Ultras Pathed

Ultras are a type of association football fans who are known for their fanatical support. The term originated in Italy, but is used worldwide to describe predominantly organised fans of association football teams. The behavioural tendency of ultras groups includes singing football chants, playing musical instruments such as drums, their use of flares and smoke bombs (primarily in ''tifo'' choreography), frequent use of elaborate displays, vocal support in large groups and the displaying of flags and banners at football stadiums, all of which are designed to create an atmosphere which encourages their own team and intimidates the opposing players and their supporters. These groups also commonly organise trips to attend away games.

Ultras groups have been responsible for many cases of football hooliganism and violence, although differently from hooligan firms, ultras do not have the explicit objective of fighting other fans. Ultras groups are also in some cases directly linked to ideologies like neo-Nazism and other forms of far-right politics, and sometimes far-left politics. In some instances, hooliganism and/or this politicisation goes to the point where support for their team is relegated to a secondary feature of the phenomenon.

In recent decades, the culture has become a focal point for the movement against the commercialisation of sports and football in particular. Ultras also have regional variants and analogues, such as casuals in the United Kingdom, '' barra bravas'' in Hispanic America, and '' torcidas organizadas'' in Brazil.

History

The origin of the ultras movement is disputed, with many supporters groups from various countries making claims solely on the basis of their dates of foundation. The level of dispute and confusion is aided by a contemporary tendency (mainly in Europe) to categorise all groups of overtly fanatical supporters as ultras.The first group of fans was found in Salerno, Italy in 1921 with the name "circolo salernitani fieri", later in Florence in 1931 when some Fiorentina fans created the group called "ordine del marzocco", which with a large following, composed hymns, distributed flags and stage material and set up special trains to follow the team. curiosity: the first clash between fans already took place during the Roman Empire in 59 AD, Tacitus tells in the XIV book of his annals; in the amphitheater of Pompeii, between Nocera and Pompeii, with numerous deaths and injuries. Supporters groups of a nature comparable to the ultras have been present in Brazil since 1939, when the first ''torcida organizada'' was formed (although these groups began to focus on violence in the 1970s). Inspired by the torcidas and the colourful scenes of the 1950 World Cup, supporters of Hajduk Split formed Torcida Split on 28 October 1950. But the first supporters' groups in the world formed to produce violence were ''barras bravas'', originated in Argentina in the 1950s.

One country closely associated with the ultras movement is Italy. The first Italian ultras groups were formed in 1951, including the Fedelissimi Granata of Torino. The 1960s saw the continuing spread and development of the culture with the formation of the Fossa dei Leoni and Boys San groups, the former often regarded in Italy as the first full-fledged ultras group (associated with violence). The term "ultras" was used as a name for the first time in 1969, when supporters of Sampdoria formed the Ultras Tito Cucchiaroni and fans of Torino formed the Ultras Granata. The style of support that would become synonymous with Italian football developed most during the 1970s, as more groups formed, including the radical S.S. Lazio Ultras in 1974, with a strong predominance of fascist slogans and chants amongst other groups such as Hellas Verona supporters. The active support of the ultras became more apparent, in contrast with the "traditional" culture, choreographic displays, signature banners and symbols, giant flags, drums and fireworks became the norm as groups aimed to take their support to higher levels. The decade also saw the violence and unrest of Italian society at the time overlap with the ultras movement, adding a dimension that has plagued it ever since. The ultras movement spread across Europe, Australia, Asia and North Africa during the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, starting with the countries geographically closest to Italy.

Characteristics

Ultras groups are usually centred on a core group of founders or leaders (who tend to hold executive control), with smaller subgroups organised by location, friendship or political stance. Ultras tend to use various styles and sizes of banners and flags bearing the name and symbols of their group. Some ultras groups sell their own merchandise to raise funds for performing displays. An ultras group can number from a handful of fans to hundreds or thousands, with larger groups often claiming entire sections of a stadium for themselves. Ultras groups often have a representative who liaises with the club owners on a regular basis, mostly regarding tickets, seat allocations and storage facilities. Some clubs provide groups with cheaper tickets, storage rooms for flags and banners and early access to the stadium before matches to prepare displays. These types of favoured relationships are often criticised when ultras groups abuse their power.

