Llullaillaco () is a dormant

stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and p ...

at the border of

Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, t ...

(

Salta Province Salta () is a province of Argentina, located in the northwest of the country. Neighboring provinces are from the east clockwise Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán and Catamarca. It also surrounds Jujuy. To the north it borders Boli ...

) and

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the eas ...

( Antofagasta Region). It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of tall volcanic peaks on a high

plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; ), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more sides ...

close to the

Atacama Desert The Atacama Desert ( es, Desierto de Atacama) is a desert plateau in South America covering a 1,600 km (990 mi) strip of land on the Pacific coast, west of the Andes Mountains. The Atacama Desert is the driest nonpolar desert in the ...

, one of the driest places in the world. It is the second highest active volcano in the world after Ojos del Salado. Llullaillaco formed during two different phases in the

Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the '' Ice age'') is the geological epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was finally confirmed ...

Holocene The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togeth ...

out of dacitic

lava flow Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or un ...

s. The oldest rocks are about 1.5 million years old. About 150,000 years ago, the volcano's southeastern flank collapsed, generating a debris avalanche that reached as far as from the summit. The youngest dated rocks were erupted 5,600 ± 250 years ago in the summit region, but there are reports of activity from the 19th century. The mountain's first recorded climb was in 1950, but traces of earlier climbs and a number of archaeological sites were found on the mountain and at its feet; Llullaillaco marks the highest archaeological site in the world. In 1999, the

mummified A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay fu ...

remains of three children, known as the Children of Llullaillaco, were found at its summit. They are presumed to have been

human sacrifice Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherei ...

s. Mice have been observed in the summit region, they are the highest finding of a mammal in the world.

Name

The name ''Llullaillaco'' is derived from the Quechua word meaning "false", "lie" or "deceitful" and or meaning "water". This name probably refers to the

meltwater Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice, including glacial ice, tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans. Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers, where the rate of snow cover is reducing. Meltwater ca ...

from snow, which flows down the slopes but then is absorbed into the soil; normally mountains are sources for water. It is possible that it instead refers to the precipitation regime, which starting from Llullaillaco becomes dominated by winter precipitation. Another translation in Aymara is "hot water".

Geography and geology

Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the

subduction Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at convergent boundaries. Where the oceanic lithosphere of a tectonic plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of a second plate, ...

of the

Nazca Plate The Nazca Plate or Nasca Plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru–Chile Trench, of the ...

and the Antarctic Plate beneath the South America Plate. The Nazca Plate subducts at a speed of and the Antarctic Plate at a speed of . Volcanism does not occur along a continuous chain; there are four separate regions named: the

Northern Volcanic Zone The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American ...

, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone, and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The formation of

magma Magma () is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natura ...

results from the release of

water Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as ...

and other volatile material from the subducting plate, which is then injected into the above-lying mantle wedge. The volcanic zones are separated by areas where the subducting plate subducts at a flatter angle and volcanism is absent. The Peruvian flat slab between the Northern and the Central Volcanic Zones is associated with the subduction of the Nazca Ridge, the Pampean flat slab between the Central and the Southern Volcanic Zone is associated with the subduction of the

Juan Fernandez Ridge ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking communities around the world and in the Philippines, and also (pronounced differently) in the Isle of Man. In Spanish, t ...

, and the Patagonian volcanic gap between the Southern and the Austral Volcanic Zone is associated with the

Chile Triple Junction The Chile Triple Junction (or Chile Margin Triple Junction) is a geologic triple junction located on the seafloor of the Pacific Ocean off Taitao and Tres Montes Peninsula on the southern coast of Chile. Here three tectonic plates meet: the South ...

. About 178 volcanoes are found in the

Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...

, 60 of which have been active in historical times. In addition, large

caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcano eruption. When large volumes of magma are erupted over a short time, structural support for the rock above the magma chamber ...

s and monogenetic volcanoes exist in the Andes.

Local setting

Llullaillaco is part of the Central Volcanic Zone. At least 44 volcanic centres with historical activity and 18 large caldera-forming volcanoes have been identified in the Central Volcanic Zone. Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone mostly occurs on the

Altiplano The Altiplano (Spanish for "high plain"), Collao ( Quechua and Aymara: Qullaw, meaning "place of the Qulla") or Andean Plateau, in west-central South America, is the most extensive high plateau on Earth outside Tibet. The plateau is located a ...

and the Cordillera Occidental. A number of volcanoes there reach heights of over above sea level. Large

Miocene The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recent" ...

ignimbrite Ignimbrite is a type of volcanic rock, consisting of hardened tuff. Ignimbrites form from the deposits of pyroclastic flows, which are a hot suspension of particles and gases flowing rapidly from a volcano, driven by being denser than the surro ...

s that cover large surfaces are also part of the regional geology. Llullaillaco is located about east of the Peru-Chile Trench. The Wadati-Benioff zone lies at depth. Llullaillaco is located in the northwestern

Argentine Argentines (mistakenly translated Argentineans in the past; in Spanish ( masculine) or ( feminine)) are people identified with the country of Argentina. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Argentines ...

