linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...

, romanization is the conversion of text from a different

writing system A writing system comprises a set of symbols, called a ''script'', as well as the rules by which the script represents a particular language. The earliest writing appeared during the late 4th millennium BC. Throughout history, each independen ...

to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, and combinations of both. Transcription methods can be subdivided into '' phonemic transcription'', which records the phonemes or units of

semantic Semantics is the study of linguistic Meaning (philosophy), meaning. It examines what meaning is, how words get their meaning, and how the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts. Part of this process involves the distinction betwee ...

meaning in speech, and more strict '' phonetic transcription'', which records speech sounds with precision.

Methods

There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics. A particular system's characteristics may make it better-suited for various, sometimes contradictory applications, including document retrieval, linguistic analysis, easy readability, faithful representation of pronunciation. * Source, or donor language – A system may be tailored to romanize text from a particular language, or a series of languages, or for any language in a particular writing system. A language-specific system typically preserves language features like pronunciation, while the general one may be better for cataloguing international texts. * Target, or receiver language – Most systems are intended for an audience that speaks or reads a particular language. (So-called ''international'' romanization systems for Cyrillic text are based on central-European alphabets like the Czech and Croatian alphabet.) * Simplicity – Since the basic

Latin alphabet The Latin alphabet, also known as the Roman alphabet, is the collection of letters originally used by the Ancient Rome, ancient Romans to write the Latin language. Largely unaltered except several letters splitting—i.e. from , and from � ...

has a smaller number of letters than many other writing systems, digraphs, diacritics, or special characters must be used to represent them all in Latin script. This affects the ease of creation, digital storage and transmission, reproduction, and reading of the romanized text. * Reversibility – Whether or not the original can be restored from the converted text. Some reversible systems allow for an irreversible simplified version.

Transliteration

If the romanization attempts to transliterate the original script, the guiding principle is a one-to-one mapping of characters in the source language into the target script, with less emphasis on how the result sounds when pronounced according to the reader's language. For example, the Nihon-shiki romanization of Japanese allows the informed reader to reconstruct the original Japanese kana syllables with 100% accuracy, but requires additional knowledge for correct pronunciation.

Transcription

Phonemic

Most romanizations are intended to enable the casual reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds ( phonemes) of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language. The popular

Hepburn Romanization is the main system of Romanization of Japanese, romanization for the Japanese language. The system was originally published in 1867 by American Christian missionary and physician James Curtis Hepburn as the standard in the first edition of h ...

of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers.

Phonetic

phonetic Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds or, in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians ...

conversion goes one step further and attempts to depict all phones in the source language, sacrificing legibility if necessary by using characters or conventions not found in the target script. In practice such a representation almost never tries to represent ''every'' possible allophone—especially those that occur naturally due to coarticulation effects—and instead limits itself to the most significant allophonic distinctions. The

International Phonetic Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standard written representation ...

is the most common system of phonetic transcription.

Compromise

For most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves a trade-off between the two extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due to diachronic and synchronic variance no written language represents any spoken language with perfect accuracy and the vocal interpretation of a script may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language. Reducing the number of those processes, i.e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars, romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription. As an example, consider the Japanese martial art 柔術: the Nihon-shiki romanization ''zyûzyutu'' may allow someone who knows Japanese to reconstruct the kana syllables , but most native English speakers, or rather readers, would find it easier to guess the pronunciation from the Hepburn version, '' jūjutsu''.

Romanization of specific writing systems

Arabic

The

Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic (Arabic alphabet) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world (after the Latin script), the second-most widel ...

is used to write

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

, Persian,

Urdu Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...

