Kamalanka

Kamalanka (''Chia-mo-lang-chia'', ''Lang-chia'', ''Lang-ya-hsiu'') or Kolo (''Gē Luó'') in the Chinese texts, or Balangka/Kalonga in the ''Geographike Hyphegesis'' of Ptolemy, or Mevilimbangam in the Tanjore Inscription, was an ancient political entity located in the west Chao Phraya River basin in central Thailand. It existed from the late 1st or early 2nd century CE to 1058. Its chief city, located at the ancient Nakhon Pathom, was possibly destroyed by the troops of Pagan's Anawrahta in 1058 during his Menam invasion to attack the Lavo Kingdom. This marks the ending of Kamalanka. Previously, it was raided by the Chola Empire during the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I in 1030. Its successor, Chen Li Fu centered at ''Suvarnapura'', appeared around the 12th century, 90 kilometers northward in the present-day Don Chedi, Suphan Buri province. Chen Li Fu later evolved to Suphannabhum, which was then merged into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century. Several Thai scholars claim Kamalanka was founded in 216 BCE by nobles from the Lankan Anuradhapura Kingdom who fled to the Malay Peninsula before the kingdom fell to the Tamil king Ellalan in 205 BCE. Earlier, another group of Lankan nobles founded the sister state of Langkasuka in 217 BCE further south in the present-day Pattani province.

The Kingdom of Kamalanka or ''Lang-ya-hsiu'' was probably the succeeding state of Tun Sun since its first embassy, sent to China in 515 CE, claimed the country was founded around 400 years earlier. Several scholars speculated that Kamalanka is situated in lower central Thailand, probably the same area as Tun Sun. Kamalanka additionally sent embassies to China in 523 and 531. In the 20th century, Chinese people who settled in the west Chao Phraya River basin still called the area ''Lang-jia-jiu''. As well, the Lan Na's mentions to Ayodhya during the pre-Ayutthaya period as ''Guru Rath'' (; ), which is almost identical with ''Kolo'', another name for Kamalanka mentioned in Chinese sources.

In the 7th century, southern Kamalanka later joined Pan Pan to the south, while its northern territory became part of the Dvaravati civilization after merging with the neighboring Chin Lin and others following the decline of Funan. Previously, Kamalanka or ''Lang-ya-hsiu'' was once identified as Langkasuka but according to the location provided in the Chinese texts in the 7th century, it would be situated in the modern lower central Thailand. Michael Mitchiner identified Kamalanka as the Mon kingdom of Thaton, whose existence before the 13th century is questioned by Michael Aung-Thwin, and also contradicts to information given by a Chinese monk Xuanzang, who stated that, Kamalanga, among others, was blockaded by high mountains and rivers and could not be reached (from the Gulf of Martaban) during his journey in India.

Thai historian, Piriya Krairiksh, proposed that before the 7th century, the early indianized Nakhon Pathom was probably the port city of the Pan Pan Kingdom, centered at the ancient Mueang Uthong. After that, Mon dominated the region, the power was shifted to Nakhon Pathom, which evolved to the Kingdom of ''Ge Luo She Fen'', mentioned in the largest Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, compiled in 1005. The kingdom was said to be located west of Dvaravati's Lavo; the same area as Kamalanka, and also equated to the ''Ge Luo'' Kingdom in the 1044 New Book of Tang.

Records

Based on the location given in the book of ''I Ching'' and by the Chinese monks Xuanzang in the 7th century, Kamalanka is equated with ''Lang-ya-xiu'' or ''Lang-chia-shu''. According to the '' Liáng Shū'', ''Lang-ya-xiu'' was 30-day journeys from east to west, 20 days from north to south, 24,000 '' li'' in the distance from Guangzhou. The inland town of ''Balangka'' or ''Kalonga'' appeared in the ''Geographike Hyphegesis'' of Ptolemy in the 2nd century was potentially Kamalanka. It was described as the "metropolis" city.

