Tamarind Tree

Tamarind (''Tamarindus indica'') is a leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia. The genus ''Tamarindus'' is monotypic, meaning that it contains only this species. It belongs to the family Fabaceae.

The tamarind tree produces brown, pod-like fruits that contain a sweet, tangy pulp, which is used in cuisines around the world. The pulp is also used in traditional medicine and as a metal polish. The tree's wood can be used for woodworking and tamarind seed oil can be extracted from the seeds. Tamarind's tender young leaves are used in Indian and Filipino cuisine. Because tamarind has multiple uses, it is cultivated around the world in tropical and subtropical zones.

Description

The tamarind is a long-living, medium-growth tree, which attains a maximum crown height of . The crown has an irregular, vase-shaped outline of dense foliage. The tree grows well in full sun. It prefers clay, loam, sandy, and acidic soil types, with a high resistance to drought and aerosol salt (wind-borne salt as found in coastal areas).

The evergreen leaves are alternately arranged and paripinnately compound. The leaflets are bright green, elliptic-ovular, pinnately veined, and less than in length. The branches droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures, and are often pruned in agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest. At night, the leaflets close up.

As a tropical species, it is frost-sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind. Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood.

The tamarind flowers bloom (although inconspicuously), with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) wide, five-petalled, borne in small racemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks. Buds are pink as the four sepals are pink and are lost when the flower blooms.

TamarindSeedling.jpg, Seedling
Tamarind flower vijayanrajapuram 02.jpg, Flower
Tamarindus indica-flowers.jpg, Flowers
Tamarindus indica, leaves, pod.jpg, Leaves and fruit pod
Tamarind clara.jpg, Tamarind tree on the site of the founding of Santa Clara, Cuba

Fruit

The fruit is an indehiscent legume, sometimes called a pod, in length, with a hard, brown shell.

The fruit has a fleshy, juicy, acidic pulp. It is mature when the flesh is coloured brown or reddish brown. The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods (containing six to 12 seeds), whereas African and West Indian varieties have shorter pods (containing one to six seeds). The seeds are somewhat flattened, and a glossy brown. The fruit is sweet and sour in taste.

History

Etymology

The name derives from , romanized ''tamr hindi'', "Indian date". Several early medieval herbalists and physicians wrote ''tamar indi'', medieval Latin use was ''tamarindus'', and Marco Polo wrote of ''tamarandi''.

In Colombia, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called ''tamarindo''. In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or ''agua de tamarindo''). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called ''tamón''.

Countries in Southeast Asia like Indonesia call it ''asam jawa'' ( Javanese sour fruit) or simply ''asam'', and ''sukaer'' in Timor. While in the Philippines, it is called ''sampalok'' or ''sampaloc'' in Filipino, and ''sambag'' in Cebuano. Tamarind (''Tamarindus indica'') is sometimes confused with "Manila tamarind" (''Pithecellobium dulce''). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as '' guamúchili''.

Taxonomy

''Tamarindus indica'' is probably indigenous to tropical Africa, but has been cultivated for so long on the Indian subcontinent that it is sometimes reported to be indigenous there. It grows wild in Africa. In Arabia, it is found growing wild in Oman, especially Dhofar, where it grows on the sea-facing slopes of mountains. It reached South Asia likely through human transportation and cultivation several thousand years ago. It is widely distributed throughout the tropics, from Africa to South Asia.

In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine.

India is the largest producer of tamarind. The consumption of tamarind is widespread due to its central role in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and the Americas, especially Mexico.

Uses

Most parts of the tamarind tree (including the wood, bark, flowers, leaves, pulp and seeds) are used for a variety of commercial, culinary and medicinal purposes. Tamarind trees are used as shade trees and ornamental trees (common along highways and in parks).

Nutrition

Raw tamarind is 63% carbohydrates, 31% water, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a reference amount of , raw tamarind supplies 240 calories of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of thiamine (36% DV) and dietary minerals, including magnesium and potassium at 22% and 21% DV, respectively (table).

Culinary

The fruit is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk. A mature tree can produce up to of fruit per year. Veneer grafting, shield (T or inverted T) budding, and air layering may be used to propagate desirable cultivars. Such trees will usually fruit within three to four years if provided optimum growing conditions.

The fruit pulp is edible. The hard green pulp of a young fruit is considered by many to be too sour, but is often used as a component of savory dishes, as a pickling agent or as a means of making certain poisonous yams in Ghana safe for human consumption. As the fruit matures it becomes sweeter and less sour (acidic) and the ripened fruit is considered more palatable. The sourness varies between cultivars and some sweet tamarind ones have almost no acidity when ripe. In Western cuisine, tamarind pulp is found in Worcestershire sauce, HP Sauce, and some brands of barbecue sauce (especially in Australia, with the tamarind derived from Worcestershire sauce).