Andes, towards the southern end of the Puna. It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of very high volcanic peaks on a high

close to the

, one of the driest places in the world. The border between

(

) and Chile crosses the volcano. Paranal Observatory and the Volcano Llullaillaco

The volcano is an imposing mountain, rising by above the Salar de Punta Negra away. With a summit height of , or alternatively or , it is the second highest active volcano in the world after Ojos del Salado (, ). The height of the mountain and the clear air in the region make Llullaillaco visible from

Cerro Paranal Cerro Paranal is a mountain in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile and is the home of the Paranal Observatory. Prior to the construction of the observatory, the summit was a horizontal control point with an elevation of ; now it is above s ...

, away as measured by

Google Maps Google Maps is a web mapping platform and consumer application offered by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° interactive panorama, interactive panoramic views of streets (Google Street View, Street View ...

. In return, the Nevados de Cachi mountains Ojos del Salado farther south is visible from Lllullaillaco. The region is dry and located at high altitudes, making work in the area difficult. farther east of Llullaillaco lies the Miocene Cerro Rosado volcano (). It erupted dacitic lava flows on its northeastern and southern flanks during the

Pliocene The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58Quaternary. east of Llullaillaco, and behind Cerro Rosado is the Salar de Llullaillaco ( ), a salt pan with

warm spring ''Warm Spring'' () is a 2003 Chinese film produced by Shanxi Film Studio. Wulan Tana was the director and writer of this film which won her the Golden Rooster Award for Best Directorial Debut in 2003. The film was also named one of three Bes ...

s at its western and southwestern shores. There are three abandoned borate mines Mina Amalia and the salt mines Mina Luisa and Mina Maria and the recent

lithium Lithium (from el, λίθος, lithos, lit=stone) is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid ...

prospect Prospect may refer to: General * Prospect (marketing), a marketing term describing a potential customer * Prospect (sports), any player whose rights are owned by a professional team, but who has yet to play a game for the team * Prospect (mining ...

"Proyecto Mariana" at Salar de Llullaillaco. Mitral mountain () lies southwest of Llullaillaco and is of Miocene age. It features an eroded crater that opens to the northwest. Iris mountain () north of Llullaillaco is constructed of Pliocene rocks. Other volcanoes in the neighbourhood are Dos Naciones, Cerro Silla, and Cerro 5074. Llullaillaco is associated with a local crustal upwarp.

The volcano

Llullaillaco is a

which rises above the surrounding terrain. The edifice has an elliptical shape with dimensions of and has a volume of about -. It is formed by thick dacitic lava flows erupted during the Quaternary. These flows extend away from the volcano and form its summit. An older unit is formed by ignimbrites and

pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of b ...

s. Older lava flows extend west from the volcano and are partly buried by sediments closer to the edifice. These flows reach lengths of and form about 70% of the surface of the volcano. The slopes of the volcano are fairly steep, with an altitude drop of over only horizontal distance. The slopes high up are steeper than those at lower altitudes. A crater at altitude was formed early in the development of the Llullaillaco volcano. Erosion has reduced it to a plateau. This crater is filled with snow and ice. The ice shows evidence of recent geothermal heating. Llullaillaco Volcano, Argentina-Chile Border 2009-12-09

Llullaillaco Volcano, Argentina-Chile Border 2009-12-09

The summit of Llullaillaco is formed by a small cone with about four associated

lava dome In volcanology, a lava dome is a circular mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary settings. Around 6% of eruption ...

s, which reach lengths of and have abrupt walls. Large dacitic coulees emanate from the summit of the volcano and are young in appearance. One extends north of the volcano and the other one south. Their overall length is and their flow fronts are up to thick. Morphologically, these flows are reddish-black aa lava flows and feature blocks with sizes of . The southern lava flow is long and was fairly viscous when it was erupted. It almost reaches a road southwest of the volcano. These flows feature

levee A levee (), dike (American English), dyke (Commonwealth English), embankment, floodbank, or stop bank is a structure that is usually earthen and that often runs parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastl ...

s and ridges. At first they were considered to be Holocene, but argon-argon dating indicates they are of late Pleistocene age. Some traces of

glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such a ...