Lanka records

The Tanjore Inscription, dating back to 1030, contains a list of the ports on the Kra Isthmus to the Malacca Strait that were raided by a fleet sent by King Rajendra Chola I. The following are the ports located on the Kra Isthmus; some cannot yet be precisely identified.
*Mevilimbangam – Kamalanka, has beautiful walls as defense.
*Mayirudingan – the ''Je-lo-ting'' of the Chinese, surrounded by the deep sea as by a moat, the exact location remains disputed. Some placed it at the Sathing Phra Peninsular in Songkhla, where the Chinese called ''Rìluótíng'' in the 13th–14th century. Some says Chaiya.
*Talaittakkolam – Takkola ( Trang or Takua Pa) of Ptolemy and the Milinda Panha, praised by great men versed in the sciences.
*Madamalingam –Tambralinga, capable of strong action in dangerous battles.

Suchandra Ghosh, an Indian archeologist, and Samuel Beal, a British oriental scholar, placed Kamalanka, which identified as Mevilimbangam, in the Irrawaddy delta, to be specific, Pegu, while George Cœdès identified Pegu with ''Mäppappälam'', the city raided by Rajendra Chola I in 1030 as mentions in the Tanjore Inscription.

As ''Ge Luo She Fen'' and ''Gē Luó''

Thai scholar Piriya Krairiksh places the kingdom of ''Ge Luo She Fen'' mentioned in the Cefu Yuangui and ''Gē Luó'' country () in the New Book of Tang in the same area as Kamalanka. The Chinese text Tongdian, written in 801, provides information about the kingdom of ''Gē Luó'' as ''Gē Luó Fù Shā Luó'' (), which the Chinese have known since the Han Dynasty, to has 24 states under its rule, but has no provinces. When fighting, a combat unit (a team) was equipped with 100 elephants, and each elephant was equipped with 100 soldiers. ''Gē Luó'', which was mentioned in the Chinese source in the 1st century CE as , first sent tribute to the Chinese court during the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25 CE–57 CE). Tongdian also provided further information about ''Gē Luó'' as follows.

The Tongdian says ''Gē Luó'' was on the southeast of Pan Pan. In contrast, previous scholars identified it with ''Kalah'' and instead placed it to the southwest on the coast of the lower Malay Peninsula in the Kedah area. Modern theory proposed that it was potentially on the eastern coast of the Kra Isthmus, and Piriya Krairiksh places it on the ancient Nakhon Pathom. However, this proposed location of ''Gē Luó'' is inconsistent with that stated in the Tongdian. Thus, Krairiksh moves Pan Pan to the north at the ancient Mueang Uthong. Some argued that ''Gē Luó'' was located in the Bandon Bay region, specifically Chaiya, even though this area itself was Pan Pan, then a vassal of Srivijaya, and later became part of the prosperous Tambralinga Kingdom during the specified period.

In the largest Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, compiled during the Song dynasty, cites that the Kingdom of ''Gē Luó Shě Fēn'' () bordered ''Duò Hé Luó'' (; Dvaravati or Lavo Kingdom) to the east. Its king is named ''Pú Jiā Yuè Mó'' (), and he has 20,000 elite soldiers. Thus, if ''Gē Luó Shě Fēn'' is equated to ''Gē Luó'' in other Chinese texts and was centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom, relocating Pan Pan to Mueang Uthong by Krairiksh seems to be reasonable, but it conflict with the location of Pan Pan given in the ''Old Book of Tang'' says it is separated from Línyì by the small sea.

During the Tang period, ''Gē Luó Shě Fēn'', and its two neighbors, Xiū Luó Fēn and ''Gān Bì'' (), sailed to pay tributes to the Chinese court together. These three kingdoms were roughly similar in customs, with rulers and fortifications. Xiū Luó Fēn has a large number of troops, exceeding ''Gē Luó Shě Fēn'', with over 30,000 elite soldiers, while ''Gān Bì'' has only 5,000. New Book of Tang, Volume 222

However, there is another polity with an almost identical name mentioned in the , written during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), cites that the Malacca Sultanate was the ancient ''Gē Luó Fù Shā'' (), which also had contact with China since the Han Dynasty, but was later vassalized by Tun Sun. Imperially Commissioned Complete Collection of Ancient and Modern Books/Collection of Geographical Maps/Border and Ethnic Groups/Volume 096 (in Chinese) Retrieved 19 May 2025.