Hooliganism

While ultras groups can become violent, the majority of matches attended by ultras conclude with no violent incidents. Unlike hooligan firms, whose main aim is to fight hooligans of other clubs, the main focus of ultras is generally to support their own team Some hooligans try to be inconspicuous when they travel; usually not wearing team colours, to avoid detection by the police. Within the ultra or hooligan culture however, those dressing to "blend in" would be referred to as casuals, which is viewed by some as a branch of hooliganism, yet still maintaining its own independence and culture. Ultras tend to be more conspicuous when they travel, proudly displaying their scarves and club colours while arriving ''en masse'', which allows the police to keep a close eye on their movements.

Europe

France

Scotland

In Scotland, Ultras Aberdeen are the ultras group who follow Aberdeen F.C., they organise chants and choreography in the Merkland Road Stand, at Pittodrie Stadium, also known as the "Red Shed". The Green Brigade are an ultras group that follow Celtic F.C. and regularly make tifo displays and often voice support for a United Ireland. They are left-wing. On the other side of Glasgow are the Rangers F.C. ultra group The Union Bears. The Union Bears are known for their elaborate fan displays and their support for Northern Irish and Scottish unionism within the UK. They celebrate and support the Protestant history of both Rangers and Scotland. Block Seven are a supporters group that support Hibernian FC, the Gorgie Ultras support rivals, Heart of Midlothian FC. The Southside Ultras support Queen’s Park FC while Ultras Thistle support their city rivals, Partick Thistle. Other ultras in the Scottish Championship include Dunfermline Athletic’s Section North West, Greenock Morton’s Cowshed, Raith Rovers’ Ultras Raith, Livingston’s Block C, Hamilton Academical’s Accies Youth, Ayr United’s Somerset Ragazzi, Falkirk’s Ultras 1876 and Airdrieonians’ Section B.

England

In England, there are ultras groups at, Colchester United known as the BWA (Blue and White Army), Hartlepool United known as the NWC, Middlesbrough F.C. (Red Faction), Crystal Palace F.C. ( Holmesdale Fanatics), Ipswich Town F.C. (Blue Action), Leicester City F.C. (Union FS), Huddersfield Town F.C. (Cowshed Loyal), and Stockport County (Hatters 83), Bristol City (Section 82), Arsenal (Ashburton Army) Several non-league football teams in England have ultras groups that are left-wing, such as the fans of Dulwich Hamlet F.C. who have a group called The Rabble. A Vice article claims Casuals United are at war with anti-fascist football ultras.

In early-2022, a Norwich City supporters group was formed known as City Elite, in an effort to copy their rivals, Ipswich Town's Blue Action, an ultras group considered to be leading the English ultras movement. They have grown to become one of the leading fan groups at the small, Championship club.

In late-2022, an Arsenal F.C. supporters group called "Ashburton Army" gained prominence, taking their name from Ashburton Grove, an historic road upon which the team's Emirates Stadium was built.

In April 2024, following the inception of the group and a subsequent meeting with club officials, an Aston Villa F.C. supporters group called "1897 Group" were allocated a section of the club's home stadium Villa Park for a Premier League match against A.F.C. Bournemouth to launch the group's presence at Aston Villa's matches. The group's volunteers help to organise and carry out tifo displays in Villa Park's Holte End stand and across other sections of the stadium for some Villa home matches. On 10 December 2024, 1897 Group organised and performed a fan march in Leipzig along with other Villa supporters prior to Villa's UEFA Champions League match against RB Leipzig at the Red Bull Arena. 1897 Group are the first ultras-style supporters group present at Aston Villa since a group named "Brigada 1874" disbanded in 2015.

In early 2025, a fan group of Manchester United known as The Red Army (TRA) gained prominence among the fanbase, particularly due to the group organising displays vs Olympique Lyonnais, Real Sociedad, and Athletic Club in the 2024/25 Europa League

Hungary

Several clubs in Hungary have large ultras groups, such as Ferencváros (Green Monsters), Újpest (Viola Fidelity), Diósgyőr (Ultras Diósgyőr), Honvéd (Ultras Kispest, Északi Kanyar), Fehérvár (Red Blue Devils), Tatabánya (Turul Ultrái), Debrecen (Szívtiprók Ultras Debrecen) and other strongly developing groups such as Kecskemét (Ultras Kecskemét) Szeged (Ultras Szeged). The national team of Hungary has an ultras group known as the Carpathian Brigade. The group was formed in 2009. Hungarian ultras occupy sector B Central at the Puskás Aréna.

Portugal

Greece

In Greece, most professional football teams have an ultras group. Most of them are named after a gate number which refers to the specific place where the fans are situated at the stadium. Others have actual names or no special names at all and they are named after their supporting team.

