Mountain Jews are the
Mizrahi Jewish
Mizrahi Jews (), also known as ''Mizrahim'' () in plural and ''Mizrahi'' () in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or ''Edot HaMizrach'' (, ), are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping of Jews, Jewish c ...
subgroup of the eastern and northern
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
, mainly
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
, and various republics in the
Russian Federation
Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
:
Chechnya
Chechnya, officially the Chechen Republic, is a Republics of Russia, republic of Russia. It is situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, between the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. The republic forms a part of the North Caucasian Federa ...
,
Ingushetia
Ingushetia or Ingushetiya, officially the Republic of Ingushetia, is a republic of Russia located in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe. The republic is part of the North Caucasian Federal District, and shares land borders with the country o ...
,
Dagestan
Dagestan ( ; ; ), officially the Republic of Dagestan, is a republic of Russia situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, along the Caspian Sea. It is located north of the Greater Caucasus, and is a part of the North Caucasian Fede ...
,
Karachay-Cherkessia
Karachay-Cherkessia (), officially the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, is a republic of Russia located in the North Caucasus. It is administratively part of the North Caucasian Federal District. As of the 2021 census, Karachay-Cherkessia has a popul ...
, and
Kabardino-Balkaria
Kabardino-Balkaria (), officially the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, is a republic of Russia located in the North Caucasus. As of the 2021 Census, its population was 904,200. Its capital is Nalchik. The area contains the highest mountain in ...
.
Mountain Jews took shape as a community after
Qajar Iran
The Guarded Domains of Iran, alternatively the Sublime State of Iran and commonly called Qajar Iran, Qajar Persia or the Qajar Empire, was the Iranian state under the rule of the Qajar dynasty, which was of Turkic peoples, Turkic origin,Cyrus G ...
ceded the areas in which they lived to the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
as part of the
Treaty of Gulistan
The Treaty of Gulistan (also spelled Golestan: ; ) was a peace treaty concluded between the Russian Empire and Qajar Iran on 24 October 1813 in the village of Gülüstan, Goranboy, Gulistan (now in Goranboy District, the Goranboy District of Azerb ...
of 1813.
The forerunners of the Mountain Jewish community have inhabited
Ancient Persia
The history of Iran (also known as Persia) is intertwined with Greater Iran, which is a socio-cultural region encompassing all of the areas that have witnessed significant settlement or influence exerted by the Iranian peoples and the Iranian ...
since the 5th century BCE. The language spoken by Mountain Jews, called
Judeo-Tat
Judeo-Tat or Juhuri (, , ) is a Judeo-Persian dialect and the traditional language spoken by the Mountain Jews in the eastern Caucasus Mountains, especially Azerbaijan, parts of Russia and today in Israel. It belongs to the southwestern group ...
, is an ancient Southwest Iranian language which integrates many elements of
Ancient Hebrew.
["Mountain Jews: customs and daily life in the Caucasus'', Leʼah Miḳdash-Shema", Liya Mikdash-Shamailov, Muzeʼon Yiśraʼel (Jerusalem), UPNE, 2002, page 17'']
It is believed that Mountain Jews in Persia, as early as the 8th century BCE, continued to migrate east; settling in mountainous areas of the Caucasus. Mountain Jews survived numerous historical vicissitudes by settling in extremely remote and mountainous areas. They were known to be accomplished warriors and horseback riders.
Mountain Jews are distinct from
Georgian Jews
The Georgian Jews ( ka, ქართველი ებრაელები, tr, ) are a community of Jews who migrated to Georgia during the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century BCE.The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography: The Early Medi ...
of the
Caucasus Mountains
The Caucasus Mountains
*
* Azerbaijani: ,
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* is a mountain range at the intersection of Asia and Europe. Stretching between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, they are surrounded by the Caucasus region ...
. The two groups are culturally differentiated: they speak different languages and have differences in customs.
History
Early history
Mountain Jews, or Jews of the Caucasus, have inhabited the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
since the fifth century CE. Being the descendants of the
Persian Jews
Iranian Jews, (; ) also Persian Jews ( ) or Parsim, constitute one of the oldest communities of the Jewish diaspora. Dating back to the History of ancient Israel and Judah, biblical era, they originate from the Jews who relocated to Iran (his ...
of
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
, their migration from Persia proper to the Caucasus took place in the
Sasanian
The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranians"), was an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, the length of the Sasanian dynasty's reign ...
era (224–651).
It is believed that they arrived in Persia from ancient Israel as early as the 8th century BCE.
[''Mountain Jews: customs and daily life in the Caucasus'', Leʼah Miḳdash-Shemaʻʼilov, Liya Mikdash-Shamailov, Muzeʼon Yiśraʼel (Jerusalem), UPNE, 2002, page 19] Other sources attest that Mountain Jews were present in the region of
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
at least since 457 BCE. However, Mountain Jews only took shape as a community after
Qajar Iran
The Guarded Domains of Iran, alternatively the Sublime State of Iran and commonly called Qajar Iran, Qajar Persia or the Qajar Empire, was the Iranian state under the rule of the Qajar dynasty, which was of Turkic peoples, Turkic origin,Cyrus G ...
ceded the areas in which they lived to the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
per the
Treaty of Gulistan
The Treaty of Gulistan (also spelled Golestan: ; ) was a peace treaty concluded between the Russian Empire and Qajar Iran on 24 October 1813 in the village of Gülüstan, Goranboy, Gulistan (now in Goranboy District, the Goranboy District of Azerb ...
of 1813.