In conclusion, there are two disputed locations of the ''Gē Luó'' kingdom; the first one located on the southern part of the peninsula (some say in the area of the Bay of Bandon), and was once a vassal of Tun Sun, called ''Gē Luó Fù Shā Luó'' () in the Tongdian and ''Gē Luó Fù Shā'' () in the ''Guangdong Tongzhi'', and another is ''Gē Luó Shě Fēn'' () in the New Book of Tang and Cefu Yuangui, situated on the northern part of the peninsula and bordered Dvaravati to the east.

Journey of Chang Chun

In the journey of ''Chang Chun'' as a Chinese envoy to Chi Tu in 607, Kamalanka was referred to as ''Lang-ya-xiu''. It was said to be on the north of Chi Tu, another indianized state in the Singora Inland Sea (present Songkhla province).

According to the location mentioned above, Thai scholar, Chand Chirayu Rajani, purposed ''Lang-ya-xiu'' was potentially located in the west Chao Phraya River basin, and strongly denied Paul Wheatley's assumption that equated ''Lang-ya-xiu'' with Langkasuka ( zh, 凌牙斯加/龍牙犀角; Ling-ya-si-jia/Long-ya-xi-jiao), which was located in modern-day deep south Thailand, and Wheatley's assumption has been continued by many scholars to the present day. Rajani additionally asserts that even Chinese people who settled in the west Chao Phraya River basin still called the area ''Lang-jia-jiu''. There are also the islands named ''Lang-ya-jiew'' islands (birds' nest islands) in Chumphon province, which expected to be the southern border of ''Lang-ya-xiu''.

Tang records

The ''Old Book of Tang'', dating 618 onwards, also indicates the location of ''Lang-ya-xiu'', situated north of Pan Pan, aligning with Rajani's hypothesis. The text was translated by Paul Wheatley as follows.

As per the text provided, since Pan Pan was placed at the area along the Bandon Bay in Surat Thani province, ''Lang-ya-xiu'' should be on the plain in lower Central Thailand; however, Paul Wheatley positioned ''Lang-ya-xiu'' to the south of Pan Pan. The location of both Pan Pan and ''Lang-ya-xiu'' given in the ''New Book of Tang'', also sustaintiated Rajani's hypothesis. The text was translated by Peter Bee of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, as follows.

I Ching and the Journey of Xuanzang

The book of ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'', dating to the late 7th century, also mentions to ''Kamalanka'' as ''Lang-ya-xiu'', which conforms to the information provided in the 629–645 journey of a Chinese monk, Xuanzang, who referred to ''Kamalanka'' as ''Chia-mo-lang-chia''. The location provided by both indicates that ''Lang-ya-xiu'' is equated with ''Chia-mo-lang-chia'' or Kamalanka.

Book of ''I Ching'' giving the location of the kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia from the west to east direction, as follows.

Journey of Xuanzang also provided the location of the polities in the same area with I Ching. as follows.

From both texts, if ''Lang-ya-hsiu/Lang-chia-shu'' or ''Chia-mo-lang-chia'' (Kamalanka) is identified with Langkasuka as Paul Wheatley's presumption, Dvaravati, Isanapura, and Champa would be placed somewhere in the middle of the South China Sea, which is impracticable. Thus, the west Menam Valley is more feasible.

History

Early city-state: 1st – 5th century

The earliest and most detailed description of ''Kamalanka'' comes from the Chinese Liang dynasty (502–557) record '' Liáng Shū'', which refers to the kingdom of "Lang-ya-xiu" (, Middle Chinese: ) or "Lang-chia-shu", which has been identified with Kamalanka. The record mentions that the kingdom was founded over 400 years earlier, which made its founding likely sometime in the late 1st or early 2nd century. Moreover, the city of "''Balangka'', an inland town" (บลังกา), mentioned in the ''Geographike Hyphegesis'' of Ptolemy in the 2nd century, was potentially Kamalanka. Several artifacts with Gupta art were scatteredly discovered throughout the ancient Nakhon Pathom.

