Middle Persian Literature
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Middle Persian literature is the corpus of written works composed in
Middle Persian Middle Persian, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg ( Inscriptional Pahlavi script: , Manichaean script: , Avestan script: ) in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasania ...
, that is, the Middle Iranian dialect of Persia proper, the region in the south-western corner of the
Iranian plateau The Iranian plateau or Persian plateau is a geological feature spanning parts of the Caucasus, Central Asia, South Asia, and West Asia. It makes up part of the Eurasian plate, and is wedged between the Arabian plate and the Indian plate. ...
. Middle Persian was the prestige dialect during the era of Sasanian dynasty. It is the largest source of Zoroastrian literature. The rulers of the
Sasanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
(224–654 CE) were natives of that south-western region, and through their political and cultural influence, Middle Persian became a
prestige dialect Prestige in sociolinguistics is the level of regard normally accorded a specific language or dialect within a speech community, relative to other languages or dialects. Prestige varieties are language or dialect families which are generally c ...
and thus also came to be used by non-Persian Iranians. Following the Arab conquest of the Sassanian Empire in the 7th century, shortly after which Middle Persian began to evolve into New Persian, Middle Persian continued to be used by the
Zoroastrian Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, Zoroaster ( ). Among the wo ...
priesthood for religious and secular compositions. These compositions, in the
Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...
-derived
Book Pahlavi Book Pahlavi is the cursive variant of the Pahlavi scripts, Pahlavi script, which was derived from the Aramaic alphabet, Aramaic script during the Sasanian Empire, Sassanid period to write the Middle Persian, Middle Persian language. Book Pahlav ...
script, are traditionally known as "Pahlavi literature". The earliest texts in Zoroastrian Middle Persian were probably written down in late Sassanid times (6th–7th centuries), although they represent the codification of earlier oral tradition. However, most texts, including the ''
Zend Zend or Zand () is a Zoroastrian term for Middle Persian or Pahlavi versions and commentaries of Avestan texts. These translations were produced in the late Sasanian period. ''Zand'' glosses and commentaries exist in several languages, including ...
'' commentaries and translations of the Zoroastrian canon, date from the 9th to the 11th century, when Middle Persian had long ceased to be a spoken language, so they reflect the state of affairs in living Middle Persian only indirectly. The surviving manuscripts are usually 14th-century copies. Other, less abundantly attested varieties of Middle Persian literature include the 'Manichaean Middle Persian' corpus, used for a sizable amount of
Manichaean Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...
religious writings, including many theological texts, homilies and hymns (3rd–9th, possibly 13th century). Even less-well attested are the Middle Persian compositions of Nestorian Christians like Mar Mana, evidenced in the Pahlavi Psalter (7th century); these were used until the beginning of the second millennium in many places in Central Asia, including
Turfan Turpan () or Turfan ( zh, s=吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the prefectural area has shifted ...
(in present-day China) and even localities in Southern India.


