Glasgow, Scotland. Founded by papal bull in , it is the fourth-oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotland's four ...
. His poetry was composed in
Middle Scots Middle Scots was the Anglic language of Lowland Scotland in the period from 1450 to 1700. By the end of the 15th century, its phonology, orthography, accidence, syntax and vocabulary had diverged markedly from Early Scots, which was virtual ...
at a time when this was the
state language An official language is defined by the Cambridge English Dictionary as, "the language or one of the languages that is accepted by a country's government, is taught in schools, used in the courts of law, etc." Depending on the decree, establishmen ...
. His writing consists mainly of narrative works. His surviving body of work amounts to almost 5000 lines.


Works

Henryson's surviving canon consists of three long poems and around twelve miscellaneous short works in various genres. The longest poem is his '' Morall Fabillis,'' a tight, intricately structured set of thirteen fable stories in a cycle that runs just short of 3000 lines. Two other long works survive, both a little over 600 lines each. One is '' The Tale of Orpheus and Erudices his Quene,'' his dynamic and inventive version of the
Orpheus In Greek mythology, Orpheus (; , classical pronunciation: ) was a Thracians, Thracian bard, legendary musician and prophet. He was also a renowned Ancient Greek poetry, poet and, according to legend, travelled with Jason and the Argonauts in se ...
story. The other is his '' Testament of Cresseid'', a tale of moral and psychological subtlety in a tragic mode founded upon the literary
conceit An extended metaphor, also known as a conceit or sustained metaphor, is the use of a single metaphor or analogy at length in a work of literature. It differs from a mere metaphor in its length, and in having more than one single point of contact be ...
of "completing" Criseyde's story-arc from
Chaucer Geoffrey Chaucer ( ; – 25 October 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant best known for '' The Canterbury Tales''. He has been called the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry". He ...
's Troilus and Criseyde. Emily Wingfield has explored its significance in relation to the deployment of the Trojan Legend in political discourse between England and Scotland. The range of Henryson's shorter works includes ''
Robene and Makyne "Robene and Makyne" is a short poem by the 15th-century Scottish makar Robert Henryson. It is an early written example of Scottish '' pastourelle,'' derived from the ballad stanza form. Origins and structure Robene and Makyne (also spelt ...
,'' a pastourelle on a theme of love, as well as a bawdy passage of comic flyting which targets the medical practises of his day, a highly crafted and compressed poem of Marian devotion, some allegorical works, some philosophical meditations, and a prayer against the pest. As with his longer works, his outward themes often carry important
subtext In any communication, in any medium or format, "subtext" is the underlying or implicit meaning that, while not explicitly stated, is understood by an audience. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "an underlying and often distinct theme ...
s. Constructing a sure chronology for Henryson's writings is not possible, but his Orpheus story may have been written earlier in his career, during his time in
Glasgow Glasgow is the Cities of Scotland, most populous city in Scotland, located on the banks of the River Clyde in Strathclyde, west central Scotland. It is the List of cities in the United Kingdom, third-most-populous city in the United Kingdom ...
, since one of its principal sources was contained in the university library. Internal evidence has been used to suggest that the ''Morall Fabillis'' were composed during the 1480s.