Kosovo

* Plisat - FC Prishtina
* Torcida - KF Trepça
* Arpagjik't - KF Liria
* Kuqezinjet e Jakoves - KF Vëllaznimi
* Besa Boys - FC Besa
* Intelektualet - FC Drita
* Xhebrailat - FC Ballkani
* Skifterat - SC Gjilani
* Legjendat - KF Llapi

Serbia

Red Star Belgrade have one of the most dedicated ultras groups in Europe, Delije is a collective name for supporters of various groups that are a part of the Red Star Belgrade multi-sport club.
They attend every match, and usually do choreographies and shout chants, with many subgroups present on the stadium as well.

FK Partizan, have a ultras group of their own named Grobari (Gravediggers).They generally support all clubs within the Partizan multi-sports club, and mostly wear black and white symbols, which are the club's colors.

Denmark

FC Copenhagen (Sektion 12) and Brøndby IF (Sydsiden) have some of the most renowned ultras groups on the continent, and the derby between the two is also one of the fiercest in Europe.

AaB's ultras group caused a 14-minute delay in the 2020 Danish Cup final for a failure to adhere to COVID-19 social distancing rules. The group was ultimately ejected from the stadium and the game resumed, which was won by Sønderjyske.

Italy

In Italy, most professional football clubs have an ultras group which attends every match and has dedicated seating areas in either the north or south end of the stadium behind the goals. Each ultras group will have one or more leaders who choreograph chants, and who hand out banners and flags to other people in the stand to wave throughout the match. Ultras have been credited with creating fantastic atmospheres inside the stadium; however they have also come under universal criticism because of ties to various gangs and the mafia, as well as causing violence which often takes place outside the stadium prior to a match. Over the years inappropriate chanting has resulted in the FIGC issuing partial or full stadium bans to clubs. The ultras will choreograph a wide range of chants throughout a match, but some of the most common chants that result in a ban are anti-Southern chants towards clubs which are located in the South of Italy, most notably towards Napoli, as well as racist chants towards opposition players. However, these issues only partially represent parts of the Ultras culture in Italy – Ultras in Italy are also known for fighting criminals and the Mafia, giving housing to immigrants or helping Italian citizens in need, as well as aiding with food and money during the Covid pandemic to their local hospitals.

Republic of Ireland

Several groups exist in Rep. of Ireland, as follows:

Shamrock Rovers - SRFC Ultras

St Patrick's Athletic - Shed End Invincibles

Drogheda United - Famous 45 Ultras

Dundalk FC - Shed Side Army

Bohemian FC - Notorious Boo Boys

Galway United F.C. - maroon army

Waterford FC - Block E Boys

Finn Harps FC - Ballybofey brigade

Sligo Rovers
Forza Rovers

Cork City FC - Commandos 84

Treaty United - Blue Army

Wexford FC - Slaneyside Crew

Shelbourne FC - Briogaid Dearg

Bray Wanderers - Na Fanaithe

Longford Town - Section O

Derry City - Ultras Derry

Northern Ireland

The ultras scene in Northern Ireland is new, and since these have begun, the younger generation of fans in Northern Ireland has increased more than it has in many years.

Poland

The first Polish ultras groups were formed in 1980s by fans of Legia Warszawa and Arka Gdynia. Those early ultra groups identified as either fascist or national-socialist and opposed the communist government of Wojciech Jaruzelski. The 1990s saw the continuing spread and development of the ultra culture with the formation of the Wisła Sharks and Cracovia Jude Gang groups, the former often regarded in Poland as the first full-fledged ultras group. With intimidating and non-stop chanting, they've made their presence felt in the stands. Modern hooligans try to be inconspicuous when they enter the stadium; usually not wearing team colours, to avoid detection by the police and PZPN officials.

Spain

Spanish ultraism is generally agreed to have come from Italian and English ultraism and hooliganism at the 1982 World Cup held in Spain. Held only seven years after the death of Franco, the World Cup was an opportunity for Spain to join the world of modern international football. Spanish ultraism is particularly known for its dramatic and polarized distinction across two ideological cleavages: fascism and (regional) nationalism. The vast majority of ultra groups identify as either fascist or anti-fascist, and either separatist or nationalist.