activity are found in the summit area. At least two stages of construction are recognized, Llullaillaco I and Llullaillaco II. The first stage originated from two centres and is now extensively degraded by

glaciation A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate bet ...

and hydrothermal alteration. This applies especially to the high Azufrera Esperanto mountain north of Llullaillaco, where little original volcanic substance is preserved and where erosion has exposed deeply altered white rock. Llullaillaco II on the southern and northeastern flank is better preserved; the toes of the lava flows reach thicknesses of . Its lava flows are less extensive than the ones of Llullaillaco I. Pyroclastic flow deposits with a composition similar to Llullaillaco II are found on the southern slope of the volcano and may have formed before the lava eruptions began. Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone may be affected by deep-seated lineaments, which control where

volcano A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates ...

es and geothermal systems form. Such lineaments extend diagonally across the volcanic arc and are accompanied by volcanic manifestations at substantial distances from the arc. One of these lineaments, the Archibarca, runs beneath Llullaillaco and is also associated with the Escondida

copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish ...

deposit,

Corrida de Cori Corrida de Cori is a mountain range in Argentina and Chile. It consists of several aligned volcanoes, including Cerro Escorial, which exceed in elevation. The range, together with several local volcanoes, forms an alignment that may be controll ...

, Archibarca, Antofalla, and the Galán caldera. Other lineaments include the Calama-El Toro. Several dry valleys originate on Llullaillaco, including Quebrada de las Zorritas on the north-northeastern slope, Quebrada El Salado and Quebrada Llullaillaco on the northwestern slope, and Quebrada La Barda on the southwestern slope. The Quebrada Llullaillaco drains into the Salar de Punta Negra northwest of the volcano. The volcano is relatively unaffected by water erosion, water is only episodically present on the mountain. On the northwestern flank there is a lake called the "Lago Llullaillaco" on the mountain; with an elevation of it is one of the highest lakes in the world. Two abandoned

sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formul ...

mines can be found north and south of Llullaillaco. The northern mine is known as Azufrera Esperanto and associated with an area of hydrothermal alteration. A path or road leads up to that mine from northwest. Llullaillaco Sunset.jpg, Llullaillaco during sunset Parque Nacional Llullaillaco, Chile.jpg, Llullailaco with a road leading to the mountain. Llullaillaco from Base Camp on western slopes. See bobvillarreal.com for more..jpg, Llullaillaco from the base camp. Llullaillaco 2.jpg, Lava flow from Llullaillaco Llullaillaco 1.jpg, Llullaillaco in Salta

Debris avalanche

A major

landslide Landslides, also known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep-seated slope failures, mudflows, and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of environments, ...

occurred in the volcano's history during the late Pleistocene, probably triggered by volcanic activity. This landslide descended the eastern-southeastern flanks of the volcano into Argentina, first over a steep slope of 20° on the volcano, split around Cerro Rosado and entered the Salina de Llullaillaco east of the summit, extending up to into the salar. The toe of the avalanche reaches a thickness of above the salar in the avalanche's southern lobe. Part of the avalanche was channelled in a valley between Cerro Rosado and an unnamed volcano farther south. When it reached Cerro Rosado, the avalanche climbed about and mostly continued to flow southeast into the main avalanche path, with only a small flow continuing northeastwards. Part of the run-up avalanche later collapsed backwards over the main avalanche deposit. Unlike Socompa farther north, a landslide scar is only poorly developed at Llullaillaco despite the large size of the collapse; it was largely filled in later by lava flows and volcaniclastic debris. This landslide has been subdivided into four

facies In geology, a facies ( , ; same pronunciation and spelling in the plural) is a body of rock with specified characteristics, which can be any observable attribute of rocks (such as their overall appearance, composition, or condition of formatio ...

and features landforms like levees up to high, longitudinal ridges and a run-up mark on Cerro Rosado. Such ridges may be associated with uneven underlying terrain. The surface of the slide is covered by lava bombs less than long, blocks exceeding width, cobbles, and

gravel Gravel is a loose aggregation of rock fragments. Gravel occurs naturally throughout the world as a result of sedimentary and erosive geologic processes; it is also produced in large quantities commercially as crushed stone. Gravel is classif ...

-like rocks. Close to the collapse scarp on Llullaillaco the largest blocks with sizes of up to are found. Overall, the margins of the landslide are very crisp and the surface covered by hummocks. The landslide deposit covers a surface of about . Its volume has been estimated at and the speed at . This speed range is comparable to that of the

Colima Colima (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Colima ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima), is one of the 31 states that make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It shares its name with its capital and main city, Colima. Colima i ...

