Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known as Maipurean (also ''Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre''), is a

language family A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...

that developed among ancient

indigenous peoples in South America The Indigenous peoples of South America or South American Indigenous peoples, are the pre-Colombian peoples of South America and their descendants. These peoples contrast with South Americans of European ancestry and those of African descent ...

. Branches migrated to

Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...

and the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being

Ecuador Ecuador ( ; ; Quechuan languages, Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar language, Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechuan ...

Uruguay Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...

, and

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the eas ...

. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical

Macro-Arawakan Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean centered on the Arawakan languages. Sometimes, the proposal is called Arawakan, and the central family is called ''Maipurean''. Proposals Kaufman (1990) includes the ...

stock.

Name

The name ''Maipure'' was given to the family by Filippo S. Gilij in 1782, after the

Maipure language Maipure (Maypure, Mejepure), was a language once spoken along the Ventuari, Sipapo, and Autana rivers of Amazonas and, as a lingua franca, in the Upper Orinoco region. It became extinct around the end of the eighteenth century. Zamponi provid ...

Venezuela Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in ...

, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important

Arawak language Arawak (, ), also known as Lokono (Lokono Dian, literally "people's talk" by its speakers), is an Arawakan language spoken by the Lokono (Arawak) people of South America in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. It is the eponymou ...

a century later. The term ''Arawak'' took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader

proposal. At that time, the name ''Maipurean'' was resurrected for the core family. See Arawakan ''vs'' Maipurean for details.

Dispersal

The ''Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis'' (ALMH) suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a

trade language A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...

or lingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002) and Eriksen (2014). Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages. On the other hand, Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the

Austronesian Austronesian may refer to: *The Austronesian languages *The historical Austronesian peoples The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, M ...

and

Austroasiatic The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are t ...

language families in Southeast Asia.

Language contact

As one of the most geographically widespread language families in all of the Americas, Arawakan linguistic influence can be found in many language families of South America. Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawa, Bora-Muinane, Guahibo, Harakmbet-Katukina, Harakmbet, Katukina-Katawixi, Irantxe,

Jaqi Aymaran (also Jaqi or Aru) is one of the two dominant language families in the central Andes alongside Quechuan. The family consists of Aymara, widely spoken in Bolivia, and the endangered Jaqaru and Kawki languages of Peru. Hardman (1978) propo ...

, Karib, Kawapana, Kayuvava, Kechua, Kwaza,

Leko Leko may refer to: * Leko (surname) * Leko languages, a small group of African Savanna languages * Leco language, a moribund isolate language of Bolivia * Lekolite or Leko, a type of stage spotlight * Alexandro da Silva Santos or Leko, Brazilian ...

, Macro-Jê, Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru,

Mapudungun Mapuche (, Mapuche & Spanish: , or Mapudungun; from ' 'land' and ' 'speak, speech') is an Araucanian language related to Huilliche spoken in south-central Chile and west-central Argentina by the Mapuche people (from ''mapu'' 'land' and ''che ...

, Mochika, Mura-Matanawi, Nambikwara, Omurano, Pano-Takana, Pano, Takana, Puinave-Nadahup, Taruma, Tupi,

Urarina The Urarina are an indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin ( Loreto) who inhabit the valleys of the Chambira, Urituyacu, and Corrientes Rivers. According to both archaeological and historical sources, they have resided in the Chambira B ...

, Witoto-Okaina,

Yaruro The Yaruro people (or Pumé, according to their self-determination) are a Circum- Caribbean indigenous people, native to the ecoregion of Llanos in Venezuela, located west of the Orinoco River.

, Zaparo, Saliba-Hodi, and Tikuna-Yuri language families due to contact. However, these similarities could be due to inheritance, contact, or chance.

Languages

Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are extinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all: * Ta-Maipurean = Caribbean Arawak / Ta-Arawak = Caribbean Maipuran, *

Upper Amazon Maipurean The Upper Amazon Maipurean languages, a.k.a. North Amazonian or Inland Northern Maipuran, are Arawakan languages of the northern Amazon in Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. Upper Amazon Arawakan has been surveyed comprehensively by Henri Ram ...

= North Amazonian Arawak = Inland Maipuran, *

Central Maipurean Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known a ...

= Pareci–Xingu = Paresí–Waurá = Central Maipuran, * Piro = Purus, * Campa = Pre-Andean Maipurean = Pre-Andine Maipuran. An early contrast between ''Ta-Arawak'' and ''Nu-Arawak'', depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; ''nu-'' is the ancestral form for the entire family, and ''ta-'' is an innovation of one branch of the family.

Kaufman (1994)

The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these: * Shebaye ''(†)'' * Lapachu ''(†)'' * Morique (also known as Morike) ''(†)'' Another language is also mentioned as "Arawakan": * Salumã (also known as Salumán, Enawené-Nawé) Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now extinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao, Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique. ;Northern Maipurean * ''

Upper Amazon The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of th ...

branch'' * ''Maritime branch'' ** Aruán (Aroã) ''(†)'' ** Wapixana (also known as Wapishana):

Atorada Atorada or Atoraí is a Endangered language, moribund Arawakan language of Brazil and Guyana. Henri Ramirez (2019) considers it to be a dialect of Wapishana language, Wapishana. References

Arawakan languages Languages of Brazil Lang ...