The Netherlands

In The Netherlands, most professional football teams have an ultras group. the first ultras groups in the Netherlands were formed in the 1970s by fans of Feyenoord they called themselves S.C.F. Hooligans. After S.C.F. Hooligans were formed many other ultras groups started forming such as AFC Ajax (F-side) FC Utrecht (Bunnikside) ADO Den Haag (north side) De Graafschap (Brigata Tifosi) FC Twente (Vak-P) FC Groningen (Z-Side).

Belgium

Most clubs in Belgium have an ultra-group, such as Sporting Charleroi (Storm Ultras 2001), Sint-Truidense V.V. (Brigada Hesbania), KRC Genk (Drughi Genk), RSC Anderlecht (Mauves Army 2003) Standard Liège (Ultras Inferno 1996)

Luxembourg

Several clubs in Luxembourg have an ultras group, such as FC Differdange 03 (UD45), Jeunesse Esch (Ultras Esch), Avenir Beggen (Ultras Beggen), Luxembourg national football team (M-Block)

Bosnia and Herzegovina

People in Bosnia and Herzegovina are known for their national ultras group BHFanaticos. Also, they have a few ultras that are connected to football clubs Manijaci, Horde zla, Lešinari, Red Army, Škripari, Ultras Mostar and many more.

Cyprus

Gate-9 (Greek:Θύρα 9) is a Cypriot fans' group that supports the football team People's Athletic Club Omonia 1948 and all the sport departments of AC Omonia except football. Omonia supporters are traditionally left wing. A 2009 gallop poll estimated that three out of four Omonia fans vote for the Progressive Party of Working People, the communist party of Cyprus. While the group retains its left wing beliefs, in recent years it has been openly critical of the party's involvement in the club's administrative decisions. The party has denied accusations that it influences club decisions. Gate-9 members are associated with communist beliefs and have been noted for waving banners bearing Che Guevara's portrait, and other communist symbols. The group is also involved in humanitarian work for refugees in Cyprus. The group, besides Nicosia, has fan clubs in Limassol, Athens, Thessaloniki, Larnaka, Paphos, and London.

There are also ultras groups affiliated with the APOEL FC and the Anorthosis Famagusta FC.

Malta

Although small in size, Malta has some notable ultras groups. The main ultras groups in Malta are Birkirkara Ultras 1997, Ultras Beltin 999, and Paola Boys Hibs Ultras, Sliema Ultras Blue Gladiators as well as the Maltese national football team ultras group, the South End Core.

Ukraine

Romania

Romania's ultras only finds itself in the traditional teams like Steaua București,Dinamo București and Rapid București; but there are some small ultras groups which support their local club. The biggest ultras groups are: Peluza Nord FCSB, Peluza Sud Steaua, Peluza Cătălin Hîldan, Peluza Sud Dinamo, Peluza Nord Rapid, Peluza Sud Timisoara, t2 Rapid, Peluza Şepcile Roşii and Peluza Nord Hunedoara. There are also some honourable mentions like Peluza Marină Farul, Peluza Sud Craiova and Peluza Nord Galați.

Turkey

The three big clubs of Turkey, namely Beşiktaş, Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray, have dedicated and passionate fanbases. The ultras of these clubs are Çarşı, Genç Fenerbahçeliler and UltrAslan, respectively.

Bulgaria

The most famous ultras in Bulgaria are Sector B (Levski Sofia), Sector G (CSKA Sofia), Bultras (Botev Plovdiv), Green Fighters ( Neftochimic Burgas), Moryatsi (Cherno More Varna) and Lauta Army (Lokomotiv Plovdiv).

Azerbaijan

Several groups exist in Azerbaijan, as follows:

* Forza Neftçi - Neftçi PFK
* Köhne 13 (Old 13) - Neftçi PFK
* Kapaz Ultras - Kapaz PFK
* Imaret Tayfa - Qarabağ FK
* Qarabağ Ordusu (Qarabağ Army) - Qarabağ FK
* Red Black Army - Gabala SC
* Ultras-57 - Shamkir FC
* Kimyachilar - Sumgayit FK
* The Capital - Baku FK
* Caspian Ultras - Khazar Lankaran FK
* Qartallar (Eagles) - Zira FK
* Baygushlar (Owls) - Sabah FC
* Ultra Araz - Araz Naxçıvan PFK
In addition, there are fans' group that support the Azerbaijan national football team
* Göyqurdlar (Blue Wolves) - In home matches
* Milli Dasta (National Squad) - In matches in Europe