Lastarria Lastarria is a high stratovolcano that lies on the border between Chile and Argentina. It is remote and the surroundings are uninhabited but can be reached through an unpaved road. The volcano is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the f ...

, and Mount St. Helens debris avalanches. The landslide occurred no later than 156,000 – 148,000 ± 5,000 years ago, it might coincide with the 48,000 year old lava flow. Some volcanic rocks were still hot at the time of the collapse, indicating that volcanic activity occurred immediately before the collapse. A smaller undated avalanche occurred on the northeastern flank. Such landslides are common at volcanoes, where they are favoured by the steep edifices that form from lava flows being stacked on top of each other. It is not usually known what triggers the collapse, although eruption-associated earthquakes are suspected to play a role. Other volcanoes in the region with sector collapses are: Lastarria, Ollague, San Pedro, Socompa, and Tata Sabaya. The Mellado and Cerro Rosado volcanoes close to Llullaillaco also display evidence of sector collapses.

Glaciers and periglacial phenomena

In 2006 the General Water Directorate of Chile stated that there were seven separate ice bodies on the mountain. Small glaciers are found above altitude. Other sources contend there are no glaciers on Llullaillaco, which would make it the highest mountain in the world without one; although the existence of an ice slab on the western slope was reported in 1958 between elevation and in 1992 there was an ice body which however lacked all evidence of glacial motion. However, Llullaillaco has snow fields tied to

permafrost Permafrost is ground that continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two or more years, located on land or under the ocean. Most common in the Northern Hemisphere, around 15% of the Northern Hemisphere or 11% of the global surfac ...

in the ground. high penitentes occur above altitude, especially in more sheltered areas. high penitentes were observed in 1954.

Snow Snow comprises individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet ...

covers the terrain above altitude. Gullies that are found in the area probably result from meltwater runoff. The snowfields on Llullaillaco supply water to the Salar de Punta Negra. The lack of glaciers is a consequence of the dry climate, as the high

insolation Solar irradiance is the power per unit area ( surface power density) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metre ...

and dry air allow all snow to evaporate before it can form glaciers. The existence of a

cirque A (; from the Latin word ') is an amphitheatre-like valley formed by glacial erosion. Alternative names for this landform are corrie (from Scottish Gaelic , meaning a pot or cauldron) and (; ). A cirque may also be a similarly shaped landf ...

on the northwestern slope has been postulated. It was once believed that Llullaillaco had experienced three large glaciations, but the "

moraine A moraine is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris ( regolith and rock), sometimes referred to as glacial till, that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions, and that has been previously carried along by a glacier or ice sh ...

s" are actually

mudflow A mudflow or mud flow is a form of mass wasting involving fast-moving flow of debris that has become liquified by the addition of water. Such flows can move at speeds ranging from 3 meters/minute to 5 meters/second. Mudflows contain a significa ...

deposits. However, during the Pleistocene glaciers reached down to altitude on the northwestern slope. Lava flows have overrun some of the glaciated surfaces and it is possible that lava flows induced the melting of glaciers. A number of glacial landforms elsewhere were destroyed by mudflows during the time of Llullaillaco's last activity. Llullaillaco may not have been glaciated at all during the Pleistocene.

Periglacial Periglaciation (adjective: "periglacial", also referring to places at the edges of glacial areas) describes geomorphic processes that result from seasonal thawing of snow in areas of permafrost, the runoff from which refreezes in ice wedges and ...

phenomena are observed on Llullaillaco, commencing at altitude and reaching their maximum around on the Chilean and on the Argentine side. There,

solifluction Solifluction is a collective name for gradual processes in which a mass moves down a slope (" mass wasting") related to freeze-thaw activity. This is the standard modern meaning of solifluction, which differs from the original meaning given to ...

and

cryoplanation In geomorphology, cryoplanation or is a term used to both describe and explain the formation of plains, terraces and pediments in periglacial environments. Uncertainty surrounds the term, and the effectiveness of the cryoplanation process is he ...

surfaces are developed, including lobe-shaped ground and block ramparts. These landforms have been mapped on the northwestern side of the volcano. Patterned ground is also common.

Permafrost Permafrost is ground that continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two or more years, located on land or under the ocean. Most common in the Northern Hemisphere, around 15% of the Northern Hemisphere or 11% of the global surfac ...

is found at higher altitudes. Cryoplanation and solifluction landforms are also observed on Iris and Mitral. Other than on periglacially influenced terrain, the ground at Llullaillaco is formed mostly by lavic rocks and block debris, which are frequently buried by

tephra Tephra is fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size, or emplacement mechanism. Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as pyroclasts. Once clasts have fallen to the ground, they re ...

