Saraswathi

Saraswati (, ), also spelled as Sarasvati, is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of knowledge, education, learning, arts, speech, poetry, music, purification, language and culture. Together with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati, she forms the trinity of chief goddesses, known as the Tridevi. Sarasvati is a pan-Indian deity, venerated not only in Hinduism but also in Jainism and Buddhism.Ludvik (2007), pp. 1, 11.

She is one of the prominent goddesses in the Vedic tradition (1500 to 500 BCE) who retains her significance in later Hinduism. In the Vedas, her characteristics and attributes are closely connected with the Sarasvati River, making her one of the earliest examples of a river goddess in Indian tradition. As a deity associated with a river, Sarasvati is revered for her dual abilities to purify and to nurture fertility. In later Vedic literature, particularly the Brahmanas, Sarasvati is increasingly identified with the Vedic goddess of speech, Vac, and eventually, the two merge into the singular goddess known in later tradition. Over time, her connection to the river diminishes, while her association with speech, poetry, music, and culture becomes more prominent. In classical and medieval Hinduism, Sarasvati is primarily recognized as the goddess of learning, arts and poetic inspiration, and as the inventor of the Sanskrit language. She is linked to the creator god Brahma, either as his consort or creation. In this role, she represents his creative power (''Shakti''), giving reality a unique and distinctly human quality. She becomes linked with the dimension of reality characterized by clarity and intellectual order. Within the goddess-oriented Shaktism tradition, Sarasvati is a key figure and venerated as the creative aspect of the Supreme Goddess. She is also significant in certain Vaishnava traditions, where she serves as one of Vishnu's consorts and assists him in his divine functions. Despite her associations with these male deities, Sarasvati also stands apart as an independent goddess in the pantheon, worshipped as a virgin goddess, without a consort.

She is portrayed as a serene woman with a radiant white complexion, dressed in white attire, representing the quality of ''sattva'' (goodness). She has four arms, each holding a symbolic object: a book, a rosary, a water pot, and a musical instrument known as the veena. Beside her is her mount, either a ''hamsa'' (white goose or swan) or a peacock. Hindu temples dedicated to Sarasvati can be found worldwide, with one of the earliest known shrines being Sharada Peeth (6th–12th centuries CE) in Kashmir. Sarasvati continues to be widely worshipped across India, particularly on her designated festival day, Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring, and also known as Sarasvati Puja and Sarasvati Jayanti in many regions of India), when students honor her as the patron goddess of knowledge and education. Traditionally, the day is marked by helping young children learn how to write the letters of the alphabet.

In Buddhism, she is venerated in many forms, including the East Asian Benzaiten (辯才天, "Eloquence Talent Deity"). In Jainism, Sarasvati is revered as the deity responsible for the dissemination of the Tirthankaras' teachings and sermons.

Etymology

Sarasvati is a Sanskrit fusion word of ''saras'' (सरस्) meaning "pooling water", but also sometimes translated as "speech"; and ''vati'' (वती), meaning "she who possesses". Originally associated with the river or rivers known as Sarasvati, this combination, therefore, means "she who has ponds, lakes, and pooling water" or occasionally "she who possesses speech". It is also a Sanskrit composite word of ''sarasu-ati'' (सरसु+अति) which means "one with plenty of water".

The word Sarasvati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the ''Rigveda.'' In initial passages, the word refers to the Sarasvati River and is mentioned as one among several northwestern Indian rivers such as the Drishadvati. Sarasvati, then, connotes a river deity. In Book 2, the Rigveda describes Sarasvati as the best of mothers, of rivers, of goddesses.

Her importance grows in the later Vedas composed after the ''Rigveda'' as well as in the later ''Brahmana'' texts, and the word evolves in its meaning from "waters that purify", to "that which purifies", to "''vach'' (speech) that purifies", to "knowledge that purifies", and ultimately into a spiritual concept of a goddess that embodies knowledge, arts, music, melody, muse, language, rhetoric, eloquence, creative work and anything whose flow purifies the essence and self of a person.

Names and epithets

Sarasvati (Sanskrit: ''Sarasvatī'') is known by many names. Some examples of synonyms for Sarasvati include Sharada (bestower of essence or knowledge), Brahmani (power of Brahma), Brahmi (goddess of sciences), Bharadi (goddess of history), Vani and Vachi (both referring to the flow of music/song, melodious speech, eloquent speaking respectively), Varnesvari (goddess of letters), Kavijihvagravasini (one who dwells on the tongue of poets).