Africa

Algeria

Morocco

The history of Moroccan ultras can be traced back to the early 2000s, with the formation of the first ultras group, Ultras Tanger, in 2003. However, the first ultras group that still exists today is Ultras Green Boys, which was founded in 21/06/2005 to support Raja Casablanca. That same year, Ultras Askary Rabat was founded to support AS FAR and Ultras Winners was founded to support Wydad Casablanca. The Moroccan ultras movement quickly gained momentum and popularity, with other notable groups such as Ultras Eagles (also supporting Raja Casablanca), being formed in 2006. Moroccan ultras groups are heavily influenced by European ultras movements, and are known for their passionate and dedicated support of their favorite football clubs. They are also known for their elaborate displays of choreographed support, including banners, flags, flares, and coordinated chants. Despite facing challenges, such as financial costs and loss of members, Moroccan ultras groups remain an important part of the country's football culture, known for their intense rivalries and unwavering support of their clubs.

Egypt

The clubs in Egypt became a major political force during the uprising against Mubarak in 2011, but were known for long-standing animosity with the police. When 38 members of the Ultras Devils were arrested in "Shebeen al-Kom" for "belonging to an illegal group" plus additional violent offences, it was seen as a crackdown on the organisations by authorities.

In 2013, the Associated Press stated that the Egyptian Ultras network was one of the most organised movements in Egypt after the Muslim Brotherhood.

Tunisia

Libya

Sudan

Rwanda

Lesotho

South Africa

Asia

Bangladesh

China

})

India

Iraq

Israel

Jordan

Palestine

Saudi Arabia

Syria

United Arab Emirates

United Arab Emirates

Al-Wasl SC

Ultras Junoon is an Emirati group that was founded in 2010 by the fans of Al-Wasl Club. This club is considered to have one of the largest fan bases in the Emirates, and Al-Wasl Club fans are considered the first club that came up with the idea of Ultras in the Gulf region. It is mentioned that Al Wasl fans were the main reason for increasing excitement in the region and increasing the viewership of the league in the Emirates, in particular. The Ultras Junoon have a great ability to preserve the history of this club, and they are close to making any decision in the interest of this club.

Cambodia

The ultras scene in Cambodia began on October 28, 2018, with the formation of Ultras Cambodia, a group dedicated to supporting the Cambodia national football team. Following this, club-specific ultras groups also emerged. Visakha FC supporters formed Ultras Visakha. and Ultras Svay Rieng, was established to support Svay Rieng FC.

Malaysia

In Malaysia, the ultras scene is characterized by the presence of " Ultras Malaya," the largest supporter club dedicated to the Malaysia national football team. " Ultras Malaya" founded in 2007 but only made their first appearances during the 2008 Merdeka Tournament when Malaysia beat Nepal 4-0.

"Ultras Malaya" boasts a diverse membership with fans from different ethnic backgrounds, states, and clubs across Malaysia. The group represents fans from all 14 states and other subdivisions within Malaysia. One of the most significant rivalries in Southeast Asian football is between "Ultras Malaya" and the fans of the Indonesia national football team. This rivalry is famously known as the "Nusantara derby" and has witnessed several intense clashes before, during, and after matches between the two nations, both on and off the field.

"Ultras Malaya" witnessed a gradual increase in its membership over the years, reaching its zenith during the AFF Suzuki Cup in 2014, when the number of members soared into the tens of thousands, although exact figures are not confirmed.

As time passed, UM07, the parent organization of "Ultras Malaya," expanded its reach by establishing subsidiary groups at the state and club levels across Malaysia. These subsidiary supporter groups are passionate in their support for both their local clubs and the national team. Here are some of the main ultras and supporters groups associated with specific states and clubs:

* Johor Darul Ta'zim FC: "Boys of Straits" (Super League, formed in 2010)
* Kedah Darul Aman FC: "Ultras Kedah 09" (Super League, founded on December 29, 2009)
* Kelantan FC: "Gate H Boys" (M3 League, established in 2010)
* Kuala Lumpur City FC: "Kuala Lumpur Ultras/Cityboys" (Super League, founded on February 28, 2011)
* Melaka United: "Ultras Taming Sari" (Super League, established on January 11, 2011)
* Negeri Sembilan FC: "Ultras Nogori 9" (Super League, formed on May 15, 2010)
* Penang FC: "Ultras Panthers" (Super League, emerged in 2011)
* Perak FC: "Silver State Ultras/The Supporters" (Premier League, established in April 2009)
* Perlis FA: "Brigate Gialloblu Perlis" (Club Dissolved, formed around 2010 or 2011)
* Sabah FC: "North Borneo Ultras" (Super League, founded on April 5, 2011)
* Sarawak FA/ Sarawak United: "GB13" (M3 League, established in 2011)
* Selangor FC: "UltraSel Curva" (Super League, formed in 2010)
* Sri Pahang FC: "Elephant Army" (Super League, founded on February 3, 2010)
* Terengganu FC: "Ultras Tranung" (Super League, established in 2010)
*Kuching City FC: "Ultras IL Gatto" (Super League, established in 2020)