Composition

Llullaillaco has mostly erupted dacites with medium

potassium Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K (from Neo-Latin '' kalium'') and atomic number19. Potassium is a silvery-white metal that is soft enough to be cut with a knife with little force. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmosp ...

content, with rocks becoming more

felsic In geology, felsic is a modifier describing igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz.Marshak, Stephen, 2009, ''Essentials of Geology,'' W. W. Norton & Company, 3rd ed. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, wh ...

the younger they are. Rock samples taken from Llullaillaco are mostly

porphyritic Porphyritic is an adjective used in geology to describe igneous rocks with a distinct difference in the size of mineral crystals, with the larger crystals known as phenocrysts. Both extrusive and intrusive rocks can be porphyritic, meaning a ...

or vitrophyric, with a glassy or microcrystalline

matrix Matrix most commonly refers to: * ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise ** '' The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film ** "The Matrix", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within ''The Matrix'' (franchi ...

Phenocryst 300px, Swiss side of the Mont Blanc massif, has large white plagioclase phenocrysts, triclinic minerals that give trapezoid shapes when cut through). 1 euro coins, 1 euro coin (diameter 2.3 cm) for scale. A phenocryst is an early forming, relati ...

s are mostly

plagioclase Plagioclase is a series of tectosilicate (framework silicate) minerals within the feldspar group. Rather than referring to a particular mineral with a specific chemical composition, plagioclase is a continuous solid solution series, more pro ...

, with

mafic A mafic mineral or rock is a silicate mineral or igneous rock rich in magnesium and iron. Most mafic minerals are dark in color, and common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Common mafic rocks includ ...

phenocrysts being dominated by orthopyroxene and smaller amounts of

biotite Biotite is a common group of phyllosilicate minerals within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula . It is primarily a solid-solution series between the iron- endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more alum ...

, clinopyroxene, and

hornblende Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of minerals. It is not a recognized mineral in its own right, but the name is used as a general or field term, to refer to a dark amphibole. Hornblende minerals are common in igneous and metamorphic ro ...

Ilmenite Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the idealized formula . It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium and the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printing ...

magnetite Magnetite is a mineral and one of the main iron ores, with the chemical formula Fe2+Fe3+2O4. It is one of the oxides of iron, and is ferrimagnetic; it is attracted to a magnet and can be magnetized to become a permanent magnet itself. With ...

, and

sulfide minerals The sulfide minerals are a class of minerals containing sulfide (S2−) or disulfide (S22−) as the major anion. Some sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, t ...

are also present, magnetite especially in the more oxidized older lavas. Some phenocrysts show evidence of a complex history.

Quartz Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica ( silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical ...

is rare. Older lavas have developed a red colour and contain oxidized iron in form of

hematite Hematite (), also spelled as haematite, is a common iron oxide compound with the formula, Fe2O3 and is widely found in rocks and soils. Hematite crystals belong to the rhombohedral lattice system which is designated the alpha polymorph of ...

. Lavas from Llullaillaco I are grey. The content of is 65–67%. The rocks belong to the

calc-alkaline The calc-alkaline magma series is one of two main subdivisions of the subalkaline magma series, the other subalkaline magma series being the tholeiitic series. A magma series is a series of compositions that describes the evolution of a mafic m ...

series. Trace element data are typical for Central Volcanic Zone rocks. High potassium content is typical for shoshonite-like lavas erupted at large distance from the trenches. The composition may reflect magma differentiation in a solitary

magma chamber A magma chamber is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth. The molten rock, or magma, in such a chamber is less dense than the surrounding country rock, which produces buoyant forces on the magma that tend to drive it up ...

, but with occasional replenishment with more primitive magma. Magma mixing and plagioclase crystallization occurred in it. A lithospheric structure probably directed magma flows over long time periods along the same pathway. The depth of the magma source probably varied over the history of the volcano. The total magma output at Llullaillaco is about -.

Geological history

The terrain around Llullaillaco consists of

andesite Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...

and

dacite Dacite () is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-grained ( aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhy ...

lava Lava is molten or partially molten rock ( magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or ...

s and

pyroclastic Pyroclastic rocks (derived from the el, πῦρ, links=no, meaning fire; and , meaning broken) are clastic rocks composed of rock fragments produced and ejected by explosive volcanic eruptions. The individual rock fragments are known as pyroc ...

s of Miocene to Pliocene age. Some

Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene Period and extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the epoch are well identified but ...