Biographical inferences

There is no record of when or where Henryson was born or educated. The earliest found unconfirmed reference to him occurs on 10 September 1462, when a man of his name with license to teach is on record as having taken a post in the recently founded
University of Glasgow The University of Glasgow (abbreviated as ''Glas.'' in Post-nominal letters, post-nominals; ) is a Public university, public research university in Glasgow, Scotland. Founded by papal bull in , it is the List of oldest universities in continuous ...
. If this was the poet, as is usually assumed, then the citation indicates that he had completed studies in both
arts The arts or creative arts are a vast range of human practices involving creativity, creative expression, storytelling, and cultural participation. The arts encompass diverse and plural modes of thought, deeds, and existence in an extensive ...
and
canon law Canon law (from , , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical jurisdiction, ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its membe ...
. Almost all early references to Henryson firmly associate his name with Dunfermline. He probably had some attachment to the city's
Benedictine The Benedictines, officially the Order of Saint Benedict (, abbreviated as O.S.B. or OSB), are a mainly contemplative monastic order of the Catholic Church for men and for women who follow the Rule of Saint Benedict. Initiated in 529, th ...
abbey, the burial place for many of the kingdom's
monarchs A monarch () is a head of stateWebster's II New College Dictionary. "Monarch". Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority an ...
and an important centre for
pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a travel, journey to a holy place, which can lead to a personal transformation, after which the pilgrim returns to their daily life. A pilgrim (from the Latin ''peregrinus'') is a traveler (literally one who has come from afar) w ...
close to a major ferry-crossing ''en route'' to
St Andrews St Andrews (; ; , pronounced ʰʲɪʎˈrˠiː.ɪɲ is a town on the east coast of Fife in Scotland, southeast of Dundee and northeast of Edinburgh. St Andrews had a recorded population of 16,800 , making it Fife's fourth-largest settleme ...
. Direct unconfirmed evidence for this connection occurs in 1478 when his name appears as a witness on abbey charters. If this was the poet, then it would establish that one of his functions was as
notary A notary is a person authorised to perform acts in legal affairs, in particular witnessing signatures on documents. The form that the notarial profession takes varies with local legal systems. A notary, while a legal professional, is distin ...
for the abbey, an institution which possessed and managed a vast portfolio of territory across Scotland. The almost universal references to Henryson as schoolmaster are usually taken to mean that he taught in and had some duty to run the
grammar school A grammar school is one of several different types of school in the history of education in the United Kingdom and other English-speaking countries, originally a Latin school, school teaching Latin, but more recently an academically oriented Se ...
for Dunfermline's abbatial burgh. A partial picture of what this meant in practice may be derived from a ''confirmatio'' of 1468 which granted provision to build a "suitable" house for the habitation of a "
priest A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deity, deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in parti ...
" (as master of grammar) and "scholars" in Dunfermline, including "poor scholars being taught free of charge". Dunfermline, as a
royal burgh A royal burgh ( ) was a type of Scottish burgh which had been founded by, or subsequently granted, a royal charter. Although abolished by law in 1975, the term is still used by many former royal burghs. Most royal burghs were either created by ...
with capital status, was routinely visited by the court with residences directly linked to the abbey complex. There is no record of Henryson as a court poet, but the close proximity makes acquaintance with the royal household likely. He was active during the reigns of James III and
James IV James IV (17 March 1473 – 9 September 1513) was King of Scotland from 11 June 1488 until his death at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. He inherited the throne at the age of fifteen on the death of his father, James III, at the Battle of Sauch ...
, both of whom had strong interests in literature. According to the poet William Dunbar, Henryson died in Dunfermline. An
apocryphal Apocrypha () are biblical or related writings not forming part of the accepted canon of scripture, some of which might be of doubtful authorship or authenticity. In Christianity, the word ''apocryphal'' (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied to ...
story by the English poet Francis Kynaston in the early 17th century refers to the
flux Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications in physics. For transport phe ...
as the cause of death, but this has not been established. The year of death also is unknown, although c.1498-9, a time of plague in the burgh, has been tentatively suggested. However, Dunbar gives the terminus ad quem in a couplet (usually considered to have been composed c.1505) which simply states that Death ''in Dunfermelyne'' :''...hes done roune'' (has whispered in private) :''with Maister Robert Henrysoun''. (William Dunbar, '' Lament for the Makaris'', lines 81–2) Almost nothing else is known of Henryson outside of his surviving writing. It is not known if he originated from Dunfermline and a suggestion that he may have been linked to the
Fife Fife ( , ; ; ) is a council areas of Scotland, council area and lieutenancy areas of Scotland, lieutenancy area in Scotland. A peninsula, it is bordered by the Firth of Tay to the north, the North Sea to the east, the Firth of Forth to the s ...
branch of the Clan Henderson is not possible to verify, although his name is certainly
of that ilk "Of that Ilk", otherwise known as "Chief of that Bluid", is a term used in the Scottish nobility to denote a clan chieftain in some Scottish clans. The term '' of that ilk'' means "of the same ame, and is used to avoid repetition in a person's ti ...
.


General style

Henryson generally wrote in a first-person voice using a familiar tone that quickly brings the reader into his confidence and gives a notable impression of authentic
personality Personality is any person's collection of interrelated behavioral, cognitive, and emotional patterns that comprise a person’s unique adjustment to life. These interrelated patterns are relatively stable, but can change over long time per ...
and
beliefs A belief is a subjective Attitude (psychology), attitude that something is truth, true or a State of affairs (philosophy), state of affairs is the case. A subjective attitude is a mental state of having some Life stance, stance, take, or opinion ...
. The writing stays rooted in daily life and continues to feel grounded even when the themes are
metaphysical Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of h ...
or elements are fantastic. His language is a supple, flowing and concise Scots that clearly shows he knew
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
, while scenes are usually given a deftly evocative Scottish setting which can only have come from close connection and observation. This detailed, intimate and realistic approach, at times, strongly suggests matters of personal experience and attitudes to actual contemporary events, yet the specifics remain elusive in ways that tantalise readers and critics. Some of this sense of intrigue may be in part accidental, but it is also heightened by his cannily controlled application of a philosophy of fiction, a frequently self-proclaimed feature of the work. No concrete details of his life can be directly inferred from his works, but there are some passages of
self-reflection Self-reflection is the ability to witness and evaluate one's own cognitive, emotional, and behavioural processes. In psychology, other terms used for this self-observation include "reflective awareness" and "reflective consciousness", which or ...
that appear to contain autobiographical implications, particularly in the opening stanzas of his ''Testament of Cresseid''.


Henryson's Scots

Henryson wrote using the Scots language of the 15th century. This was in an age when the use of
vernacular Vernacular is the ordinary, informal, spoken language, spoken form of language, particularly when perceptual dialectology, perceived as having lower social status or less Prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige than standard language, which is mor ...
languages for literature in many parts of Europe was increasingly taking the place of
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
, the long-established
lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...
across the continent.