Within "Ultras Malaya," the role of the Capo is crucial in leading the chanting and energizing the crowd inside the stadium. One of the most well-known Capos of "Ultras Malaya" is Mohd Ridzuan Ahmad, also known as Lekir Haji Ahmad. His leadership and coordination skills have contributed to the vibrant and passionate atmosphere during Malaysia's football matches, making him a respected figure among the ultras community.

Japan

The ultras scene in Japan began in 1992 with the formation of "Ultra Nippon," a group dedicated to supporting the Japan national football team. This movement quickly gained momentum, spreading across the country and leading to the creation of ultras groups for various club teams. Nagoya Grampus supporters formed "Ultras Nagoya," while Vegalta Sendai saw the establishment of "Ultras Vegalta Sendai." Urawa Red Diamonds are supported by the "Urawa Boys," and Gamba Osaka fans are organized under the name "Gamba Ultras." Cerezo Osaka also saw the formation of a group, known as "Cerezo Ultras,"

Lebanon

The ultras scene was introduced to Lebanon in February 2018, with Nejmeh's "Ultras Supernova" and White ultras for racing Beirut 2019. Their rivals Ansar quickly followed with their own ultras group, "I Tifosi", one month later. Ahed formed their own ultras group, called "Ultras Yellow Inferno", the same year. Prior to the Arab Club Champions Cup game between Nejmeh and Al-Ahly of Egypt, played on 13 August 2018, seven "Ultras Supernova" fans were arrested by the Egyptian national security because of the negative connotations the word "Ultras" has in Egypt. The fans have been returned to Lebanon by request of the Lebanese Ambassador to Cairo.

India

The ultras scene in India was introduced by East Bengal Ultras, the ultras group of East Bengal FC, in 2013, and since then it grew slowly, as ultras groups of various clubs started to form and display of "''Tifo'''s" and "Pyro" shows became very much a part of the ultras scene in Indian football.

Blue Pilgrims is an organised group of football fans who support the India national football men's team, women's team, and all the other age – group national teams at every home and away game, formed by a group of football fans of several club fan bases of football clubs from India. Founded in 2017 before the commencement of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup, which was held in India, the group based their name on the nickname of the national team, the "Blue Tigers". They consider travelling with the national teams, to wherever the teams play, as their pilgrimage. They often display flags, banners, and tifos in support of the national team.

Iran

Persepolis ultras of this association were registered by the club's fans association in 2014, and the place of these fans was registered at the 36th position Their place is in Azadi Stadium. Persepolis ultras are nicknamed the Red Army in Asia. They have a close competition with their long-time rival, Esteghlal, and they support their team with doza bombs and fabric designs.

Oceania

Australia

New Zealand

North America

Canada

United States

Guatemala

El Salvador

Honduras

Nicaragua

Costa Rica

Panama

See also

* Curva
*Hooligan
*List of association football rivalries
*List of hooligan firms
*Torcida organizada
*Tifo
*Kop

References

Further reading

* Nicola Guerra (2014). "Il discorso e la lingua speciale del calcio, una definizione inclusiva. I meccanismi di creazione dei neologismi e le dinamiche di contatto e interferenza" Annals of the University of Craiova
*
*
* Prof. Dr. Gunter A. Pilz:   Leibniz University Hanover, 18 January 2010.
* Testa, A. and Armstrong, G. (2008). "Words and actions: Italian ultras and neo-fascism" Social Identities, vol. 14 (4), pp. 473 – 490
* Testa, A. (2009) "UltraS: an Emerging Social Movement", Review of European Studies, vol. 1 (2), 54–63
* Testa, A. (2010). Contested Meanings: the Italian Media and the UltraS. Review of European Studies, vol 2(1), 15–24
* Testa, A. and Armstrong, G. (in press; November 2010). Football, Fascism and Fandom: The UltraS of Italian Football, A&C (Bloomsbury), London, Black Publishers.
* TAL Global Corporation.

External links

{{Fanatism in Association football

Association football culture