-Miocene layers are exposed in the Quebrada de las Zorritas. Dates obtained by argon-argon dating range between 11.94 ± 0.13 and 5.48 ± 0.07 million years ago. west of Llullaillaco do

Paleozoic The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838 by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...

granite Granite () is a coarse-grained ( phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly cools and solidifies und ...

s and

volcanite Volcanic rock (often shortened to volcanics in scientific contexts) is a rock formed from lava erupted from a volcano. In other words, it differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin. Like all rock types, the concept of volca ...

rocks crop out. Elsewhere these layers are buried by

Cenozoic The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configu ...

rocks. There are several faults in the region, such as the Imilac-Salina del Fraile lineament whose movement has influenced the activity of Llullaillaco. Research by J.P. Richards and M. Villeneuve has allowed the determination of the geological history of the region. Had volcanism during the

Eocene The Eocene ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name ''Eocene'' comes from the Ancient Greek (''ēṓs'', " ...

and Oligocene been centered on the

Precordillera Precordillera is a Spanish geographical term for hills and mountains lying before a greater range, foothills. The term is derived from ''cordillera'' (mountain range)—literally "pre-mountain range"—and applied usually to the Andes. Some places ...

, increased subduction of the Nazca Plate during the late Oligocene caused the

volcanic arc A volcanic arc (also known as a magmatic arc) is a belt of volcanoes formed above a subducting oceanic tectonic plate, with the belt arranged in an arc shape as seen from above. Volcanic arcs typically parallel an oceanic trench, with the arc ...

to broaden to about . 25 million years ago, the "Quechua event" triggered the uplift of the Puna-Altiplano, a highland covering a surface area of and reaching an altitude of . In the late Miocene-Pliocene a phase of strong ignimbrite volcanism occurred. About 2 million years ago, the "Diaguita deformation" was characterized by a change in the deformation regimen from crustal shortening to

strike-slip fault In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movements. Large faults within Earth's crust result from the action of plate tecton ...

ing and of volcanism from voluminous felsic eruptions to isolated stratovolcanoes and back-arc mafic volcanism. A slowdown in the subduction may have caused this change. Nowadays most volcanism occurs at the western edge of the Puna, where volcanoes such as

Lascar A lascar was a sailor or militiaman from the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the Arab world, British Somaliland, or other land east of the Cape of Good Hope, who was employed on European ships from the 16th century until the middle of t ...

and Llullaillaco formed.

Climate and biota

The climate at Llullaillaco is cold and dry. The average temperature is about , with temperature maximums ranging between summer and winter. Ground temperatures however can reach during the day in summer. The temperature of the ground fluctuates strongly during the day. Llullaillaco in 2004 became the site of the highest

weather station A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate. The measurements taken include tempera ...

in the world. The climate is extremely sunny on account of the lack of a

cloud cover Cloud cover (also known as cloudiness, cloudage, or cloud amount) refers to the fraction of the sky obscured by clouds on average when observed from a particular location. Okta is the usual unit for measurement of the cloud cover. The cloud c ...

, the high altitude, and the close coincidence between summer solstice with the day where Earth is closest to the Sun.

Snowfall Snow comprises individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes. It consists of frozen crystalline water throughout ...

can occur down to altitudes of . Precipitation is episodic to the point that it is difficult to give average values. It is most often associated with either convective or cyclonic activity during summer and winter respectively. Between 24 and 25° degrees southern latitude the Andean Dry Diagonal crosses the Andes. At this latitude, half of the precipitation falls in summer and the other half in winter. The formation of this dry diagonal is an effect both of the rainshadow effect of the Andes, air subsidence within South Pacific High, and the cold Humboldt Current off the Pacific coast. This is the reason why the

exists. The extremely arid climate at Llullaillaco is also a consequence of these climatic effects. Vegetation is scarce in the

arid A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...

climate. Vegetation at Llullaillaco begins at altitude with ''

Acantholippia punensis ''Acantholippia'' is a monotypic genus in the family Verbenaceae that contains only the species ''Acantholippia seriphioides''. It is found in Argentina. References Verbenaceae Verbenaceae genera Monotypic Lamiales genera {{Verbena ...

'', '' Atriplex imbricata'', and ''

Cristaria andicola ''Cristaria'' is the scientific name of two genera of organisms and may refer to: * ''Cristaria'' (bivalve), a genus of mussels in the family Unionidae * ''Cristaria'' (plant), a genus of plants in the family Malvaceae {{Genus disambiguation ...

''. They are joined at altitude by ''

Stipa frigida ''Stipa'' is a genus of around 300 large perennial hermaphroditic grasses collectively known as feather grass, needle grass, and spear grass. They are placed in the subfamily Pooideae and the tribe Stipeae, which also contains many species ...