Mountain Jews have an oral tradition, passed down from generation to generation, that they are descended from the
Ten Lost Tribes
The Ten Lost Tribes were those from the Twelve Tribes of Israel that were said to have been exiled from the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), Kingdom of Israel after it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE. They were the following ...
exiled by the king of Assyria (Ashur), who ruled over northern Iraq from
Mosul
Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
(across the
Tigris River
The Tigris ( ; see below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, before merging ...
from the ancient city of
Nineveh
Nineveh ( ; , ''URUNI.NU.A, Ninua''; , ''Nīnəwē''; , ''Nīnawā''; , ''Nīnwē''), was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul (itself built out of the Assyrian town of Mepsila) in northern ...
). The reference most likely is to
Shalmaneser, the King of
Assyria
Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...
mentioned in
II Kings 18:9–12. According to local Jewish tradition, some 19,000 Jews departed Jerusalem (used here as a generic term for the Land of Israel) and passed through Syria, Babylonia, and Persia and then, heading north, entered into Media.
Mountain Jews maintained a strong military tradition. For this reason, some historians
believe they may be descended from Jewish military colonists, settled by
Parthia
Parthia ( ''Parθava''; ''Parθaw''; ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemeni ...
n and
Sassanid
The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
rulers in the Caucasus as frontier guards against
nomadic
Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the population of nomadic pa ...
incursions from the
Pontic steppe
Pontic, from the Greek ''pontos'' (, ), or "sea", may refer to:
The Black Sea Places
* The Pontic colonies, on its northern shores
* Pontus (region), a region on its southern shores
* The Pontic–Caspian steppe, steppelands stretching from n ...
.
A 2002 study by geneticist Dror Rosengarten found that the paternal haplotypes of Mountain Jews "were shared with other Jewish communities and were consistent with a Mediterranean origin."
[Rosengarten, D (2002). "Y Chromosome Haplotypes among Members of the Caucasus Jewish Communities". Ancient Biomolecules.] In addition, Y-DNA
testing of Mountain Jews has shown they have Y-DNA haplotypes related to those of other Jewish communities.
The
Semitic origin of Mountain Jews is also evident in their culture and language.
1600s–1800s: "The Jewish Valley"
By the early 17th century, Mountain Jews formed many small settlements throughout the mountain valleys of
Dagestan
Dagestan ( ; ; ), officially the Republic of Dagestan, is a republic of Russia situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, along the Caspian Sea. It is located north of the Greater Caucasus, and is a part of the North Caucasian Fede ...
.
One valley, located 10 km south of
Derbent
Derbent, also historically known as Darband, or Derbend, is the southernmost city in Russia. It is situated along the southeastern coast of the Dagestan, Republic of Dagestan, occupying the narrow gateway between the Caspian Sea and the Caucas ...
, close to the shore of the
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, described as the List of lakes by area, world's largest lake and usually referred to as a full-fledged sea. An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia: east of the Caucasus, ...
, was predominantly populated by Mountain Jews. Their Muslim neighbors called this area "Jewish Valley". The Jewish Valley grew to be a semi-independent Jewish state, with its spiritual and political center located in its largest settlement of
Aba-Sava (1630–1800).
The valley prospered until the end of the 18th century, when its settlements were brutally destroyed in the war between Sheikh-Ali-Khan, who swore loyalty to the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
, and Surkhai-Khan, the ruler of
Kumukh. Many Mountain Jews were slaughtered, with survivors escaping to Derbent where they received the protection of
Fatali Khan, the ruler of
Quba Khanate.
In Chechnya, Mountain Jews partially assimilated into Chechen society by forming a Jewish
teip, the Zhugtii.
[Jaimoukha, Amjad. ''The Chechens: A Handbook''. Page 276] In Chechen society, ethnic minorities residing in areas demographically dominated by Chechens have the option of forming a teip in order to properly participate in the developments of Chechen society such as making alliances and gaining representation in the ''Mekhk Khell'', a supreme ethnonational council that is occasionally compared to a parliament.
[Usmanov, Lyoma]
"The Chechen Nation: A Portrait of Ethnical Features"
9 January 1999. Teips of minority-origin have also been made by ethnic Poles, Germans, Georgians, Armenians, Kumyks, Russians, Kalmyks, Circassians, Andis, Avars, Dargins, Laks, Persians, Arabs, Ukrainians and Nogais,
[The Vainakh Taips: Yesterday and Today](_blank)
. 25 January 2005 with the German teip having been formed as recently as the 1940s when Germans in Siberian exile living among Chechens assimilated.
Mountain Jews have also settled in the territory of modern Azerbaijan. The main Mountain Jewish settlement in Azerbaijan was and remains
Qırmızı Qəsəbə, also called Jerusalem of the Caucasus.
In Russian, Qırmızı Qəsəbə was once called (translit. '), "Jewish Village"; but during Soviet times it was renamed (translit. '), "Red Village".
In the 18th–19th centuries, Mountain Jews resettled from the highland to the coastal lowlands but carried the name "Mountain Jews" with them. In the villages (''
aouls''), the Mountain Jews had settled in separate sections. In the lowland towns, they also lived in concentrated neighborhoods, but their dwellings did not differ from those of their neighbors. Mountain Jews retained the dress of the highlanders. They have continued to follow Jewish dietary laws and affirm their faith in family life.
In 1902, ''
The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...
'' reported that clans of Jewish origin, who maintain many of the customs and the principal forms of religious worship of their ancestors, were discovered in the remote regions of the Eastern Caucasus.
Soviet times, Holocaust and modern history
By 1926, more than 85% of Mountain Jews in Dagestan were already classed as urban. Mountain Jews were mainly concentrated in the cities of
Makhachkala
Makhachkala, previously known as Petrovskoye (1844–1857) and Port-Petrovsk (1857–1921), or by the local Kumyk language, Kumyk name of Anji, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Dagestan, Russia. ...