Subgroups


"Pahlavi" literature

"Pahlavi literature traditionally defines the writings of the Zoroastrians in the Middle Persian language and Book Pahlavi script which were compiled in the 9th and the 10th centuries CE.", accessed August 2010 The literary corpus in Middle Persian in
Book Pahlavi Book Pahlavi is the cursive variant of the Pahlavi scripts, Pahlavi script, which was derived from the Aramaic alphabet, Aramaic script during the Sasanian Empire, Sassanid period to write the Middle Persian, Middle Persian language. Book Pahlav ...
consists of: * translations and commentaries ('' zand'') of the
Avesta The Avesta (, Book Pahlavi: (), Persian language, Persian: ()) is the text corpus of Zoroastrian literature, religious literature of Zoroastrianism. All its texts are composed in the Avestan language and written in the Avestan alphabet. Mod ...
. * other exegetical compositions on religious subjects. * compositions on non-religious subjects. These divisions are not mutually exclusive. Several different literary genres are represented in Pahlavi literature. ;''Zand'' texts The '' zand'' corpus include exegetical glosses, paraphrases, commentaries and translations of the
Avesta The Avesta (, Book Pahlavi: (), Persian language, Persian: ()) is the text corpus of Zoroastrian literature, religious literature of Zoroastrianism. All its texts are composed in the Avestan language and written in the Avestan alphabet. Mod ...
's texts. Although such exegetical commentaries also exist in other languages (including Avestan itself), the Middle Persian ''zand'' is the only to survive fully, and is for this reason regarded as 'the' ''zand''.. With the notable exception of the ''Yasht''s, almost all surviving Avestan texts have their Middle Persian ''zand'', which in some manuscripts appear alongside (or interleaved with) the text being glossed. These glosses and commentaries were not intended for use as theological texts by themselves but for religious instruction of the (by then) non-Avestan-speaking public. In contrast, the Avestan language texts remained sacrosanct and continued to be recited in the Avestan language, which was considered a
sacred language A sacred language, liturgical language or holy language is a language that is cultivated and used primarily for religious reasons (like church service) by people who speak another, primary language in their daily lives. Some religions, or part ...
. ;Other exegetical works The corpus of medieval texts of Zoroastrian tradition include around 75 works, of which only a few are well known: * the ''
Denkard The ''Dēnkard'' or ''Dēnkart'' (Middle Persian: 𐭣𐭩𐭭𐭪𐭠𐭫𐭲 "Acts of Religion") is a 10th-century compendium of Zoroastrian beliefs and customs during the time. The ''Denkard'' has been called an "Encyclopedia of Mazdaism" an ...
'', "Acts of Religion", is an encyclopedic compendium of Sassanid era beliefs and customs. * the ''
Bundahishn The ''Bundahishn'' (Middle Persian: , "Primal Creation") is an encyclopedic collection of beliefs about Zoroastrian cosmology written in the Book Pahlavi script. The original name of the work is not known. It is one of the most important extant ...
'', "Original Creation", is an important source of information on Zoroastrian
cosmogony Cosmogony is any model concerning the origin of the cosmos or the universe. Overview Scientific theories In astronomy, cosmogony is the study of the origin of particular astrophysical objects or systems, and is most commonly used in ref ...
. * Manushchihr's '' Dadestan i Denig'' ("Religious Decisions") and ''Epistles'' * the ''Vichitakiha i Zatsparam'', the "Treatises of Zatsparam", by Manushchihr's brother Zatsparam. * the '' Arda-Viraf Namag'' relates the dream-journey of a devout Zoroastrian (the 'Viraf' of the story) through the next world. * the '' Daedestan i Menog-i Khrad'', "Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom", is an ''andarz'' text (a class of Iranian
wisdom literature Wisdom literature is a genre of literature common in the ancient Near East. It consists of statements by sages and the wise that offer teachings about divinity and virtue. Although this genre uses techniques of traditional oral storytelling, i ...
) in which a figure named Danag (lit: "wise, knowing") participates in a question-and-answer dialog with Menog-i Khrad, the Spirit of Wisdom. * the ''
Jamasp Namag The Jamasp Nameh (var: ''Jāmāsp Nāmag'', ''Jāmāsp Nāmeh'', "Story of Jamasp") is a Middle Persian book of revelations. In an extended sense, it is also a primary source on Medieval Zoroastrian doctrine and legend. The work is also known as ...
'', "Book of Jamaspi", also known as the ''Ayadgar i Jamaspig'' "(In) Memoriam of Jamasp", is a compendium of essential doctrine, together with basic myth, legend, history, and some pseudo-prophetic matters cast as a series of revelations by
Jamasp Jamasp (also spelled Zamasp or Djamasp; ; ''Jāmāsp'') was Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 496 to 498/9. He was a son of Peroz I and younger brother of Kavad I. Jamasp was installed on the Sasanian throne upon the deposition of the latter ...
through the model of a question-and-answer dialog with Vishtasp. * the '' Zand-i Wahman yasn'' is another pseudo-prophetic text, in this case cast as a question-and-answer dialog between Zoroaster and
Ahura Mazda Ahura Mazda (; ; or , ),The former is the New Persian rendering of the Avestan form, while the latter derives from Middle Persian. also known as Horomazes (),, is the only creator deity and Sky deity, god of the sky in the ancient Iranian ...
, in which the latter gives his prophet the ability to see into the future. * the '' Shikand-gumanic Vichar'', a partly apologetic and partly polemic review of other religions. * the '' Shayast ne-shayast'', "(on what is) Proper and Improper", a compilation of miscellaneous laws and customs regarding sin and impurity, with other memoranda about ceremonies and religious subjects in general. * the '' Zaratosht-nama'', an epic poem about the life of Zarathustra. * the '' Wizidagiha-i Zadspram'', a text on the creation of the world, life of Zoroaster, and the eschatological end ;Secular compositions A manuscript known as the "miscellaneous codex" or ''MK'' (after Mihraban Kaykhusrow, the Indian Zoroastrian (Parsi) copyist who created it), dated to 1322 but containing older material, is the only surviving source of several secular Middle Persian works from the Sassanian period. Among the texts included in the unique ''MK'' are: * the '' Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan'' is a
hagiography A hagiography (; ) is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a preacher, priest, founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of the world's religions. Early Christian ...