'' which can be found up to of altitude. The maximum vegetation density is found around with 12% of the surface and decreases thereafter, probably due to the low temperatures. At this altitude, ''

Adesmia spinosissima ''Adesmia'' may refer to: * ''Adesmia'' (plant), a genus of flowering plants in the legume family * ''Adesmia'' (beetle), a genus of darkling beetles {{Genus disambiguation ...

'', '' Fabiana bryoides'', ''

Mulinum crassifolium ''Azorella'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apiaceae, native to South America, New Zealand, southeastern Australia, and the islands of the Southern Ocean. They are low-growing dwarf mat-forming plants growing in high exposure on mo ...

'', and ''

Parastrephia quadrangularis ''Parastrephia'' is a genus of South American plants in the tribe Astereae within the family Asteraceae. Some ''Parastrephia'' species are allegedly used in traditional medicine. For example, ''Parastrephia lucida'' is used in the highlands ...

'' are found in addition to the previously mentioned plants. Above elevation there is no vegetation. Mice were filmed at in 2013, and an expedition in February 2020 found mice all the way to the summit, where a mouse of the species '' Phyllotis xanthopygus'' was captured. This is the highest altitude in the world at which a mammal has been found to live. Weakly developed

fungal A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...

and bacterial communities have been found in the soils at Llullaillaco, with better developed algal and cyanobacterial communities found on the penitentes; some soil microbes may depend on volcanic

carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide ( chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the si ...

Alga Algae ( , ; : alga ) are any of a large and diverse group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms. The name is an informal term for a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from u ...

e, lichens,

microbial mat A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet of microorganisms, mainly bacteria and archaea, or bacteria alone. Microbial mats grow at interfaces between different types of material, mostly on submerged or moist surfaces, but a few survive in desert ...

s and

vascular plant Vascular plants (), also called tracheophytes () or collectively Tracheophyta (), form a large group of land plants ( accepted known species) that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They ...

s grow around and in Lago Llullaillaco. The environmental conditions in these soils are among the most extreme on the planet, with aridity, strong

UV radiation Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm (with a corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation i ...

, daily freeze-thaw cycles and a lack of nutrients. Organic material transported on the mountain by winds may be the principal source of food for some of these microorganisms.

Air pollution Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. There are many different type ...

from the Escondida copper mine may reach Llullaillaco and threaten ecosystems there. Dry valleys and sheltered areas feature

grass Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in law ...

es. A permanent spring is found in Quebrada de las Zorritas. Deposits in this valley indicate that between 2,436.8 ± 49 and 1,593.1 ± 36

radiocarbon Carbon-14, C-14, or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and co ...

years ago runoff was more intense. Casualidad C 23.jpg, Llullaillaco from Salar Rio Grande Salar de Aguas Calientes IV, Región de Antofagasta.JPG, Llullaillaco from Salar de Aguas Calientes IV

Archaeology

Llullaillaco was first climbed by

Inkas INKAS Group of Companies is a group of privately held Canadian corporations that specialize largely in the security, manufacturing, and financial industries. Many of the company’s divisions and brands operate under the registered trademark of ...

centuries ago. In 1999, a team of archeologists, led by Johan Reinhard, found three

mummies A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay fur ...

of children on the top of Llullaillaco. At the time of their death they were six, seven, and fifteen years old. They were ostensibly human sacrifices offered to the gods of the Incan pantheon on mountaintops. In 2003 they were at the

Catholic University of Salta The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a p ...

, but starting from 2007 they can be found at the Museum of High Altitude Archaeology of Argentina. The mummies were found buried beneath an large platform. The existence of ruins in the summit area had been reported during the first modern climb of the volcano in 1950. Because of the findings, the summit area of the volcano in 2001 was classified as a ' by the government of Argentina. Other archeological objects found along with the mummies included:

headdresses Headgear, headwear, or headdress is the name given to any element of clothing which is worn on one's head, including hats, helmets, turbans and many other types. Headgear is worn for many purposes, including protection against the elements, ...

with feathers,

pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and po ...

statues A statue is a free-standing sculpture in which the realistic, full-length figures of persons or animals are carved or cast in a durable material such as wood, metal or stone. Typical statues are life-sized or close to life-size; a sculpture ...

made out of

gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile ...

and

silver Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...

and

textile Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not t ...

s. A total of 145 objects were found together with the mummies. The hairs found with the mummies and as offerings accompanying the mummies have been subject of research to establish the background of the victims. Chozas dobles

At least three paths lead up to Llullaillaco. Two of them meet at a '' tambo'' or inn at an altitude of , while the third passes through a ''cementerio'' (

cemetery A cemetery, burial ground, gravesite or graveyard is a place where the remains of dead people are buried or otherwise interred. The word ''cemetery'' (from Greek , "sleeping place") implies that the land is specifically designated as a bu ...