In this period, several polities emerged in the Chao Phraya River Valley, such as the five kingdoms of Tun Sun on the upper Malay Peninsular, the city state of Chin Lin centered at Mueang Uthong, as well as Si Thep (potentially the legendary Ayojjhapura) to the northeast. Records about these polities are extremely limited. Tun Sun fell under Funan around 245 CE.

Dvaravati period: 6th – 10th century

In the 6th century, Funan began to decline. Several polities broke away, such as Tou Yuan and Tanling, which later became the vassals of Dvaravati. ''Kamalanka'' or ''Chia-mo-lang-chia'' probably absorbed Tun Sun and Chin Lin and expanded its territory to the south at the present-day Chumphon province, and to the east met Chenla at present-day Chanthaburi province. It later became part of the Dvaravati civilization. These centuries were considered the Mon-dominant period.

The journey record of a Chinese Buddhist Xuanzang in the 7th century provided the information regarding the location of ''Kamalanka'', which was said to be located to the southeast of Sri Ksetra kingdom, to the west of Dvaravati, and adjoined Pan Pan to the south, with the southernmost territory near the ''Lang-ya-jiew'' islands (birds' nest islands) in the present-day Chumphon province. Dvaravati that was thought to have been located at an ancient Nakhon Pathom, but from the evidence of I Ching, it must be moved to the eastern side of the valley. Cœdès proposed that Kamalanka expanded its territory eastward to modern Chanthaburi province in eastern Thailand where it bordered with Chenla.

However, due to the overlap in territory claimed in the aforementioned Chiese text I Ching and the area that was expected to be a Funan's dependency, Tun Sun, together with the story given by ''Lang-ya-hsius embassy to the Chinese court regarding the state establishment and gaining independence as well as the disappearance of Tun Sun from the historical record at the beginning of the 6th century, ''Lang-ya-hsiu'' was speculated to be the successor state of Tun Sun and later evolved to or merged with Dvaravati. Some scholar locates Kamalanka at the present Mueang Uthong.

Downfall: 10th – 11th century

The Mon power over the Menam Valley began to decline in the 8th century. Kamalanka then fell under the influence of the southern emerging Srivijaya, and was referred to by the Chinese as ''Gē Luó''. Later in the 9th century, Tai Yuan from the north, which later evolved into Lan Na, began to settle in the lower Menam Valley, increased in influence in the region including Lavo to the east. In the Chola invasion of Srivijaya during the early 11th century, the Malay peninsula was constantly raided by the Sinhalese navy. Kamalanka was also attacked and controlled by the Chola Empire during the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I against Tambralinga and Srivijaya in 1030. Later in the late–11th century, the Kra Isthmus was conquered by the Pagan Kingdom, who expanded its territory southward as far as to the south of present-day Phuket province and controlled the maritime trade between the India Ocean and the South China Sea, as recorded in the Dhammarajaka inscription. This led to the conflict between the Pagan Kingdom and the Sinhalese from the Chola Empire, who was the overload of several polities in the Malay Peninsula at the moment.

Kamalanka's chief city, the ancient Nakhon Pathom, was potentially destroyed in 1058 by King Anawrahta of Pagan during his campaign to conquer the Lavo Kingdom. If not, it might have been weakened since the 925–927 conflicts between two Mon's sister states, Haripuñjaya and Lavo, which led to the conquering of the lower Chao Phraya River Valley by Tambralinga from the south in 927. The city was abandoned around the 11th century and was then revived in the Sukhothai period two centuries later.