Other names include: Ambika, Bharati, Chandrika, Devi, Gomati, Hamsasana, Saudamini, Shvetambara, Subhadra, Vaishnavi, Vasudha, Vidya, Vidyarupa, and Vindhyavasini.

In the Tiruvalluva Maalai, a collection of fifty-five Tamil verses praising the Kural literature and its author Valluvar, she is referred to as Nāmagal and is believed to have composed the second verse.

Outside Nepal and India, she is known in Burmese as ''Thurathadi'' (, or ) or ''Tipitaka Medaw'' (, ), in Chinese as (), in Japanese as ''Benzaiten'' () and in Thai as ''Suratsawadi'' () or ''Saratsawadi'' ().

Literature

In Hinduism, Sarasvati has retained her significance as an important goddess, from the Vedic age up to the present day. She is praised in the ''Vedas'' as a water goddess of purification, while in the '' Dharmashastras'', Sarasvati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, and on the meaning (artha) of one's actions (karma).

In Vedic literature

''Rigveda''

Sarasvati first appears in the ''Rigveda'' (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE), the most ancient source of the Vedic religion. Sarawsati holds significant religious and symbolic value in the Rigveda, as a deified entity embodying attributes of abundance and power. Primarily linked with the celestial domain of Waters (Apas) and the formidable Storm Gods (Maruts), this deity forms an integral triadic association alongside the sacrificial goddesses Ila and Bharati within the pantheon.Ludvik (2007), pp. 11, 26.

Sarasvati is described as a loud and powerful flood who roars like a bull and cannot be controlled. She was associated with the Milky Way, indicating that she was seen as descending from heaven to earth.

The goddess is mentioned in many Rigvedic hymns, and has three hymns dedicated to her (6:61 exclusively, and 7:95–96 which she shares with her male counterpart, Sarasvant). In ''Rigveda'' 2.41.16 she is called: "Best of mothers, the best of rivers, best of goddesses".

As part of the Apas (water deities), Sarasvati is associated with wealth, abundance, health, purity and healing. In Book 10 (10.17) of the ''Rigveda'', Sarasvati is celebrated as a deity of healing and purifying water. In the ''Atharva Veda'', her role as a healer and giver of life is also emphasized. In various sources, including the ''Yajur Veda'', she is described as having healed Indra after he drank too much Soma.

Sarasvati also governs '' dhī'' (Rigveda 1:3:12c.). ''Dhī'' is the inspired thought (especially that of the rishis), it is intuition or intelligence – especially that associated with poetry and religion. Sarasvati is seen as a deity that can grant ''dhī'' (''Rigveda'' 6:49:7c.) if prayed to. Since speech requires inspired thought, she is also inextricably linked with speech and with the goddess of speech, Vāc, as well as with cows and motherhood. Vedic seers compare her to a cow and a mother, and saw themselves as children sucking the milk of ''dhī'' from her. In Book 10 of the ''Rigveda'', she is declared to be the "possessor of knowledge". In later sources, like the ''Yajur Veda'', Sarasvati is directly identified with Vāc, becoming a deity called Sarasvatī-Vāc.

In the ''Brahmanas,'' Sarasvati-Vac's role expands, becoming clearly identified with knowledge (which is what is communicated through speech) and as such, she is "the mother of the Vedas" as well as the Vedas themselves. The ''Shatapatha Brahmana'' states that "as all waters meet in the ocean...so all sciences (vidya) unite (ekayanam) in Vāc" (14:5:4:11).Ludvik (2007), p. 60. The ''Shatapatha Brahmana'' also presents Vāc as a secondary creator deity, having been the first deity created by the creator god Prajapati. She is the very instrument by which he created the world, flowing forth from him "like a continuous stream of water" according to the scripture. This is the basis for the Puranic stories about the relationship between Brahma (identified with Prajapati) and Sarasvati (identified with Vāc).

In other ''Rigvedic'' passages, Sarasvati is praised as a mighty and unconquerable protector deity. She is offered praises and compared to a sheltering tree in ''Rigveda'' 7.95.5, while in 6:49:7 cd she is said to provide "protection which is difficult to assail." In some passages she even takes a fiercesome appearance and is called a "slayer of strangers" who is called on to "guard her devotees against slander". Her association with the combative storm gods called Maruts is related to her fierce fighting aspect and they are said to be her companions (at ''Rigveda'' 7:96:2c.).