) where 16 bodies were found in 1972 before reaching the ''tambo''. From the ''tambo'' another path leads up the mountain, past two further archeological sites to of altitude. This path is an Inca ceremonial path with an initial width of , narrowing in steeper reaches. The path is marked by cairns, probably to indicate where the path is when the volcano is covered by snow. The path ends at altitude at the Portezuelo del Inca ruins, where a staircase begins. From these ruins one path goes to a cemetery at altitude and another to the summit platform. The other path reaches two subrectangular walls farther up, and continues to the platform where the mummies were found. These are the highest archeological sites in the world. The paths were discovered by Mathias Rebitsch in 1958. Llullaillaco appears to have been the most important Inca sacred mountain in the region. Archeological sites are also found in the valleys that drain Llullaillaco towards the Salar de Punta Negra, including the Quebrada Llullaillaco and the Quebrada de las Zorritas. The paths connect with the major north–south axis that runs between San Pedro de Atacama and Copiapo. This axis is associated with the extensive Inca road system.

Eruptive history

The volcano is about 1.45 ± 0.41 million years old, and Llullaillaco I is of early Pleistocene age. The oldest date, 1.5 ± 0.4 million years ago, was determined on a lava flow northwest of Llullaillaco's main edifice. Two dates obtained on lava flows of Llullaillaco II are 401,000 ± 6,000 and 1,500,000 ± 400,000 years ago, based on argon-argon dating and potassium-argon dating respectively. The northern young lava flow is less than one million years old based on potassium-argon dating, the southern flow is 48,000 ± 12,000 years old based on argon-argon dating on biotite. Surface exposure dating based on

helium Helium (from el, ἥλιος, helios, lit=sun) is a chemical element with the symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table. ...

has yielded ages of 41,000 ± 1,000 years for Llullaillaco I at over altitude, of 5,600 ± 250 years for Llullaillaco II at an altitude of over and of 930 ± 140 years. Llullaillaco has been active in historical time, with the last eruption occurring in the late 19th century. Eruptions were recorded in February 1854, September 1868, and May 1877, involving two explosive eruptions and one with lava flows. According to a report in 1899, during the 1868 eruption large fissures opened on its slopes. The last eruption consisted of smoking reported at the time of the 1877 Iquique earthquake. Other reports mention eruptions in 1920, 1931, 1936 and 1960. The volcano is currently considered

dormant Dormant, "sleeping", may refer to: Science *Dormancy Dormancy is a period in an organism's life cycle when growth, development, and (in animals) physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes metabolic activity and therefore helps ...

and there are no known

fumarole A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or other rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcan ...

s. Llullaillaco is considered Argentina's 16th most dangerous volcano out of 38. Future eruptive activity may result in the emission of pyroclastic flows and lava flows and may cause sector collapses, although they would be a small danger to human life, given that the area is sparsely inhabited.

References

Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Bibliography

* * Reinhard, Johan: ''The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes''. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., 2005. * Reinhard, Johan and Ceruti, María Constanza: "Inca Rituals and Sacred Mountains: A Study of the World's Highest Archaeological Sites" Los Angeles: UCLA, 2010. * Reinhard, Johan and Ceruti, María Constanza: ''Investigaciones arqueológicas en el Volcán Llullaillaco: Complejo ceremonial incaico de alta montaña''. Salta: EUCASA, 2000. * * Ceruti, María Constanza: ''Llullaillaco: Sacrificios y Ofrendas en un Santuario Inca de Alta Montaña''. Salta: EUCASA, 2003. * * Beorchia, Antonio: "El cementerio indígena del volcán Llullaillaco." ''Revista del Centro de Investigaciones Arqueológicas de Alta Montaña'' 2: 36–42, 1975, San Juan. * *
Complete description, history, place name and routes of Llullaillaco in Andeshandbook

Museum of High Mountain Archaeology
*

External links

{{authority control Stratovolcanoes of Argentina Stratovolcanoes of Chile Atacama Desert Volcanoes of Antofagasta Region Volcanoes of Salta Province Andean Volcanic Belt Polygenetic volcanoes Subduction volcanoes Argentina–Chile border International mountains of South America Holocene stratovolcanoes Pleistocene stratovolcanoes Pleistocene South America Quaternary South America Six-thousanders of the Andes Mountains of Antofagasta Region Mountains of Salta Province Puna de Atacama

Name

Geography and geology

Local setting

The volcano

Debris avalanche

Glaciers and periglacial phenomena

Composition

Geological history

Climate and biota

Archaeology

Eruptive history

See also

References

Sources

Bibliography

External links