, Pashto and Sindhi as well as numerous other languages in the Muslim world, particularly African and Asian languages without alphabets of their own. Romanization standards include the following:

Arabic

* (1936): Adopted by the International Convention of Orientalist Scholars in Rome. It is the basis for the very influential Hans Wehr dictionary (). * BS 4280 (1968): Developed by the British Standards Institution * SATTS (1970s): A one-for-one substitution system, a legacy from the

Morse code Morse code is a telecommunications method which Character encoding, encodes Written language, text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations, called ''dots'' and ''dashes'', or ''dits'' and ''dahs''. Morse code i ...

era * UNGEGN (1972) * DIN 31635 (1982): Developed by the (German Institute for Standardization) * ISO 233 (1984). Transliteration. * Qalam (1985): A system that focuses upon preserving the spelling, rather than the pronunciation, and uses mixed case * ISO 233-2 (1993): Simplified transliteration. * Buckwalter transliteration (1990s): Developed at

Xerox Xerox Holdings Corporation (, ) is an American corporation that sells print and electronic document, digital document products and services in more than 160 countries. Xerox was the pioneer of the photocopier market, beginning with the introduc ...

by Tim Buckwalter; does not require unusual diacritics * ALA-LC (1997) * Arabic chat alphabet

Persian

Notes:

Armenian

Georgian

Notes:

Greek

There are romanization systems for both Modern and

Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...

. * ALA-LC * Beta Code * Greeklish * ISO 843 (1997)

Hebrew

The

Hebrew alphabet The Hebrew alphabet (, ), known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is a unicase, unicameral abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably ...

is romanized using several standards: *

ANSI The American National Standards Institute (ANSI ) is a private nonprofit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organiz ...

Z39.25 (1975) * UNGEGN (1977) *

ISO 259 ISO 259 is a series of international standards for the romanization of Hebrew characters into Latin characters, dating to 1984, with updated ISO 259-2 (a simplification, disregarding several vowel signs, 1994) and ISO 259-3 ( Phonemic Conversion, ...

(1984): Transliteration. * ISO 259-2 (1994): Simplified transliteration. * ISO/DIS 259-3: Phonemic transcription. * ALA-LC

Indic (Brahmic) scripts

The Brahmic family of

abugida An abugida (; from Geʽez: , )sometimes also called alphasyllabary, neosyllabary, or pseudo-alphabetis a segmental Writing systems#Segmental writing system, writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written as units; each unit ...

s is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a long tradition in the west to study

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

and other Indic texts in Latin transliteration. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones. * ISO 15919 (2001): A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic

consonant In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract, except for the h sound, which is pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Examples are and pronou ...

s and

vowel A vowel is a speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract, forming the nucleus of a syllable. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness a ...

s to the Latin script. The Devanagari-specific portion is very similar to the academic standard, IAST: "International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration", and to the United States Library of Congress standard, ALA-LC, although there are a few differences * The National Library at Kolkata romanization, intended for the romanization of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST * Harvard-Kyoto: Uses upper and lower case and doubling of letters, to avoid the use of diacritics, and to restrict the range to 7-bit ASCII. * ITRANS: a transliteration scheme into 7-bit ASCII created by Avinash Chopde that used to be prevalent on

Usenet Usenet (), a portmanteau of User's Network, is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP, Unix-to-Unix Copy (UUCP) dial-up network architecture. Tom Truscott and Jim Elli ...

. *

ISCII Indian Standard Code for Information Interchange (ISCII) is a coding scheme for representing various writing systems of India. It encodes the main Indic scripts and a Roman transliteration. The supported scripts are: Eastern Nagari, Bengali–Ass ...

(1988)

Devanagari–nastaʿlīq (Hindustani)

Hindustani is an Indo-Aryan language with extreme digraphia and diglossia resulting from the Hindi–Urdu controversy starting in the 1800s. Technically, Hindustani itself is recognized by neither the language community nor any governments. Two standardized registers, Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu, are recognized as

official language An official language is defined by the Cambridge English Dictionary as, "the language or one of the languages that is accepted by a country's government, is taught in schools, used in the courts of law, etc." Depending on the decree, establishmen ...

s in India and Pakistan. However, in practice the situation is, * In Pakistan: Standard (Saaf or Khaalis) Urdu is the "high" variety, whereas Hindustani is the "low" variety used by the masses (called Urdu, written in nastaʿlīq script). * In India, both Standard (Shuddh) Hindi and Standard (Saaf or Khaalis) Urdu are the "H" varieties (written in

devanagari Devanagari ( ; in script: , , ) is an Indic script used in the Indian subcontinent. It is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental systems: alphabets, writing system), based on the ancient ''Brāhmī script, Brā ...