(also known as Atoraí),

Mapidian Mawayana (Mahuayana), also known as Mapidian (Maopidyán), is a moribund Arawakan language of northern South America. It used to be spoken by people living in ethnic Wai-wai and Tiriyó villages in Brazil, Guyana and Suriname. As of 2015, the ...

(also known as Maopidyán),

Wapishana The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana. Location Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, ...

** Ta-Maipurean ** Palikur *** Palikur (also known as Palikúr) *** Marawán ''(†)'' ;Southern Maipurean * ''Western branch'' ** Amuesha (also known as Amoesha, Yanesha’) ** Chamicuro (also known as Chamikuro) * ''

Central Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known a ...

branch'' * ''Southern Outlier branch'' ** Terêna (dialects: Kinikinao, Terena, Guaná,

Chané Chané is the collective name for the southernmost Arawakan-speaking peoples. They lived in the plains of the northern Gran Chaco and in the foothills of the Andes in Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, and Argentina. The historical Chané are divided i ...

) ** Moxos group (also known as Moho) *** Moxos (Ignaciano & Trinitario) ***

Baure Baure may refer to: * Baure language Bauré is an endangered Arawakan language spoken by only 40 of the thousand Baure people of the Beni Department of northwest of Magdalena, Bolivia. Some Bible portions have been translated into Bauré. Mos ...

*** Paunaka (also known as Pauna–Paikone) ** Piro group * '' Campa branch'' (also known as Pre-Andean) Kaufman does not report the extinct Magiana of the Moxos group.

Aikhenvald (1999)

Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the ''Southern Outlier'' and ''Western'' branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu (' Apolista') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the ''Maritime'' branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the ''North Amazonian'' branch of Northern Maipurean. The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's: ;North Arawak = Northern Maipurean *Rio Branco = Kaufman's Wapishanan (2) Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect">Mawayana_language.html" ;"title="ith Mapidian under the name " Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect*Palikur = Kaufman's Palikur + Aruán (3) *Caribbean Arawakan">Caribbean = Ta-Maipurean (8) Shebaye">Aroã language">Aruán (3) *Caribbean Arawakan">Caribbean = Ta-Maipurean (8)

Shebaye* North Amazonian = Upper Amazon (17 attested) ;South and South-Western Arawak = Southern Maipurean *South Arawak = Terena language">Terena The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally f ...

+ Kaufman's Moxos group + Salumã + Lapachu Enawene Nawe language">Salumã + Lapachu Apolista'">Enawene Nawe language">Salumã + Lapachu South-Western Arawak = Piro (5) * Campa (6) * Amuesha (1) * Chamicuro (1) Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean. Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies Mawayana language">Mawayana with

together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).

Ramirez (2001)

Internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2001):Ramirez, Henri (2001).
Línguas arawak da Amazônia Setentrional
'. Manaus: Universidade Federal do Amazonas.
PDF
:2 subgroups, 10 divisions († = extinct) *unclassified: ''Yanesha, Chamicuro'' *Western ** unclassified: ''† Yumana, † Passé'' ** Japurá-Colombia division *** ''Piapoko, Achagua; Baniwa-Koripako, Tariana; Warekena, Mandawaka; Kabiyari; Yukuna, Wainumá-Mariaté'' *** ''† Kauixana'' *** ''Resígaro'' ** Upper Rio Negro division *** ''† Baré, † Guinau, † Anauyá-Yabahana'' ** Upper Orinoco division *** ''† Pareni, Yavitero'' *** ''† Maipure'' ** Negro-Roraima division *** ''† Arua'' *** ''† Manao, † Wirina, † Bahuana, † Cariaí'' *** ''Wapixana, Atorai'' *** ''† Mawayana'' ** Juruá-Jutaí division *** ''† Marawa'' *** ''† Waraiku'' ** Purus-Ucayali division *** ''Apurinã; Piro, Kuniba, Kanamari, Manxineri '' *** ''Kampa'' ** Bolivia-Mato Grosso division *** ''Baure, Mojeño'' *** ''Tereno, † Kinikinao'' ** Caribe-Venezuela division *** ''Lokono; Iñeri, Garífuna; † Taino; † Caquetio'' *** ''Guajiro, † Paraujano'' *Eastern ** Amapá division *** ''Palikur, † Marawá'' ** Xingu-Tapajós division *** ''Waurá, Mehinaku; Yawalapiti'' *** ''Pareci, † Sarave''

Walker & Ribeiro (2011)

Walker & Ribeiro (2011), using

Bayesian Thomas Bayes (/beɪz/; c. 1701 – 1761) was an English statistician, philosopher, and Presbyterian minister. Bayesian () refers either to a range of concepts and approaches that relate to statistical methods based on Bayes' theorem, or a follower ...

computational phylogenetics Computational phylogenetics is the application of computational algorithms, methods, and programs to phylogenetic "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary hist ...