,
Buynaksk
Buynaksk (; ; ; ) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, town in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia, located at the foothills of the Greater Caucasus on the Shura-Ozen River, southwest of the republic's capital city, capital Makhachkala. P ...
,
Derbent
Derbent, also historically known as Darband, or Derbend, is the southernmost city in Russia. It is situated along the southeastern coast of the Dagestan, Republic of Dagestan, occupying the narrow gateway between the Caspian Sea and the Caucas ...
,
Nalchik
Nalchik (, ; ; ) is the capital city of Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia, situated at an altitude of in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains; about northwest of Beslan (Beslan is in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania). It covers an area of ...
and
Grozny
Grozny (, ; ) is the capital city of Chechnya, Russia.
The city lies on the Sunzha River. According to the 2021 Russian census, 2021 census, it had a population of 328,533 — up from 210,720 recorded in the 2002 Russian Census, 2002 ce ...
in North Caucasus; and
Quba
Quba () is a city and the administrative centre of the Quba District (Azerbaijan), Quba District of Azerbaijan. The city lies on the north-eastern slopes of Mount Shahdagh, Shahdag mountain, at an altitude of 600 metres above sea level, on the ...
and
Baku
Baku (, ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Azerbaijan, largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus region. Baku is below sea level, which makes it the List of capital ci ...
in Azerbaijan.
[Pinkus, B., & Frankel, J. (1984). ''The Soviet Government and the Jews, 1948-1967: A Documented Study.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.]
In the
Second World War
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, some Mountain Jews settlements in North Caucasus, including parts of their area in
Kabardino-Balkaria
Kabardino-Balkaria (), officially the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, is a republic of Russia located in the North Caucasus. As of the 2021 Census, its population was 904,200. Its capital is Nalchik. The area contains the highest mountain in ...
were occupied by the German
Wehrmacht
The ''Wehrmacht'' (, ) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the German Army (1935–1945), ''Heer'' (army), the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy) and the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force). The designation "''Wehrmac ...
at the end of 1942. During this period, they killed several hundreds of Mountain Jews until the Germans retreated early 1943. On 19 August 1942, Germans killed 472 Mountain Jews near the village of Bogdanovka, and on September 20 the Germans killed 378 Jews in the village of Menzhinskoe. A total of some 1000–1500 Mountain Jews were murdered during the
Holocaust by bullets. Many Mountain Jews survived, however, because German troops did not reach all their areas; in addition, attempts succeeded to convince local German authorities that this group were "religious" but not "racial" Jews.
[
The Soviet Army's advances in the area brought the ]Nalchik
Nalchik (, ; ; ) is the capital city of Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia, situated at an altitude of in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains; about northwest of Beslan (Beslan is in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania). It covers an area of ...
community under its protection. The Mountain Jewish community of Nalchik was the largest Mountain Jewish community occupied by Nazis, and the vast majority of the population has survived. With the help of their Kabardian neighbors, Mountain Jews of Nalchik convinced the local German authorities that they were Tats, the native people similar to other Caucasus Mountain peoples, not related to the ethnic Jews, who merely adopted Judaism. The annihilation of the Mountain Jews was suspended, contingent on racial investigation.Yitzhak Arad
Yitzhak Arad (; né Icchak Rudnicki; November 11, 1926 – May 6, 2021) was an Israeli historian, author, IDF brigadier general and Soviet partisan. He also served as Yad Vashem's director from 1972 to 1993, and specialised in the history of ...
, ''The Holocaust in the Soviet Union''
Section "Mountain Jews", pp. 294-297
/ref> Although the Nazis watched the village carefully, Rabbi Nachamil ben Hizkiyahu hid Sefer Torah
file:SeferTorah.jpg, A Sephardic Torah scroll rolled to the first paragraph of the Shema
file:Köln-Tora-und-Innenansicht-Synagoge-Glockengasse-040.JPG, An Ashkenazi Torah scroll rolled to the Decalogue
file:Keneseth Eliyahoo Synagogue, Inte ...
s by burying them in a fake burial ceremony. The city was liberated a few months later.
In 1944, the NKVD
The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (, ), abbreviated as NKVD (; ), was the interior ministry and secret police of the Soviet Union from 1934 to 1946. The agency was formed to succeed the Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU) se ...
deported
Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people by a state from its Sovereignty, sovereign territory. The actual definition changes depending on the place and context, and it also changes over time. A person who has been deported or ...
the entire Chechen populace that surrounded the Mountain Jews in Chechnya, and moved other ethnic groups into their homes; Mountain Jews mostly refused to take the homes of deported Chechens while there are some reports of deported Chechens entrusting their homes to Jews in order to keep them safe.
Given the marked changes in the 1990s following the dissolution of the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union was formally dissolved as a sovereign state and subject of international law on 26 December 1991 by Declaration No. 142-N of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Declaration No. 142-Н of ...
and rise of nationalism in the region, many Mountain Jews permanently left their hometowns in the Caucasus and relocated to Moscow
Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
or abroad. During the First Chechen War
The First Chechen War, also referred to as the First Russo-Chechen War, was a struggle for independence waged by the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria against the invading Russia, Russian Federation from 1994 to 1996. After a mutually agreed on treaty ...
, many Mountain Jews left due to the Russian invasion and indiscriminate bombardment of civilian population by the Russian military. Despite historically close relations between Jews and Chechens, many also suffered high rate of kidnappings and violence at the hands of armed ethnic Chechen gangs who ransomed their freedom to "Israel and the international Jewish community".[JTA. (2000). Around the Jewish World: "Russia’s Mountain Jews Support War in Chechnya, but Are Eager to Get Out."](_blank)
Accessed November 12, 2013. The majority of Mountain Jews emigrated to Israel with a considerable amout emigrating to the United States after the fall of the soviet union
The Soviet Union was formally dissolved as a sovereign state and subject of international law on 26 December 1991 by Declaration No. 142-N of the Soviet of Nationalities, Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. :s: ...