After the fall of Kamalanka, its successor kingdoms, Chen Li Fu and Phrip Phri, were established around the 12th century. Chen Li Fu possibly centered near the Nong Chaeng village in Sra Krachom subdistrict (), Don Chedi, Suphan Buri province, as there are traces of a large ancient city surrounded by a rectangular moat, and was speculated to be ''Suvarnapura'', a city mentioned in the Prasat Phra Khan inscription (จารึกปราสาทพระขรรค์).''เข้าใจถิ่นเข้าใจเที่ยว สุพรรณบุรี'', การท่องเที่ยวแหงประเทศไทย, 2547, p.7 or ''Appriciate the Locality, Travel Knowaladgableably, Suphan Buri'' Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2000, p.7 ; * Wārunī ʻŌsathārom. ''Mư̄ang Suphan bon sēnthāng kan̄plīanplǣng thāng prawattisāt Phutthasattawat thī 8 - ton Phutthasattawat thī 25'' (History, development, and geography of the ancient city of Suphan Buri Province, Central Thailand, 8th-25th B.E.), Samnakphim Mahāwitthayālai Thammasāt, Krung Thēp, 2547. Some propose that ''Suvarnapura'' was at the Nern Thang Phra Archaeological Site (), about 20 kilometers northeast of the Nong Chaeng village. Initially, Chen Li Fu was potentially a vassal of the Angkor or had relatives with the Angkor kings; however, due to the decline in power of Angkor, Chen Li Fu broke away and sent an embassy itself to the Chinese court in 1200. It was a short-lived kingdom that was later absorbed by Phip Phli in 1204.

Legends

Legends of Nakhon Chai Si City and Phra Praton Chedi

ฺBefore the establishment of the chief city of Kamalanka, Nakhon Pathom, previously known as Nakhon Chai Si (), there was already a Brahmin village in this area called “Tona Brahmin”. The village was built around a stone house that Brahmins enshrined "''Tona''" () or the golden bowl used to measure the Buddha’s relics. The legendary texts of ''Phraya Maha Akkanikorn'' () and ''Nai Thong'' () state that this event occurred in 590 CE. The city of ''Nakhon Chai Si'' was later founded in the same area by King Si Sitthi Chaiyapromthep (), who was from the city of ''Manohan'' or ''Manohana'' () near the border of the city of ''Yatsothon'' (). The king later set Nakhon Chai Si as the chief city. During this era, this polity established their relations with Sri Lanka via Buddhism; however, after the conflict with the local Brahmin, the king relocated the city 4 kilometers westward in the present-day Phra Pathommachedi area and named the city ''Pawan'' or ''Panan'' ()

In another version composed by Aong mentions the event after the reign of ''Si Sitthi Chaiyapromthep'' that King Sakata () of ''Takkasila'' set the new era, Chula Sakarat, in 590 CE, which was the same year that the Brahmins of ''Tona Brahmin'' village enshrined a "''Tona''" in the stone house. His successor, Phraya Kawanadit Thera (), expelled those Brahmins to Lavo in 650. Even though the versions of ''Phraya Maha Akkanikorn'' and ''Nai Thong'' say Kawanadit Thera was instead the King of Lavo, all versions mention Kawanadit Thera built a chedi to cover the stone house containing the ''tona'' and named it Phra Prathon Chedi in 656, which conforms to the text given in the Ayutthaya version of the Traibhumi Picture Book ().

The stories provided by these two legends accord with the formation of the Lavo Kingdom given in the , thus, Sakkorn Dam, the Chula Sakarat setter, in the Northern Chronicle was doubtlessly ''Sakata'' in the Phra Praton Chedi legend. His son, Phraya Kalavarnadishraj, founded the Lavo Kingdom in 648. And ''Takkasila'' mention in several sources was potentially Nakhon Pathom.

Fable of Miang Kham

In the Fable of Miang Kham, the royal relations between Kamalanka in the western valley and Dvaravati to the east have been told that in 637 CE, the King of Kamalanka named Emperor U Thong, also known as Kakabatr or Sakata in the Legends of Nakhon Chai Si City and Phra Praton Chedi, made a peace agreement and established a royal intermarriage by having his prince, Si Sap (), married a Chenla princess, E Lert (), daugther of King Sakkorn Dam ( of Isanapura, possibly some Chenla king who has a close relation with Si Thep — Bhavavarman I or Bhavavarman II son of Si Thep's Prathivindravarman or Isanavarman I). Their son was Khun Borom, a legendary progenitor of the Southwestern Tai-speaking peoples. Wyatt, David K., ''Thailand: A Short History'', New Haven (Yale University Press), 2003. However, some believe Khun Borom originated from Xiangkhouang in Laos or some ''mueang'' in southern China.