Tamarind paste has many culinary uses including as a flavoring for chutneys, curries, and the traditional sharbat syrup drink. Tamarind sweet chutney is popular in India and Pakistan as a dressing for many snacks and often served with samosa. Tamarind pulp is a key ingredient in flavoring curries and rice in south Indian cuisine, in the Chigali lollipop, in rasam, Koddel and in certain varieties of masala chai.

Across the Middle East, from the Levant to Iran, tamarind is used in savory dishes, notably meat-based stews, and often combined with dried fruits to achieve a sweet-sour tang.

During Ramadan, tamarind is used to prepare a traditional beverage known as "tamr-hindi," which is particularly popular in the Levant region. The drink is made by boiling tamarind paste in water, sweetening it with sugar, and then straining the mixture. In some variations, rosewater and lemon juice are added to enhance its flavor. Street vendors play a significant role in distributing this beverage, carrying large copper pots filled with the juice on their backs. They typically arrange numerous cups around their waist to conveniently serve the drink to passersby in the streets.

In the Philippines, the whole fruit is used as one of the souring agents of the sour soup ''sinigang'' (which can also use other sour fruits), as well as another type of soup called '' sinampalukan'' (which also uses tamarind leaves). The fruit pulp are also cooked in sugar and/or salt to make ''champóy na sampalok'' (or simply "sampalok candy"), a traditional tamarind candy. Indonesia also has a similarly sour, tamarind-based soup dish called sayur asem. Tamarind pulp mixed with liquid is also used in beverage as tamarind juice. In Java, Indonesia, tamarind juice is known as ''es asem'' or ''gula asem'', tamarind juice served with palm sugar and ice as a fresh sour and sweet beverage.

In Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, the pulp is diluted with water and sugared to make an agua fresca drink. It is widely used throughout all of Mexico for candy making, including tamarind mixed with chilli powder candy.

In Sokoto, Nigeria, tamarind pulp is used to fix the color in dyed leather products by neutralizing the alkali substances used in tanning.

Tamarind pulp is the most common part of the tamarind plant utilised for culinary purposes, being used in a range of chutneys, curries, sauces (such as Worcestershire sauce and barbecue sauce) and beverages (such as tamarindo). In Sri Lanka tamarind pulp has been used as a lime alternative and in Senegal the pulp is mixed with sugar to produce sweet meats known as ‘bengal’. In India tamarind pulp is made into a juice used in the preservation of fish and in many countries of East Africa the pulp is used in the making of a dish called ‘ugali’ (a type of maize flour porridge). Tamarind fruits have been utilized in the production of tamarind syrup in Puerto Rico which is used by street vendors to flavor shaved ice.

The seeds of the tamarind plant are also used for culinary purposes but the whole seed cannot be directly consumed and need to be soaked and boiled in water before they are edible. The seeds are commonly used in jellies, marmalades and jams because they contain pectin which gives them ‘jelly forming properties’ and have also been used as a stabilizer in the production of cheese, ice cream and mayonnaise. In Indonesia, after the seeds have been roasted, they are consumed as a snack accompanied with salt and grated coconut and in Thailand tamarind seeds are used as a coffee alternative.

The leaves and bark are also edible, and the seeds can be cooked to make safe for consumption. Blanched, tender tamarind leaves are used in a Burmese salad called ''magyi ywet thoke'' (; ), a salad from Upper Myanmar that features tender blanched tamarind leaves, garlic, onions, roasted peanuts, and pounded dried shrimp. Tamarind seeds contain high levels of protein (26.9 grams per 100 grams) and oil (10.9 grams per 100 grams) and in some countries, tamarind seeds are used as an emergency food because of their high protein levels. The leaves of the tamarind plant are high in calcium and protein and have been consumed by domestic animals and wild animals, including elephants, as a fodder.

Seed oil and kernel powder

Tamarind seed oil is made from the kernel of tamarind seeds. The kernel is difficult to isolate from its thin but tough shell (or ''testa''). It has a similar consistency to linseed oil, and can be used to make paint or varnish.

Tamarind kernel powder is used as sizing material for textile and jute processing, and in the manufacture of industrial gums and adhesives. It is de-oiled to stabilize its colour and odor on storage.