.
Today, Qırmızı Qəsəbə in Azerbaijan remains the biggest settlement of Mountain Jews in the world, with the current population over 3,000.
Economy
While elsewhere in the Russian Empire, Jews were prohibited from owning land (excluding the Jews of Siberia
Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
and Central Asia
Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
), at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, Mountain Jews owned land and were farmers and gardeners, growing mainly grain. Their oldest occupation was rice-growing, but they also raised silkworm
''Bombyx mori'', commonly known as the domestic silk moth, is a moth species belonging to the family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of '' Bombyx mandarina'', the wild silk moth. Silkworms are the larvae of silk moths. The silkworm is of ...
s and cultivated tobacco and vineyards. Mountain Jews and their Christian Armenian neighbors were the main producers of wine, as Muslims were prohibited by their religion from producing or consuming alcohol. Judaism limited some types of meat consumption. Unlike their neighbors, the Jews raised few domestic animals
This page gives a list of domesticated animals, also including a list of animals which are or may be currently undergoing the process of domestication and animals that have an extensive relationship with humans beyond simple predation. This includ ...
, although tanning was their third most important economic activity after farming and gardening. At the end of the 19th century, 6% of Jews were engaged in this trade. Handicrafts
A handicraft is a traditional main sector of craft making and applies to a wide range of creative and design activities that are related to making things with one's hands and skill, including work with textiles, moldable and rigid material ...
and commerce were mostly practiced by Jews in towns.
The Soviet authorities bound the Mountain Jews to collective farms, but allowed them to continue their traditional cultivation of grapes, tobacco, and vegetables; and making wine. In practical terms, the Jews are no longer isolated from other ethnic groups.
With increasing urbanization and sovietization
Sovietization ( ) is the adoption of a political system based on the model of soviets (workers' councils) or the adoption of a way of life, mentality, and culture modeled after the Soviet Union.
A notable wave of Sovietization (in the second me ...
in progress, by the 1930s, a layer of intelligentsia
The intelligentsia is a status class composed of the university-educated people of a society who engage in the complex mental labours by which they critique, shape, and lead in the politics, policies, and culture of their society; as such, the i ...
began to form. By the late 1960s, academic professionals, such as pharmacists, medical doctors, and engineers, were common in the community. Mountain Jews worked in more professional positions than did Georgian Jews
The Georgian Jews ( ka, ქართველი ებრაელები, tr, ) are a community of Jews who migrated to Georgia during the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century BCE.The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography: The Early Medi ...
, though less than the Soviet Ashkenazi community, who were based in larger cities of Russia. A sizable number of Mountain Jews worked in the entertainment industry in Dagestan.[Pinkus, B., & Frankel, J. (1984). ''The Soviet Government and the Jews, 1948-1967: A Documented Study.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chicago] The republic's dancing ensemble " Lezginka" was led by Tankho Israilov, a Mountain Jew, from 1958 to 1979.
Religion
Mountain Jews are not Sephardim
Sephardic Jews, also known as Sephardi Jews or Sephardim, and rarely as Iberian Peninsular Jews, are a Jewish diaspora population associated with the historic Jewish communities of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and their descendan ...
(from the Iberian Peninsula) nor Ashkenazim
Ashkenazi Jews ( ; also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim) form a distinct subgroup of the Jewish diaspora, that emerged in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium CE. They traditionally speak Yiddish, a language ...
(from Central Europe) but rather of Persian Jewish origin, and most of them follow Edot HaMizrach customs. Mountain Jews tenaciously held to their religion throughout the centuries, developing their own unique traditions and religious practices. Mountain Jewish traditions are infused with teachings of Kabbalah
Kabbalah or Qabalah ( ; , ; ) is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism. It forms the foundation of Mysticism, mystical religious interpretations within Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ...
and Jewish mysticism
Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholem's ''Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism'' (1941), draws distinctions between different forms of mysticism which were practiced in different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbal ...
.[Miḳdash-Shemaʻʼilov, L. (2002). ''Mountain Jews: Customs and Daily Life in the ]Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
'' (Vol. 474). UPNE. Chicago Mountain Jews have also developed and retained unique customs different from other Jews, such as '' govgil'', an end-of-Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday and one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It celebrates the Exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Biblical Egypt, Egypt.
According to the Book of Exodus, God in ...
picnic celebration involving the whole community.
Mountain Jews have traditionally maintained a two-tiered rabbi
A rabbi (; ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as ''semikha''—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of t ...
nate, distinguishing between a rabbi
A rabbi (; ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as ''semikha''—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of t ...
and a dayan. "Rabbi" was a title given to religious leaders performing the functions of liturgical preachers (maggid
A maggid (), also spelled as magid, is a traditional Jewish religious itinerant preacher, skilled as a narrator of Torah and religious stories. A chaplain of the more scholarly sort is called a ''Darshan (Judaism), darshan'' (). The title of ''m ...
s) and cantors (hazzan
A ''hazzan'' (; , lit. Hazan) or ''chazzan'' (, plural ; ; ) is a Jewish musician or precentor trained in the vocal arts who leads the congregation in songful prayer. In English, this prayer leader is often referred to as a cantor, a term al ...
s) in synagogues ("nimaz"), teachers in Jewish schools ( cheders), and shochets. The ''dayan'' was a chief rabbi of a town, presiding over beit dins and representing the highest religious authority for the town and nearby smaller settlements. Dayans were elected democratically by community leaders.