Like Indra, Sarasvati is also called a slayer of Vritra, the snake like demon of drought who blocks rivers and as such is associated with destruction of enemies and removal of obstacles. The ''Yajur Veda'' sees her as being both the mother of Indra (having granted him rebirth through healing) and also as his consort.

In Book 2 of '' Taittiriya Brahmana'', Sarasvati is called "the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music".

Mahabharata

Sarasvati in the ''Mahabharata'', one of the two great epics of Hindu literature composed between 400 BCE and 400 CE, undergoes a transformation, marking her evolution from a river to a fully developed goddess of speech and knowledge.Ludvik (2007), p. 97

As a River

As a river, Sarasvati in the ''Mahabharata'' appears in a more subdued form compared to her powerful and overflowing depiction in the Vedic hymns. She emerges at Plaksha (Prasravana), disappears into the sands at Vinasana, and then reemerges in several places, ultimately reaching the ocean at Prabhasa. This representation reflects an attempt to reconcile the historical drying up of the river with its continued importance in religious thought. The ''Mahabharata'' preserves the grandeur of the Rig Vedic Sarasvati by presenting a mythologized geography that both recalls her past and reinterprets her course in accordance with Dharma. Her flow is depicted as being guided by divine will, avoiding the unrighteous and serving the pious. The epic also universalizes her identity by attributing her name to multiple rivers, reinforcing her Rig Vedic epithet ''saptasvasar'' and declaring, "all rivers are Sarasvati-s."

Religiously, Sarasvati's banks become lined with numerous tirthas, which are sites of pilgrimage and sacrifice. While the Panchavimsha Brahmana describes sacrificial rituals along her course, the ''Mahabharata'' expands upon this, transforming her river into a vast pilgrimage route filled with sacred sites. This shift marks a broader transition in religious practice—from complex Vedic sacrifices performed exclusively by Brahmins to more accessible devotional practices open to a wider public, including women. The act of visiting Sarasvati's ''tirthas'' is often equated with the merit of Vedic sacrifices, thus preserving Vedic authority while adapting to new religious contexts.

As a Goddess

As a goddess, Sarasvati takes on a more humanized form in the ''Mahabharata'' for the first time. While the Rigveda and Brahmanas occasionally depicted Vac in human-like terms, Sarasvati in the epics appears as a woman of great celestial beauty and merit. The first verse of each book of the ''Mahabharata'' invokes the divine, including the goddess Sarasvati, as part of its traditional opening salutation:

Her role also changes in the ''Mahabharata'', as she fully merges with Vac, becoming the embodiment of speech itself. While still occasionally called Vac (12.306.6) and Vani (3.132.2), Vac as a distinct entity fades, with Sarasvati taking its place. Sarasvati is called the mother of the Vedas in the ''Shanti Parva'' Book of the epic. Narayana tells Narada (12.326.5), "Behold goddess Sarasvati, the mother of the Vedas, established in me," affirming her as the source of divine knowledge. She is said to enter the body (12.306.6), dwell on the tongue (12.231.8), and is even called Vishnu's tongue (6.61.56). Sarasvati is deeply revered by sages. When appearing to Yajnavalkya, she is adorned with vowels and consonants, resonating with the sacred Om (12.306.14). She also manifests before sage Tarkshya, who praises her celestial form and seeks her guidance. Sarasvati explains that she has risen from the Agnihotra to resolve priests' doubts, asserting that only a learned ''shrotriya'' may perform the ritual. She describes the rewards of offerings, purity through Vedic knowledge, and the origins of beauty. When Tarkshya asks about Moksha, she speaks of study, gifts, vows, and yoga but shifts focus to celestial realms and the cosmic tree of paradise.