Legacy

Poet
Seamus Heaney Seamus Justin Heaney (13 April 1939 – 30 August 2013) was an Irish Irish poetry, poet, playwright and translator. He received the 1995 Nobel Prize in Literature. Among his best-known works is ''Death of a Naturalist'' (1966), his first m ...
adapted Henryson's fables and they were published by
Faber and Faber Faber and Faber Limited, commonly known as Faber & Faber or simply Faber, is an independent publishing house in London. Published authors and poets include T. S. Eliot (an early Faber editor and director), W. H. Auden, C. S. Lewis, Margaret S ...
in 2010. The poems were made into a series of short, animated films, shortly before he died. Heaney worked with Scottish actor Billy Connolly in the production of the works, with a score composed for the project by pianist Barry Douglas. The films were broadcast on the BBC in 2014, shortly after Heaney's death - one of the last creations of Heaney's life.


Extant poems

All known and extant writings attributed to Robert Henryson are listed here. In addition, the scholar Matthew P McDiarmid identified from an index a lost poem by Henryson which began: ''On fut by Forth as I couth found'' (not listed below).McDiarmid, M.P. 1981: ''Robert Henryson,'' Scottish Academic Press, p.4


Long works

* '' The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian'' ''(See below for list of individual fables in the cycle)'' * '' The Tale of Orpheus and Erudices his Quene'' * '' The Testament of Cresseid''


Short works

* ''
Robene and Makyne "Robene and Makyne" is a short poem by the 15th-century Scottish makar Robert Henryson. It is an early written example of Scottish '' pastourelle,'' derived from the ballad stanza form. Origins and structure Robene and Makyne (also spelt ...
'' * '' Sum Practysis of Medecyne'' * '' The Annuciation'' * '' Ane Prayer for the Pest'' * '' The Garment of Gud Ladeis'' * '' The Bludy Serk'' * '' The Thre Deid-Pollis'' * '' Against Hasty Credence'' * '' The Abbay Walk'' * '' The Praise of Age'' * '' The Ressoning Betwix Aige and Yowth'' * '' The Ressoning Betwix Deth and Man''


Individual fables

Seven of the stories in Henryson's cycle are Aesopian fables derived from elegiac Romulus texts, while the other six (given in italics) are
Reynard Reynard the Fox is a list of literary cycles, literary cycle of medieval allegorical Folklore of the Low Countries, Dutch, English folklore, English, French folklore, French and German folklore, German fables. The first extant versions of the cy ...
ian in genre. The three titles given with bold numbers provide evidence for the integral unity of the overall structure. * 01 The Cock and the Jasp * 02 The Twa Mice * 03 '' The Cock and the Fox'' * 04 '' The Confession of the Tod'' * 05 '' The Trial of the Tod'' * 06 The Sheep and the Dog * 07 The Lion and the Mouse * 08 The Preaching of the Swallow * 09 '' The Fox the Wolf and the Cadger'' * 10 '' The Fox the Wolf and the Husbandman'' * 11 '' The Wolf and the Wether'' * 12 The Wolf and the Lamb * 13 The Paddock and the Mouse


Bibliography

* Gray, Douglas (1979), ''Robert Henryson'', E.J. Brill, * Barron, W.R.J. (ed.) (1981), ''Robert Henryson: Selected Poems'', Carcanet New Press * McDiarmid, Matthew P. (1981), ''Robert Henryson'', Scottish Academic Press, * Fox, Denton (ed.) (1981), ''The Poems of Robert Henryson'', Clarendon Press, * David Murison (ed.) (1989), ''Selected Poems by Robert Henryson'', The Saltire Society, * Fleming, Morna (ed.) (2003), ''The Flouer o Makarheid'', The Robert Henryson Society, Dunfermline * Wingfield, Emily (2014), ''The Trojan Legend in Medieval Scottish Literature'', D.S. Brewer,


See also

* Scotland's Education Act of 1496 *
Scotland in the Late Middle Ages Scotland in the late Middle Ages, between the deaths of Alexander III of Scotland, Alexander III in 1286 and James IV of Scotland, James IV in 1513, established its independence from England under figures including William Wallace in the late ...
* Scotsoun


Notes and references


External links


Robert Henryson Society homepage
digital edition at the
National Library of Scotland The National Library of Scotland (NLS; ; ) is one of Scotland's National Collections. It is one of the largest libraries in the United Kingdom. As well as a public programme of exhibitions, events, workshops, and tours, the National Library of ...
contains the following works by Henryson: **The Praise of Age **Orpheus and Eurydice **The Want of Wise Men
Robert L. Kindrick, 'The Morall Fabillis: Introduction"
{{DEFAULTSORT:Henryson, Robert Scottish Renaissance writers Middle Scots poets Scots Makars 1420s births 1500s deaths Scottish fabulists Lallans poets Scottish educators
Robert The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (''Hrōþiberhtaz''). Compare Old Dutch ''Robrecht'' and Old High German ''Hrodebert'' (a compound of ''Hrōþ, Hruod'' () "fame, glory, honour, prais ...
People associated with Fife People associated with the University of Glasgow People from Dunfermline Alumni of the University of St Andrews 15th-century Scottish poets 15th-century educators