The religious survival of the community was not without difficulties. In the prosperous days of the Jewish valley (roughly 1600-1800 CE), the spiritual center of Mountain Jews centered on the settlement of Aba-Sava. Many works of religious significance were written in Aba-Sava. Here, Elisha ben Schmuel Ha-Katan wrote several of his piyyut
A piyyuṭ (plural piyyuṭim, ; from ) is a Jewish liturgical poem, usually designated to be sung, chanted, or recited during religious services. Most piyyuṭim are in Mishnaic Hebrew or Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, and most follow some p ...
s. Theologian Gershon Lala ben Moshke Nakdi, who lived in Aba-Sava in 18th century, wrote a commentary on the Mishneh Torah
The ''Mishneh Torah'' (), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' (), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law (''halakha'') authored by Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon/Rambam). The ''Mishneh Torah'' was compiled between 1170 and 1180 CE ( ...
of Maimonides
Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (, ) and also referred to by the Hebrew acronym Rambam (), was a Sephardic rabbi and Jewish philosophy, philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah schola ...
. Rabbi Mattathia ben Shmuel ha-Kohen wrote his kabbalistic essay "Kol Hamevaser" in Aba-Sava. With the brutal destruction of Aba-Sava in roughly 1800 CE, however, the religious center of Mountain Jews moved to Derbent
Derbent, also historically known as Darband, or Derbend, is the southernmost city in Russia. It is situated along the southeastern coast of the Dagestan, Republic of Dagestan, occupying the narrow gateway between the Caspian Sea and the Caucas ...
.
Prominent rabbis of Mountain Jews in the nineteenth century included: Rabbi Gershom son of Rabbi Reuven of Qırmızı Qəsəbə, Shalom ben Melek of Temir-Khan-Shura (today known as Buynaksk
Buynaksk (; ; ; ) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, town in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia, located at the foothills of the Greater Caucasus on the Shura-Ozen River, southwest of the republic's capital city, capital Makhachkala. P ...
), Chief Rabbi of Dagestan
Dagestan ( ; ; ), officially the Republic of Dagestan, is a republic of Russia situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, along the Caspian Sea. It is located north of the Greater Caucasus, and is a part of the North Caucasian Fede ...
Jacob ben Isaac, and Rabbi Hizkiyahu ben Avraam of Nalchik
Nalchik (, ; ; ) is the capital city of Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia, situated at an altitude of in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains; about northwest of Beslan (Beslan is in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania). It covers an area of ...
, whose son, Rabbi Nahamiil ben Hizkiyahu, later played a crucial role in saving Nalchik's Jewish community from the Nazi
Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right politics, far-right Totalitarianism, totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During H ...
s. In the early decades of the Soviet Union, the government took steps to suppress religion. Thus, in the 1930s, the Soviet Union closed synagogues belonging to Mountain Jews. The same procedures were implemented among other ethnicities and religions. Soviet authorities propagated the myth that Mountain Jews were not part of the world's Jewish people at all, but rather members of the Tat community that settled in the region. Soviet antisemitic rhetoric was intensified during Khrushchev
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and the Premier of the Soviet Union, Chai ...
's rule. Some of the synagogues were later reopened in the 1940s. The closing of the synagogues in the 1930s was part of a communist ideology that resisted religion of any kind.
At the beginning of the 1950s, there were synagogues in all major Mountain Jewish communities. By 1966, reportedly six synagogues remained; some were confiscated by the Soviet authorities. While Mountain Jews observed the rituals of circumcision
Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. T ...
, marriage and burial, as well as Jewish holidays
Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or ''Yamim Tovim'' (, or singular , in transliterated Hebrew []), are holidays observed by Jews throughout the Hebrew calendar.This article focuses on practices of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism. ...
, other precepts of Jewish faith were observed less carefully. Yet, the community's ethnic identity remained unshaken despite the Soviet efforts. Cases of intermarriage with Muslims in Azerbaijan or Dagestan were rare as both groups practice endogamy. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Mountain Jews experienced a significant religious revival, with increasing religious observance by members of the younger generation.
Educational institutions, language, literature
Mountain Jews speak Judeo-Tat
Judeo-Tat or Juhuri (, , ) is a Judeo-Persian dialect and the traditional language spoken by the Mountain Jews in the eastern Caucasus Mountains, especially Azerbaijan, parts of Russia and today in Israel. It belongs to the southwestern group ...
, also called Juhuri, a form of Persian; it belongs to the southwestern group of the Iranian division of the Indo-European languages
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent, most of Europe, and the Iranian plateau with additional native branches found in regions such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Central Asia (e. ...
. Judeo-Tat has Semitic (Hebrew/Aramaic/Arabic) elements on all linguistic levels. Among other Semitic elements, Judeo-Tat has the Hebrew sound "ayin
''Ayin'' (also ''ayn'' or ''ain''; transliterated ) is the sixteenth letter of the Semitic scripts, including Phoenician ''ʿayin'' 𐤏, Hebrew ''ʿayin'' , Aramaic ''ʿē'' 𐡏, Syriac ''ʿē'' ܥ, and Arabic ''ʿayn'' (where it is si ...
" (ע), whereas no neighboring languages have it. Until the early Soviet period, the language was written with semi-cursive Hebrew alphabet
The Hebrew alphabet (, ), known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is a unicase, unicameral abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably ...
. Later, Judeo-Tat books, newspapers, textbooks, and other materials were printed with a Latin alphabet and finally in Cyrillic, which is still most common today. The first Judeo-Tat-language newspaper, ''Zakhmetkesh'' (Working People), was published in 1928 and operated until the second half of the twentieth century.