Tamarind seeds are used in the production of tamarind kernel powder which is used as a sizing agent in the textile industry because of its ability to absorb water and swell up, in India, tamarind kernel powder has also been used as a sizing agent in the production of cotton. In Bengal, tamarind seeds are used in the production of an oil used in varnishes. leaves and flowers are used as a setting agent for dyes.

Folk medicine

In Southeast Asia, tamarind fruit is used as a poultice applied to the foreheads of people with fevers. The fruit exhibits laxative effects for relief of constipation. Extracts of steamed and sun-dried old tamarind pulp (''asem kawa'') in Java are used to treat skin problems, like rashes and irritation; one traditional practice indicated tamarind could be ingested after dilution for use as an abortifacient.

Different parts of the tamarind plant have been used globally for other purposes in folk medicine. In the northern parts of Nigeria, the roots of the tamarind plant are used to treat leprosy and in America tamarind pulp has been utilised as a laxative and to treat a range of ailments such as alleviating sunstroke and sore throats. In Thailand the pulp has been transformed into a tablet to reduce excess weight and in Brazil the pulp is used for its moisturising effects. The pulp has also been used in traditional medicine to treat colds, diarrhoea and to reduce inflammation. Tamarind seeds have been used in powdered form to aid dysentery in India and Cambodia and in Ethiopia softened tamarind seeds are used to rid parasitic worms. The bark of the tamarind tree is used to treat malaria in Uganda and has been made into lotions in the Philippines to treat ulcers and boils.

Woodworking

Tamarind wood is used to make furniture, boats (as per Rumphius) carvings, turned objects such as mortars and pestles, chopping blocks, and other small specialty wood items like krises. Tamarind heartwood is reddish brown, sometimes with a purplish hue. The heartwood in tamarind tends to be narrow and is usually only present in older and larger trees. The pale yellow sapwood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood. Heartwood is said to be durable to very durable in decay resistance, and is also resistant to insects. Its sapwood is not durable and is prone to attack by insects and fungi as well as spalting. Due to its density and interlocked grain, tamarind is considered difficult to work. Heartwood has a pronounced blunting effect on cutting edges. Tamarind turns, glues, and finishes well. The heartwood is able to take a high natural polish.

Metal polish

In homes and temples, especially in Buddhist Asian countries including Myanmar, the fruit pulp is used to polish brass shrine statues and lamps, and copper, brass, and bronze utensils. Tamarind contains tartaric acid, a weak acid that can remove tarnish. Lime, another acidic fruit, is used similarly.

Research

Lupeol, catechins, epicatechin, quercetin, and isorhamnetin are present in the leaf extract. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography analyses revealed that tamarind seeds contained catechin, procyanidin B2, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, chloramphenicol, myricetin, morin, quercetin, apigenin and kaempferol.

Cultivation

Seeds can be scarified or briefly boiled to enhance germination. They retain their germination capability for several months if kept dry.

The tamarind has long been naturalized in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and Pacific Islands. Thailand has the largest plantations of the ASEAN nations, followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In parts of Southeast Asia, tamarind is called ''asam''. It is cultivated all over India, especially in Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Extensive tamarind orchards in India produce annually.

In the United States, it is a large-scale crop introduced for commercial use (second in net production quantity only to India), mainly in southern states, notably south Florida, and as a shade tree, along roadsides, in dooryards and in parks.

A traditional food plant in Africa, tamarind has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare. In Madagascar, its fruit and leaves are a well-known favorite of the ring-tailed lemur, providing as much as 50 percent of their food resources during the year if available.

Horticulture

Throughout South Asia and the tropical world, tamarind trees are used as ornamental, garden, and cash crop plantings. Commonly used as a bonsai species in many Asian countries, it is also grown as an indoor bonsai in temperate parts of the world.

In dogs

Tamarind is toxic to dogs. The symptoms – which may include vomiting or diarrhea within 6–12 hours of ingestion, lethargy, dehydration or acute kidney injury – and proposed mechanism (via tartaric acid) are the same as in grape toxicity in dogs. Tamarind contains a few times more tartaric acid than grapes on a weight basis.

References

External links

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* SEA Hand Book-2009: Published by The Solvent Extractors' Association of India

''Tamarindus indica''
in Brunken, U., Schmidt, M., Dressler, S., Janssen, T., Thiombiano, A. & Zizka, G. 2008. West African plants – A Photo Guide.
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{{Taxonbar, from1=Q80235, from2=Q14566708

Detarioideae
Fruits originating in Africa
Edible legumes
Medicinal plants
Sour fruits
Tropical fruit
Spices
Indian spices
Trees of Africa
Non-timber forest products
Plants described in 1753