Sarasvati also gains divine relationships that further integrate her into the Hindu pantheon. In the ''Mahabharata'', her familial roles and origin vary across different chapters. She is described as the daughter of Brahma, (''ṛtā brahmasutā sā me satyā devī sarasvatī'', 12.330.10) a connection echoing Vac's relationship with Prajapati in the Brahmanas. Another account states that she originated from the Grandfather's (Pitamaha's) Lake, (''pitāmahasya sarasaḥ pravṛttāsi sarasvatī'', 9.41.29) reinforcing her link to Brahma, who is referred to as the Grandfather. In another passage, she is described as the celestial creative symphony who appeared when Brahma created the universe. Her husband varies in different chapters—she is said to be the wife of Manu (5.115.14) and also of the sage Matinara, whom she chooses after his twelve-year sacrifice on her banks (1.90.25–26), bearing him a son, Tamsu (1.90.26, 28). Additionally, she acts as a surrogate mother to Sarasvata, a son of sage Dadhichi (9.50.9-11).

The ''Mahabharata'' also contains several stories featuring Sarasvati. In the ''Sthanu Tirtha'' myth (9.42), Sarasvati, caught between two rival sages—Vishvamitra and Vasishtha—favours Vasishtha and is ultimately cursed by Vishvamitra to flow with blood. This myth aims to glorify her tirthas, as later, sages purify her waters, depriving demons who had drunk from them. In compassion, Sarasvati transforms into Aruna ("reddish"), allowing the demons to bathe in her and attain heaven. In the ''Sarasvata Tirtha'' myth (9.50.9-11), Sarasvati plays a maternal role, raising Sarasvata. During a twelve-year drought, when sages had forgotten the Vedas, Sarasvati sustained her son by feeding him fish. After the famine, Sarasvata restored the lost scriptures by teaching them anew, reaffirming Sarasvati's role as a nurturer of wisdom.

Ramayana

In the epic ''Ramayana'', when the rakshasa brothers Ravana, Vibhishana and Kumbhakarna, performed a penance to propitiate Brahma, the creator deity offered each a boon. The devas pleaded with Brahma to not grant Kumbhakarna his boon. Brahma called upon his consort Sarasvati, and instructed her to utter that which the devas desired. She acquiesced, and when the rakshasa spoke to invoke his boon, she entered his mouth, causing him to say, "To sleep for innumerable years, O Lord of Lords, this is my desire!". She then left his form, causing him to reflect upon his misfortune.

Puranic literature

Sarasvati remains an important figure in the later medieval Puranic literature, where she appears in various myths and stories. Many Puranas relate the myth of her creation by the creator god Brahma and then describe how she became his consort. Sources which describe this myth include ''Markandeya Purana'', ''Matsya Purana'' (which contains the most extensive account), ''Vayu Purana'' and ''Brahmanda Purana''. Other Puranas give her slightly different roles and see her as the consort of other gods, such as Vishnu. In various Puranas, rites for her worship are given, and she is mainly worshiped for her command over speech, knowledge, and music.

Puranas like the ''Matsya'' also contain iconographic descriptions of Sarasvati, which provide the basis for her classic four armed form holding a book (representing the Vedas), mala, veena, and a water pot while being mounted on a swan (hamsa).

Origin myths

Sarasvati is described as ''ayonija'', meaning that she was not born from any womb and was divinely manifested. The Puranas present various accounts of the origin (samudbhava) of Sarasvati.

According to the ''Brahma Vaivarta Purana'' and ''Devi Bhagavata Purana'', Sarasvati is one of five primary manifestations of Mula Prakrti (Primordial Nature) or the Shakti of Brahman, each serving a distinct role in creation. At the onset of creation, the Atman divided into two—its right half became the Male principle, and the left half became Prakrti. Through the divine will of Sri Krishna (Para-Brahman in this context, not an avatara of Vishnu), Prakrti assumed five forms: Durga, Radha, Lakshmi, Sarasvati, and Savitri. Sarasvati, associated with the sacred Sarasvati River, became the goddess of speech (Vach) and knowledge. Another version within the same Puranas describes Sarasvati emerging from the tip of Sri Krishna's Shakti during creation. She appeared as a luminous maiden (Kanya), adorned in yellow garments, bearing a veena and a sacred scripture. She is thus revered as Vani, the presiding deity of all shastras. This account also depicts Shakti manifesting as Lakshmi and Radha.

The ''Vayu Purana'' offers a different perspective, stating that from Brahma's concentrated anger, a being (Purusha) was born with a half-male, half-female body. This being, Samkara, was commanded to divide itself. The Male aspect further divided into eleven Rudras, while the Female aspect split into a white and black form. Sarasvati is identified as a manifestation of the white half, also known as Gauri. Another account in the Vayu Purana describes Sarasvati's emergence during the Visvarupa Kalpa, when Brahma meditated and Sarasvati, encompassing all forms, appeared as a divine gau (cow) with four mouths, four horns, four eyes, four hands, and four teeth—symbolizing Prakrti, the primordial source of the universe (jagadyonih).