Originally, only boys were educated through synagogue
A synagogue, also called a shul or a temple, is a place of worship for Jews and Samaritans. It is a place for prayer (the main sanctuary and sometimes smaller chapels) where Jews attend religious services or special ceremonies such as wed ...
schools. Starting from the 1860s, many well-off families switched to home-schooling, hiring private tutors, who taught their sons not only Hebrew, but also Russian
Russian(s) may refer to:
*Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*A citizen of Russia
*Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages
*''The Russians'', a b ...
. In the early 20th century, with advance of sovietization
Sovietization ( ) is the adoption of a political system based on the model of soviets (workers' councils) or the adoption of a way of life, mentality, and culture modeled after the Soviet Union.
A notable wave of Sovietization (in the second me ...
, Judeo-Tat became the language of instruction at newly founded elementary schools attended by both Mountain Jewish boys and girls. This policy continued until the beginning of World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, when schools switched to Russian as the central government emphasized acquisition of Russian as the official language of the Soviet Union.
Mountain Jewish community has had notable figures in public health, education, culture, and art.
In the 21st century, the Russian government started encouraging the revival of cultural life of minorities. In Dagestan and Kabardino-Balkaria
Kabardino-Balkaria (), officially the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, is a republic of Russia located in the North Caucasus. As of the 2021 Census, its population was 904,200. Its capital is Nalchik. The area contains the highest mountain in ...
, Judeo-Tat and Hebrew courses have been introduced in traditionally Mountain Jewish schools. In Dagestan, there is support for the revival of the Judeo-Tat-language theater and the publication of newspapers in that language.
Culture
Military tradition
"And we, the Tats
We, Samson
SAMSON (Software for Adaptive Modeling and Simulation Of Nanosystems) is a computer software platform for molecular design being developed bOneAngstromand previously by the NANO-D group at the French Institute for Research in Computer Science an ...
warriors,
Bar Kochba's heirs...
we went into battles
and bitterly, heroically
struggled for our freedom
''-"The Song of the Mountain Jews"''
Mountain Jews have a military tradition and have been historically viewed as fierce warriors. Some historians suggest that the group traces its beginnings to Persian-Jewish soldiers who were stationed in the Caucasus by the Sasanian
The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranians"), was an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, the length of the Sasanian dynasty's reign ...
kings in the fifth or sixth century to protect the area from the onslaughts of the Huns
The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th centuries AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was par ...
and other nomadic invaders from the east. Men were typically heavily armed and some slept without removing their weapons.
Dress
Over time the Mountain Jews adopted the dress of their Muslim
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
neighbors. Men typically wore chokha
A chokha, or ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; also known as a cherkeska, is a woolen coat (clothing), coat with a high neck that is part of the traditional male dress of peoples of the Caucasus. It was in wide use among Avars (Caucasus), Avars, ...
s and covered their head with papakhas, many variations of which could symbolize the men's social status. Wealthier men's dress was adorned with many pieces of jewelry, including silver and gold-decorated weaponry, pins, chains, belts, or ''kisets'' (small purse used to hold tobacco or coins). Women's dress was typically of simpler design in dark tones, made from silk
Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...
, brocade
Brocade () is a class of richly decorative shuttle (weaving), shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and sometimes with gold and silver threads. The name, related to the same root as the word "broccoli", comes from Italian langua ...
, velvet
Velvet is a type of woven fabric with a dense, even pile (textile), pile that gives it a distinctive soft feel. Historically, velvet was typically made from silk. Modern velvet can be made from silk, linen, cotton, wool, synthetic fibers, silk ...
, satin and later wool. They decorated the fabric with beads, gold pins or buttons, and silver gold-plated belts. Outside the house, both single and married women covered their hair with headscarves.
Cuisine
Mountain Jewish cuisine absorbed typical dishes from various peoples of the Caucasus
The peoples of the Caucasus, or Caucasians, are a diverse group comprising more than 50 ethnic groups throughout the Caucasus.
By language group
Language families indigenous to the Caucasus
Caucasians who speak languages which have l ...
, Azerbaijani and Persian cuisine, adjusting some recipes to conform to the laws of kashrut
(also or , ) is a set of Food and drink prohibitions, dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jewish people are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to halakha, Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed ko ...
, with a great emphasis on using rice (osh) to accompany many of their dishes. Typical Mountain Jewish dishes include:
*''Chudu'' – A type of meat pie.
*''Shashlik
Shashlik, or shashlyck ( ''shashlyk''), is a Dish (food), dish of skewered and grilled cubes of meat, similar to or synonymous with shish kebab. It is known traditionally by various other names in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, an ...
'' – skewered meat chunks, such as lamb chops or chicken wings.
*'' Dolma'' – vegetables such as grape leaves, onions, peppers, tomatoes and eggplants that are stuffed with minced meat, then boiled.
*''Kurze'' or Dushpare – Dumplings that are boiled and then fried in oil on both sides until golden brown and crispy.
*'' Yarpagi'' – Cabbage leaves stuffed with meat and cooked with quince, lamb riblets and a sauce made of dried sour plums (alcha).
*'' Gitob''
*'' Ingar'' – Square shaped dumpling soup with Meat (Chicken/Beef/Lamb), sometimes with tamarind paste added to the soup.
*''Ingarpoli'' – Dumplings served with tomato paste flavored minced meat on top.
*''Dem Turshi'' – Rice soup flavoured with garlic, dried mint and dried cherry plums.
*''Tara'' – Mallow stew with pieces of meat, dried cherry plum, garlic, dill and clintaro. In Baku sometimes its made vegan with chestnuts instead of meat.
*''Nermov'' or ''Gendumadush'' – Chicken or other meat stew with wheat and beans, traditionally cooked overnight from Friday to Saturday.
*'' Dapchunda Osh'' – Rice pilaf with lamb chunks, qazmaq and dried fruits such as raisin, apricots and golden plums.