and nastaʿlīq respectively), whereas Hindustani is the "L" variety used by the masses and written in either devanagari or nastaʿlīq (and called 'Hindi' or 'Urdu' respectively). The digraphia renders any work in either script largely inaccessible to users of the other script, though otherwise Hindustani is a perfectly mutually intelligible language, essentially meaning that any kind of text-based open source collaboration is impossible among devanagari and nastaʿlīq readers. Initiated in 2011, the Hamari Boli Initiative is a full-scale open-source language planning initiative aimed at Hindustani script, style, status & lexical reform and modernization. One of primary stated objectives of Hamari Boli is to relieve Hindustani of the crippling devanagari–nastaʿlīq digraphia by way of romanization.

Chinese

Romanization of the

Sinitic languages The Sinitic languages (), often synonymous with the Chinese languages, are a language group, group of East Asian analytic languages that constitute a major branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. It is frequently proposed that there is a p ...

, particularly Mandarin, has proved a very difficult problem, although the issue is further complicated by political considerations. Because of this, many romanization tables contain Chinese characters plus one or more romanizations or Zhuyin.

Mandarin

* ALA-LC: Used to be similar to Wade–Giles, but converted to Hanyu Pinyin in 2000 * EFEO. Developed by École française d'Extrême-Orient in the 19th century, used mainly in France. * Latinxua Sin Wenz (1926): Omitted tone sounds. Used mainly in the

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

and Xinjiang in the 1930s. Predecessor of Hanyu Pinyin. * Lessing-Othmer: Used mainly in Germany. * Postal romanization (1906): Early standard for international addresses * Wade–Giles (1892): Transliteration. Very popular from the 19th century until recently and continues to be used by some Western academics. * Yale (1942): Created by the U.S. for battlefield communication and used in the influential Yale textbooks. * Legge romanization: Created by James Legge, a Scottish missionary.

=Mainland China

= * Hanyu Pinyin (1958): In

mainland China "Mainland China", also referred to as "the Chinese mainland", is a Geopolitics, geopolitical term defined as the territory under direct administration of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. In addit ...

, Hanyu Pinyin has been used officially to romanize Mandarin for decades, primarily as a linguistic tool for teaching the standardized language. The system is also used in other Chinese-speaking areas such as

Singapore Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree ...

and parts of

Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...

, and has been adopted by much of the international community as a standard for writing Chinese words and names in the Latin script. The value of Hanyu Pinyin in education in China lies in the fact that China, like any other populated area with comparable area and population, has numerous distinct dialects, though there is just one common written language and one common standardized spoken form. (These comments apply to romanization in general) * ISO 7098 (1991): Based on Hanyu Pinyin.

=Taiwan

= # Gwoyeu Romatzyh (GR, 1928–1986, in Taiwan 1945–1986; Taiwan used Japanese Romaji before 1945), # Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (MPS II, 1986–2002), # Tongyong Pinyin (2002–2008), and # Hanyu Pinyin (since January 1, 2009).

=Singapore

Cantonese

* Barnett–Chao *

Guangdong ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...

(1960) * Hong Kong Government * Jyutping * Macau Government * Meyer–Wempe * Sidney Lau * Yale (1942) * ILE romanization of Cantonese

Wu

Min Nan or Hokkien

* Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ), once the ''de facto'' official script of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan (since the late 19th century). Technically this represented a largely phonemic transcription system, as Min Nan was not commonly written in Chinese. * Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn

=Teochew

= *

(1960), for the distinct Teochew variety.