During the same period, there were records in the Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, and the Book of Sui that Chenla, during the reign of Bhavavarman II (r. 639–657), allied via royal intermarriage with the Zhū Jiāng Kingdom, Book of Sui, Volume 82 (in Chinese) Retrieved 17 May 2025. one of the Dvaravati polities. They then waged wars against Tou Yuan to the northwest and successfully made it a vassal of Dvaravati in 647. Some suggests that the son of Si Thep king named Bhavavarman mentioned in the Ban Wang Pai Inscription (K. 978) founded in the Phetchabun province of Thailand was probably Bhavavarman II instead of Bhavavarman I (r. 580–598) due to the inscription styles that potentially inscribed after 627.

The aforementioned royal intermarriage may have enabled another son of Kakabatr named Kalavarnadishraj to establish his polity, known as the Lavo Kingdom, in the eastern Menam Valley in 648, a year after Dvaravati won over Tou Yuan.Adhir Chakravarti, "International Trade and Towns of Ancient Siam", ''Our Heritage: Bulletin of the Department of Post-graduate Training and Research, Sanskrit College, Calcutta,'' vol.XXIX, part I, January–June 1981, pp. 1-23, nb p. 15; also in ''The South East Asian Review'' (Gaya, India), vol. 20, nos.1 & 2, 1995.

Legend of Phraya Kong – Phraya Pan

The legend of , which provides slightly different details in each version, has been told in the western Chao Phraya region. The story begins with a line of Sikaraj (), king of Srivijaya (, Nakhon Pathom; says an ancient Kanchanaburi) whose power extent south to Phetchaburi. His son, Kong (), succeeded him. Due to the prophecy that his son would kill him, ''Kong'' ordered his newborn son to be killed, but his queen consort secretly gave the child to a commoner named ''Yai Hom'' (; ), who named the boy ''Pan'' (). ''Pan'' was later adopted by the king of Phetchaburi, who stopped paying tribute to King ''Kong'' on ''Pans suggestion, causing ''Kong'' to attack Phetchaburi, but unfortunately was slaughtered by ''Pan'' in the battle. ''Pan'' was enthroned as the king of Srivijaya, and after he realized that ''Kong'' was his father, ''Pan'' built a large chedi, which is believed to be the Phra Pathommachedi, atoning for his sin. However, this part of the legend is believed to be influenced by the story being told in the Puranas. Some say that it was adapted from a Sanskrit fable, which in turn was derived from the Greek Oedipus.

The other two versions by Phraya Ratchasamparakorn () and Ta Pakhao Rot () say that after ''Pan'' was adopted by the King of Phetchaburi, he then travelled north to Sukhothai, where he also became the adoptive son of the king of Sukhothai. With Sukhothai's support, he moved south and overthrew ''Kong'' at Nakhon Pathom.

The and Jinakalamali additionally provide the expansion of the influence of ''Pan'' northward and being enthroned as the king of Haripuñjaya during 913–916, Northern Chronicle while the southern territory in the western Menam Valley was overthrown by his adoptive father, King of Phetchaburi. Before Pan's journey to the north, he established several cities in the western Menam Valley, including Suphan Buri, where his son, Phansa
(), was the first ruler. Suphan Buri was the capital of Suphannabhum, a Siamese polity that later formed part of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1351. In the Lan Na's , mentions King Chandra Devaraja () lost Suphannabhum to unspecified invader (probably Tambralinga's king Sujita from Lavo, proposed by Borihan Thepthani) and his two princes, Thamikaraj () and Chadachota (), fled to Haripuñjaya. The older prince, Thamikaraj, later became Haripuñjaya's king in his later life, while the younger reclaimed the throne at Lavo's Lavapura from Angkor in 1052.

After Pan lost the throne to his adoptive father, the Menam Valley entered the collapsing period with a decade-long fighting between two Mon sister kingdoms, Haripuñjaya and Lavo, which also weakened Kamalanka, continue to the valley being conquered by Tambralinga in 927, the fall of Rāmaññadesa in 946, Hall, Kenneth R. “Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 18, no. 3, 1975, pp. 318–336. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3632140. Accessed 3 June 2020. the destruction of Lavo's Lavapura by Angkor in 1001, constant raided by the Chola in 1030, the devastation of the western valley by the Pagan in 1058.

List of rulers

References

External links

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