of
Ardashir I Ardashir I (), also known as Ardashir the Unifier (180–242 AD), was the founder of the Sasanian Empire, the last empire of ancient Iran. He was also Ardashir V of the Kings of Persis, until he founded the new empire. After defeating the last Par ...
, the founder of the Sassanid dynasty * the '' Ayadgar-i Zariran'', the "Memorial or Zarer", is the only surviving specimen of Iranian epic poetry composed in Middle Persian. * the '' Shahrestaniha i Eranshahr'', is a catalogue of the four regions of the Sassanid empire with mythical and/or historical stories related to their founding. * several ''andarz'' texts, the Iranian type of
wisdom literature Wisdom literature is a genre of literature common in the ancient Near East. It consists of statements by sages and the wise that offer teachings about divinity and virtue. Although this genre uses techniques of traditional oral storytelling, i ...
containing advice and injunctions for proper behavior. * the ''Wizarishn i Chatrang'', "Explanation of Chess", also known as the ''Chatrang Namag'', is a humorous story of how an Indian king sent a game of
chess Chess is a board game for two players. It is an abstract strategy game that involves Perfect information, no hidden information and no elements of game of chance, chance. It is played on a square chessboard, board consisting of 64 squares arran ...
to the Sassanid court to test Iranian wits, in response to which a priest invented
backgammon Backgammon is a two-player board game played with counters and dice on tables boards. It is the most widespread Western member of the large family of tables games, whose ancestors date back at least 1,600 years. The earliest record of backgammo ...
to challenge the Indian king. * the '' Drakht i Asurig'', "the Assyrian tree", is an originally Parthian poem recast into Book Pahlavi but retaining many Parthian phrases and idioms. * the ''Abdih ud Sahigih i Sagistan'' is a description of the "Wonders and Remarkable Features of Sistan". * the ''Khusraw va Redag'', "Khusraw and the Page", is an account of a conversation between the king and a young boy who would like to be a page. This work is a source of information on the sensual delights of the Sassanian court. * the '' Mah farvardin Ruz khordad'' is a book that described all the events which historically or mythically occurred on the 6th day of the Persian month of
Farvardin Farvardin (, ) is the Iranian Persian name for the first month of the Solar Hijri calendar, the official calendar of Iran, and corresponds with Aries on the Zodiac. Farvardin has thirty-one days. It is the first month of the spring season (''B ...
. Especially important to cultural and law historians is the ''Madayan i Hazar Dadestan'', "Book of a Thousand Judgements", a 7th-century compilation of actual and hypothetical case histories collected from Sassanian court records and transcripts. Only a single manuscript of this unique text survives. Scribes also created several glossaries for translating foreign languages. Of these, two have survived: * ''
Frahang-i Pahlavig ''Frahang-ī Pahlavīg'' (Middle Persian: 𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭭𐭢 𐭯𐭧𐭫𐭥𐭩𐭪 "Pahlavi dictionary") is the title of an anonymous dictionary of mostly Aramaic logograms with Middle Persian translations (in Pahlavi script) and translit ...
'', a glossary of common Aramaic heterograms ('' huzvarishn'') used in written Middle Persian. * ''
Frahang-i Oim-evak ''Frahang-i Oīm-Ēwak'' is an old Avestan- Middle Persian dictionary A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged Alphabetical order, alphabetically (or by Semitic root, consonant ...
'', a dictionary of
Avestan Avestan ( ) is the liturgical language of Zoroastrianism. It belongs to the Iranian languages, Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family and was First language, originally spoken during the Avestan period, Old ...
words and phrases. Several other works, now lost, are known of from references to them in other languages. Works of this group include: * in about the 5th century, priests attached to the Sassanid court began to compile an immense chronicle, the '' Khwaday Namag'' ("Book of Kings"), a legendary genealogy of the Sassanid kings in which the Sassanians were dynastically linked to Vishtaspa, i.e. Zoroaster's patron and the legendary founder of the mythological Kayanian dynasty. The original Middle Persian version of the chronicle has been lost, and the contents survive only through Arabic translations and in a versified New Persian version, the ''
Shahnameh The ''Shahnameh'' (, ), also transliterated ''Shahnama'', is a long epic poem written by the Persian literature, Persian poet Ferdowsi between and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 50,000 distichs or couple ...
'' by Firdausi, finished around 1000 CE. * the ''Kalile va Demne'', a Middle Persian translation of the Indian ''
Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' ( IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, , "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story.
''. The Middle Persian work survives only as a translation into Syriac and two centuries later into Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa. * the '' Letter of Tansar'', a rationale for Ardashir's seizure of the throne. The letter was translated into
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
in the 9th century by Ibn al-Muqaffa, and from Arabic into
New Persian New Persian (), also known as Modern Persian () is the current stage of the Persian language spoken since the 8th to 9th centuries until now in Greater Iran and surroundings. It is conventionally divided into three stages: Early New Persian (8th ...
in the 13th century ''History of Tabaristan'' by Ibn Isfandiar. * the ''Ayyatkar-i Anushirvan'', which has survived as an Arabic translation in a section of Ebn Meskavayh's ''Tajarib al-Umam''.


Other works


References


Full texts


Avesta-Zoroastrian Archives
includes Middle Persian writings in English translation
Scholar Raham Asha's website
includes many texts in original and English translation (some also on the


A Large Online Pahlavi Library
contains pdfs of many Pahlavi manuscripts in its original script, many with transcriptions and translations.
Kassock Pahlavi Reproductions
a small company that provides many reprints of Pahlavi books and manuscripts. Kassock also writes guides for students learning Pahlavi for select books.


External links


"Hymn of the Pearl"

Middle Persian Literature I. Pahlavi literature
Encyclopædia Iranica {{DEFAULTSORT:Middle Persian Literature Persian literature by period Zoroastrian texts West Asian literature History of literature Literature lists Lit Sasanian Empire