Min Dong

* Foochow Romanized

Min Bei

* Kienning Colloquial Romanized

Japanese

Romanization (or, more generally, Roman letters) is called " rōmaji" in Japanese. The most common systems are: * Hepburn (1867): phonetic transcription to Anglo-American practices, used in geographical names * Nihon-shiki (1885): transliteration. Also adopted as ( ISO 3602 Strict) in 1989. * Kunrei-shiki (1937): phonemic transcription. Also adopted as ( ISO 3602). * JSL (1987): phonemic transcription. Named after the book ''Japanese: The Spoken Language'' by Eleanor Jorden. * ALA-LC: Similar to Modified Hepburn * Wāpuro: ("word processor romanization") transliteration. Not strictly a system, but a collection of common practices that enables input of Japanese text.

Korean

The following systems are currently the most widely used: * McCune–Reischauer ("MR"; 1939): Basis for various romanization systems. Almost universally used by international academic journals on Korean studies. ** Romanization of Korean (1992): The official romanization in North Korea, with some differences from the original MR. ** The ALA-LC system is based on but deviates from MR. ** South Korea formerly used yet another modified version of MR as its official system from 1984 to 2000. * Revised Romanization of Korean (2000): South Korea's official romanization system. * Yale romanization of Korean (1942): Standard for almost exclusively international linguists.

Thai

Thai, spoken in

Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...

and some areas of Laos, Burma and China, is written with its own script, probably descended from mixture of Tai–Laotian and Old Khmer, in the Brahmic family. * Royal Thai General System of Transcription * ISO 11940 1998 Transliteration * ISO 11940-2 2007 Transcription * ALA-LC

Nuosu

The Nuosu language, spoken in southern China, is written with its own script, the Yi script. The only existing romanisation system is YYPY (Yi Yu Pin Yin), which represents tone with letters attached to the end of syllables, as Nuosu forbids codas. It does not use diacritics, and as such due to the large phonemic inventory of Nuosu, it requires frequent use of digraphs, including for monophthong vowels.

Tibetan

The Tibetan script has two official romanization systems: Tibetan Pinyin (for Lhasa Tibetan) and Roman Dzongkha (for Dzongkha).

Cyrillic

In English language library catalogues, bibliographies, and most academic publications, the Library of Congress transliteration method is used worldwide. In linguistics, scientific transliteration is used for both

Cyrillic The Cyrillic script ( ) is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Ea ...

and

Glagolitic alphabet The Glagolitic script ( , , ''glagolitsa'') is the oldest known Slavic alphabet. It is generally agreed that it was created in the 9th century for the purpose of translating liturgical texts into Old Church Slavonic by Saints Cyril and Methodi ...

s. This applies to

Old Church Slavonic Old Church Slavonic or Old Slavonic ( ) is the first Slavic languages, Slavic literary language and the oldest extant written Slavonic language attested in literary sources. It belongs to the South Slavic languages, South Slavic subgroup of the ...

, as well as modern

Slavic languages The Slavic languages, also known as the Slavonic languages, are Indo-European languages spoken primarily by the Slavs, Slavic peoples and their descendants. They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic language, Proto- ...

that use these alphabets.

Belarusian

* BGN/PCGN romanization of Belarusian, 1979 ( United States Board on Geographic Names and Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use) * Scientific transliteration, or the ''International Scholarly System'' for

* ALA-LC romanization, 1997 (American Library Association and Library of Congress): * ISO 9:1995 * '' Instruction on transliteration of Belarusian geographical names with letters of Latin script'', 2000

Bulgarian

A system based on scientific transliteration and ISO/R 9:1968 was considered official in Bulgaria since the 1970s. Since the late 1990s, Bulgarian authorities have switched to the so-called Streamlined System avoiding the use of diacritics and optimized for compatibility with English. This system became mandatory for public use with a law passed in 2009. Where the old system uses <č,š,ž,št,c,j,ă>, the new system uses . The new Bulgarian system was endorsed for official use also by UN in 2012, and by BGN and PCGN in 2013.