The ''Brahmanda Purana'', in its ''Lalitopakhyana'' section, narrates that Goddess Tripura Sundari created three cosmic eggs. From one egg emerged Sarasvati (Gira) along with Shiva, while the others birthed two divine pairs: Ambika and Vishnu from one, and Sri (Lakshmi) and Brahma from the other. Tripura Sundari then paired Sarasvati with Brahma, Ambika with Shiva, and Sri with Vishnu, forming divine consorts. A similar account appears in the ''Pradhanika Rahasya'' of the ''Devi Mahatmya'' (part of the ''Markandeya Purana''). Here, Mahalaksmi embodies the three gunas (cosmic qualities), manifesting as Mahakali (tamasika), Mahasarasvati (sattvika), and herself (rajasika). Each created a divine pair: Mahalaksmi created Brahma and Sri (Lakshmi), Mahakali created Rudra and Trayi (Sarasvati), and Mahasarasvati created Vishnu and Uma (Parvatirasvati was then given to Brahma, Gauri to Rudra, and Sri to Vishnu.

The ''Matsya Purana'' (Adhyaya 3) describes Sarasvati as the manasa putri (mind-born daughter) of Brahma. When Brahma sought to create the universe, he meditated, causing his body to split into a male and female half. The female half materialized as Sarasvati, whom Brahma regarded as his ''svatmaja'' (daughter born from his own self). Other Puranas, including the ''Bhagavata Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Purana, Padma Purana,'' and ''Skanda Purana'', also mention Sarasvati in this capacity.

Association with Brahma

Sarasvati and Brahma share a complex and multifaceted relationship in the Puranic tradition, with different texts presenting varying perspectives. The Puranas describe three primary associations between them:
* Sarasvati solely as the mind-born daughter of Brahma, attested in the '' Brahma Purana'', ''Padma Purana'', ''Brahmanda Purana'' and few chapters of ''Skanda Purana''
* Sarasvati as solely the consort of Brahma, attested in the ''Brahma Vaivarta Purana'', ''Devi Bhagavata Purana'', ''Lalitopakhyana'', ''Pradhana Rahasya'' and few chapters of ''Skanda Purana''
* Sarasvati as both the daughter and spouse of Brahma, only found in two text—the ''Matsya Purana'' and ''Bhagavata Purana''

As the mind-born daughter of Brahma, Sarasvati, in the ''Brahma Purana'', ''Padma Purana'', and ''Skanda Purana'', is regarded as a virgin goddess, without any spouse. The birth of Sarasvati from the mind of Brahma is also described in the ''Brahmanda Purana'' (chapter 43), in which after her creation Sarasvati is tasked to reside on tip of the tongue of all beings, a river on the earth and as a part of Brahma. The ''Brahmanda Purana'' acknowledges her solely as Brahma's daughter but, in the ''Lalitopakhyana'' section of the text, a different origin is given to Sarasvati in which Goddess Tripurasundari created and gave Sarasvati to Brahma as his consort.

The accounts where Sarasvati is solely considered Brahma's consort, found in the ''Brahma Vaivarta Purana'', states that Sarasvati was originally created from the tip of the tongue of the ''Shakti'' (''Yosit'') of Sri Krishna (Supreme God in this context, not an avatara of Vishnu). Krishna gave her to Vishnu as his wife, but after a quarrel with her co-wife Ganga, Vishnu transferred Sarasvati to Brahma and Ganga to Shiva. The ''Devi Bhagavata Purana'' contains similar story. The ''Lalitopakhyana'' and ''Pradhana Rahasya'' mention that Sarasvati was created by Tripura Sundari and given to Brahma as his wife.

In narratives where Sarasvati is depicted as both the daughter and spouse, the portrayal varies. The ''Matsya Purana'' narrates that Sarasvati emerged from the left side of his body for the purpose of creation. Brahma, upon seeing Sarasvati, was captivated by her beauty and developed multiple heads to gaze her. Despite her initial reluctance, she consented and he made her his spouse, and they remained together in the lotus temple for a hundred divine years. From their union, Svayambhuva Manu