*''Osh Lobeyi'' – Rice pilaf with cowpeas and smoked fish.
*''Osh Kyudu'' – Pumpkin Rice pilaf with carrots, pumpkin, qazmaq and dried fruits, traditionally served for Hannukah.
*''Osh Mast'' – White rice with Mast, a variety of yogurt, on top.
*'' Shomo-Kofte bebeyi'' – Meatballs made from minced meat and onions cooked alongside potatoes, sometimes served on rice (''osh'').
*''Buglame'' – (curry like stew of fish or chicken eaten with rice (''osh'').
*''Eshkene'' – Persian soup, made of Lamb, potatoes, onions, eggs, dried cherry plums, cinnamon and herbs such as cilantro, green onions, parsley and spinach, prepared for Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday and one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It celebrates the Exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Biblical Egypt, Egypt.
According to the Book of Exodus, God in ...
.
*''Yakhni Nisonui'' – The Derbendi variation of eshkene consist on lamb, potatoes, onions, eggs, dried cherry plums, cinnamon but without herbs, made on the first day of Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday and one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It celebrates the Exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Biblical Egypt, Egypt.
According to the Book of Exodus, God in ...
.
*''Yakhni Nakhuti'' – A soup made of lamb, chickpeas, potatoes and dried plums cooked in a tomato paste based soup. served with rice.
*''Hoshalevo'' – (honey-based treats made with sunflower seeds or walnuts) typically prepared for Purim
Purim (; , ) is a Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday that commemorates the saving of the Jews, Jewish people from Genocide, annihilation at the hands of an official of the Achaemenid Empire named Haman, as it is recounted in the Book of Esther (u ...
.
*''Bischi'' – Fried dough topped with hot honey syrup, typically prepared for Purim
Purim (; , ) is a Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday that commemorates the saving of the Jews, Jewish people from Genocide, annihilation at the hands of an official of the Achaemenid Empire named Haman, as it is recounted in the Book of Esther (u ...
.
*'' Hallegh'' – made with mixture of apples, walnuts, honey, raisins, cinnamon and wine, a ritual dish prepared for Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday and one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It celebrates the Exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Biblical Egypt, Egypt.
According to the Book of Exodus, God in ...
.
*'' Pakhlava''
*''Fadi-shiri'' – A milk cake made of flour, eggs, butter, milk, sugar, turmeric, raisins, walnuts, sesame seeds and poppy seeds, served during Shavuot
(, from ), or (, in some Ashkenazi Jews, Ashkenazi usage), is a Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday, one of the biblically ordained Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It occurs on the sixth day of the Hebrew month of Sivan; in the 21st century, it may ...
.
*''Pertesh'' – A dish consist of a Lavash bread that is soaked in honey based syrup and filled with a milk porridge inside, served for Shavuot.
*''Khashil'' – Sweet porridge made of flour, butter, honey, cinnamon and turmeric with a crunchy crust.
*''Lovush Roghani''
*''Khashlama'' – Boiled chunks of meat, usually beef, veal, or lamb, as well as vegetables such as bell peppers, potatoes, tomatoes and onions, in hot water.
*''Khoyagusht'' – Meat pie made of eggs, turmeric, slow cooked meat (usually sheep or goat) and its broth, often considered to be the "national dish" of the Mountain Jews.
*''Khoyaghusht Kyargi'' – Khoyagusht with chicken instead of red meat.
*''Khoyahusht Bodimjon'' – Khoyagusht with eggplants instead of meat, without turmeric.
*''Nukhorush'' – Beef or Lamb cooked with quince, raisins, dried golden prunes, dried apricots, chestnuts and flavoured with turmeric, sometimes served alongside rice (''osh'').
*''Nukhorush marjumeki'' – Lentil stew with potatoes, zucchini, onions, and carrots flavoured with cilantro, dill, cumin and turmeric.
*''Gayle'' or ''Khayle'' – A dish made of herbs, onion and eggs.
*'' Dugovo'' – A soup made by cooking yogurt, with a little bit of rice, a variety of fresh herbs such as dill, mint, and coriander.
*''Aragh'' – a strong alcoholic drink made of distilled fermented mulberry juice. It can be made from both black and white mulberries.
*'' Asido''
*''Harissa'' – A dish of Mountain Jews from the northern regions in Dagestan made of Meat, Potatoes and dried cherry plums cooked in tomato sauce, traditionally used in weddings.
Music
The music of Mountain Jews is mostly based in the standard liturgy, for prayer and the celebration of holidays. Celebratory music played during weddings and similar events is typically upbeat with various instruments to add layers to the sound.
Notable Mountain Jews
* Omer Adam, Israeli singer
* Udi Adam, Israeli general
* Yekutiel Adam
Yekutiel "Kuti" Adam (; November 3, 1927 – June 10, 1982) was an Israeli general and former Deputy Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces. He was killed by a Palestinian fighter during the early stage of the Lebanon War, a few days before ...
(1927–1982), Former Deputy Chief of Staff of the Israeli Defense Forces
* Albert Agarunov (1969–1992), Azerbaijani soldier
* Yakov Agarunov (1907–1992), Soviet
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
poet and playwright
* Ilya Anisimov (1862–1928), Russian
Russian(s) may refer to:
*Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*A citizen of Russia
*Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages
*''The Russians'', a b ...
ethnographer, ethnologist and engineer
* Astrix, producer of trance music
Trance is a genre of electronic dance music that emerged from Electronic body music, EBM in Frankfurt, Germany, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and quickly spread throughout Europe.
Trance music is typically characterized by a tempo between ...