Kyrgyz

Macedonian

Russian

There is no single universally accepted system of writing Russian using the Latin script—in fact there are a huge number of such systems: some are adjusted for a particular target language (e.g. German or French), some are designed as a librarian's transliteration, some are prescribed for Russian travellers' passports; the transcription of some names is purely traditional. All this has resulted in great reduplication of names. E.g. the name of the Russian composer Tchaikovsky may also be written as ''Tchaykovsky'', ''Tchajkovskij'', ''Tchaikowski'', ''Tschaikowski'', ''Czajkowski'', ''Čajkovskij'', ''Čajkovski'', ''Chajkovskij'', ''Çaykovski'', ''Chaykovsky'', ''Chaykovskiy'', ''Chaikovski'', ''Tshaikovski'', ''Tšaikovski'', ''Tsjajkovskij'' etc. Systems include: * BGN/PCGN (1947): Transliteration system (United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use). * GOST 16876-71 (1971): A now defunct Soviet transliteration standard. Replaced by GOST 7.79, which is an ISO 9 equivalent. *

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...

romanization system for geographical names (1987): Based on GOST 16876-71. * ISO 9 (1995): Transliteration. From the

International Organization for Standardization The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ; ; ) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. M ...

. * ALA-LC (1997) * "Volapuk" encoding (1990s): Slang term (it is not really Volapük) for a writing method that is not truly a transliteration, but used for similar goals (see article). * Conventional English transliteration is based to BGN/PCGN, but does not follow a particular standard. Described in detail at Romanization of Russian. * Streamlined System for the romanization of Russian. * Comparative transliteration of Russian in different languages (Western European, Arabic, Georgian, Braille, Morse)

Syriac

The Latin script for Syriac was developed in the 1930s, following the state policy for minority languages of the

, with some material published.

Ukrainian

The 2010 Ukrainian National system has been adopted by the UNGEGN in 2012 and by the BGN/PCGN in 2020. It is also very close to the modified (simplified) ALA-LC system, which has remained unchanged since 1941. * ALA-LC * ISO 9 * Ukrainian National transliteration * Ukrainian National and BGN/PCGN systems, at the UN Working Group on Romanization Systems * Thomas T. Pedersen's comparison of five systems

Overview and summary

The chart below shows the most common phonemic transcription romanization used for several different alphabets. While it is sufficient for many casual users, there are multiple alternatives used for each alphabet, and many exceptions. For details, consult each of the language sections above. (Hangul characters are broken down into jamo components.)

References

External links

; About romanization
IPA for Urdu and Roman Urdu for Mobile and Internet Users (Download)

Microsoft Transliteration Utility
nbsp;– A tool for creating, debugging and using transliteration modules from any script to any other script. * Randall Barry (ed.) ''ALA-LC Romanization Tables'' U.S. Library of Congress, 1997, . (One of the few printed books with lists of romanizations)

in PDF format
UNGEGN Working Group on Romanization Systems

; Romanization online
Chinese Phonetic Conversion Tool
nbsp;– Converts between Pinyin and other formats
Cyrillic Transliteration and Transcription ONLINE (Cyrillic -> Latin)

eiktub
– An Arabic Transliteration Pad
Lingua::Translit
nbsp;– Perl module covering a variety of writing systems e.g. Cyrillic or Greek. Provides a lot of standards as well as common transliteration schemes.
Arabeasy
nbsp;– Arabic Transliteration (free chrome extension exists, also works for Persian, Urdu)

– Russian Transliteration (free chrome extension exists) For Persian Romanization
Cantonese" target="_blank" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization * [https://hongkongvision.com/tool/cc_py_conv_en
{{Latin script Romanization, ">Romanization
script Romanization,
Latin script
Multilingual orthographies Orthography

Methods

Transliteration

Transcription

Phonemic

Phonetic

Compromise

Romanization of specific writing systems

Arabic

Arabic

Persian

Armenian

Georgian

Greek

Hebrew

Indic (Brahmic) scripts

Devanagari–nastaʿlīq (Hindustani)

Chinese

Mandarin

=Mainland China

=Taiwan

=Singapore

Cantonese

Wu

Min Nan or Hokkien

=Teochew

Min Dong

Min Bei

Japanese

Korean

Thai

Nuosu

Tibetan

Cyrillic

Belarusian

Bulgarian

Kyrgyz

Macedonian

Russian

Syriac

Ukrainian

Overview and summary

See also

References

External links