* Djumshud Ashurov (1913–1980), a Soviet composer
* Yuno Avshalumov (1934–1981), a Soviet composer, conductor, and teacher
* Daniil Atnilov (1913–1968), Soviet poet
* Hizgil Avshalumov (1913–2001), novelist, poet and playwright
* Mishi Bakhshiev (1910–1972), Soviet writer and poet
* Manuvakh Dadashev (1913–1943), Soviet poet
* Mikhail Dadashev (1936), a Soviet and Russian writer
* Gyulboor Davydova (1892–1983), Soviet winegrower
* Mikhail Gavrilov (1926–2014), Soviet writer and poet
* Sarit Hadad, Israeli singer
* Zarakh Iliev (born 1966) Russian businessman
* Gavril Abramovich Ilizarov (1921–1992), Soviet physician (Mountain Jewish father, Ashkenazi Jewish mother)
* Telman Ismailov, businessman
* Tankho Israelov (1917–1981), dancer, choreographer
* Sergey Izgiyayev (1922–1972), author, translator, and songwriter
* Mozol Izrailova (1955), actress
* Amaldan Kukullu (1935–2000), Soviet/Russian poet, storyteller, folklorist
* Lev Manakhimov (1950–2021), choreographer and director
* Bikel Matatova (1928–2013), Soviet, and Israeli actress of the Judeo-Tat Theatre
* Tamara Musakhanov (1924–2014), Soviet sculptor
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sc ...
and ceramist
Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials, including clay. It may take varied forms, including artistic pottery, including tableware, tiles, figurines and other sculpture. As one of the plastic arts, ceramic art is a visual art. While ...
* Mushail Mushailov
Mushail Mushailov (, ; born July 10, 1941 — January 4, 2007) was a Soviet Union, Soviet/Russian artist and teacher of Mountain Jewish descent. He was a member of the USSR Union of Artists and Israel. He was also a laureate of the State Prize o ...
(1941–2007), Soviet/Russian artist and teacher
* God Nisanov, Russian businessman
* Gennady Simeonovich Osipov (1948–2020), Russian scientist and professor
* Iosif Prigozhin, Russian music producer
* Yekutiel Ravayev (1927–1982), Mountain Jewish man who immigrated to Eretz Israel
The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definitions ...
during the Ottoman era.
* Lior Refaelov, Israeli football player
* Akhso Shalumova (1907–1985), first Soviet stage actress of the Judeo-Tat Theatre
* Zoya Semenduyeva (1929–2020), Soviet and Israel
Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
i poet
* Robert Tiviaev, Israeli politician, former member of the Knesset
The Knesset ( , ) is the Unicameralism, unicameral legislature of Israel.
The Knesset passes all laws, elects the President of Israel, president and Prime Minister of Israel, prime minister, approves the Cabinet of Israel, cabinet, and supe ...
* Israel Tsvaygenbaum, Russian-American artist (Ashkenazi Jewish father, Mountain Jewish mother)
* Anatoly Yagudaev (1935–2014), sculptor
* Yaffa Yarkoni (1925–2012), Israeli singer, winner of the Israel Prize in 1998 for Hebrew song
* German Zakharyayev (born 1971) – businessman, Vice-President of the Russian Jewish Congress
* Zhasmin (née ''Sara Manakimova''), Russian pop singer (2005)
Gallery
File:Mountain Jews with Herzl at the 1st Zionist Congress, Basel, Switzerland, 1897.jpg, Mountain Jewish delegates with Theodor Herzl
Theodor Herzl (2 May 1860 – 3 July 1904) was an Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist and lawyer who was the father of Types of Zionism, modern political Zionism. Herzl formed the World Zionist Organization, Zionist Organizat ...
at the First Zionist Congress
The First Zionist Congress () was the inaugural congress of the Zionist Organization, Zionist Organization (ZO) held in the Stadtcasino Basel in the city of Basel on August 29–31, 1897. Two hundred and eight delegates from 17 countries and 2 ...
, held in Basel
Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
, Switzerland (1897)
File:Caucasusian Jew.jpg, Mountain Jew
File:Dagestan Mounatain Jew 1870-1880. Alexandre Roinashvili. Tbilisi History Museum Collection.jpg, Mountain Jewish woman from Dagestan
Dagestan ( ; ; ), officially the Republic of Dagestan, is a republic of Russia situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, along the Caspian Sea. It is located north of the Greater Caucasus, and is a part of the North Caucasian Fede ...
. 1870–1880.
File:Mountain jews 4.jpg, Mountain Jews of the Caucasus
See also
* Mountain Jews in Israel
* Qırmızı Qəsəbə, the primary settlement of Azerbaijan's population of Mountain Jews (3600)
* History of the Jews in Azerbaijan
* History of the Jews in Buynaksk
* History of the Jews in Derbent
* Jewish Quarter of Grozny
* History of the Jews in Khasavyurt
* History of the Jews in Kislovodsk
* History of the Jews in Kizlyar
* History of the Jews in Makhachkala
* History of the Jews in Nalchik
* History of the Jews in Pyatigorsk
* World Congress of Mountain Jews
* Museum of Mountain Jews
* Judaism in Dagestan
Notes
References
Further reading
*
External links
juhuro.com
website created by Vadim Alhasov in 2001. Daily updates reflect the life of Mountain Jewish (juhuro) community around the globe.
newfront.us
''New Frontier'' is a monthly Mountain Jewish newspaper, founded in 2003. International circulation via its web site.
keshev-k.com
Israeli website of Mountain Jews
gorskie.ru
Mountain Jews, website in Russian language
* "Judæo-Tat", ''Ethnologue''
{{Jews and Judaism in Iran
Jews
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
Jews
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
Jewish ethnic groups
Iranian Jews
Jews and Judaism in Persia and Iran
Jews
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
Mountain
A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher t ...
Hill people
Ethnic groups in the Middle East