, classify the Arawakan languages as follows. The internal structures of each branch is given below. Note that the strictly binary splits are a result of the

computational methods used. *Northeast ** Marawan, Palikúr *South ** Kinikinau,

Terena The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally f ...

**(''branch'') ***

*** Moxos:

Trinitario The Trinitarios is an Dominican American criminal organization founded by Dominicans in New York City, New York in 1993. History The Trinitarios were established in 1993 on Rikers Island, the New York City jail,Luis Ferré-Sadurní & Barbara M ...

, Ignaciano *Western Amazonia **(''branch'') *** Apurinã ***(''branch'') ****

Iñapari Iñapari is a Peruvian village capital of the Tahuamanu Province in the Madre de Dios Region, located on the triple border of Bolivia, Brazil and Peru. It is connected to Brazil by the Brazil-Peru Integration Bridge, an international bridge cr ...

**** Piro, Manxineri **(''branch'') *** Caquinte ***(''branch'') **** Asheninka ****(''branch'') *****

Machiguenga The Machiguenga (also Matsigenka, Matsigenga) are an indigenous people who live in the high jungle, or''montaña'', area on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Amazon Basin jungle regions of southeastern Peru. Their population in 2020 a ...

Nomatsiguenga The Machiguenga (also Matsigenka, Matsigenga) are an indigenous people who live in the high jungle, or''montaña'', area on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Amazon Basin jungle regions of southeastern Peru. Their population in 2020 a ...

* Amuesha, Chamicuro *Circum-Caribbean ** Waraicu, Marawa **(''Core branch'') ***(''Island branch'') ****

Taíno The Taíno were a historic indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the late 15th century, they were the pri ...

****

Island Carib The Kalinago, also known as the Island Caribs or simply Caribs, are an indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have been related to the Mainland Caribs (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated langua ...

Garífuna The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian C ...

***

Lokono The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They speak th ...

*** Paraujano,

Guajiro The Wayuu (also Wayu, Wayúu, Guajiro, Wahiro) are an Amerindian ethnic group of the Guajira Peninsula in northernmost part of Colombia and northwest Venezuela. The Wayuu language is part of the Maipuran (Arawak) language family. Geography T ...

*Central Brazil **(''branch'') *** Saraveka *** Enawene Mawe, Paresí **(''branch'') *** Yawalapití *** Waurá, Mehináku *Central Amazonia **(''branch'') *** Anauyá *** Guinau, Baré **(''branch'') *** Bahuana, Manao ***(''branch'') ****

Arua Arua is a city and commercial centre within the Arua District in the Northern Region of Uganda. Location Arua is approximately , by road, north-west of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda, Arua is about , by road, west of Gulu, ...

****(''branch'') ***** Cabiai ***** Mawayana,

Wapixana The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana. Location Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, no ...

*Northwest Amazonia **(''branch'') *** Maipure ***(''branch'') **** Yavitero **** Baniva, Warekena **(''branch'') *** Pasé, Yumana ***(''branch'') **** Resígaro ****(''branch'') **** Cabiyari *****(''branch'') ***** Kauixana ******(''branch'') ******

Yukuna Yucuna (Jukuna), also known as Matapi, Yucuna-Matapi, and Yukunais, is an Arawakan language spoken in several communities along the Mirití-Paraná River in Colombia. Extinct Guarú (Garú) was either a dialect or a closely related language. P ...

****** Mariaté, Wainumá ***(''branch'') **** Achagua, Piapoco ****(''branch'') ***** Mandawaka, Guarekena *****(''branch'') ****** Tariana ******(''branch'') ******* Kurripako *******

Baniwa Baniwa (also known with local variants as Baniva, Baniua, Curipaco, Vaniva, Walimanai, Wakuenai) are indigenous South Americans, who speak the Baniwa language belonging to the Maipurean (Arawak) language family. They live in the Amazon Region, ...

, Karutana

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery. 2016.
Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas
'. Ph.D. dissertation,

University of Brasília The University of Brasília ( pt, Universidade de Brasília, UnB) is a federal public university in Brasília, the capital of Brazil. It was founded in 1960 and has since consistently been named among the top five Brazilian universities and the ...

. († = extinct) *Arawak **'' Yanesha'' **Western ***''

Aguachile Aguachile (“chile water” in Spanish) is a Mexican dish made of shrimp, submerged in liquid seasoned with chiltepin peppers, lime juice, salt, slices of cucumber and slices of onion. Raw vegetables such as cucumber are usually added. This raw ...

'' † ***'' Chamikuro'' *** Mamoré- Paraguai **** Mamoré- Guaporé (

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article) *****Mojo-Paunaka ****** Mojo: '' Ignaciano''; ''

'' ******'' Paunaka'' *****Baure-Paikoneka ******Baure: ''

''; ''

Joaquiniano Bauré is an endangered Arawakan languages, Arawakan language spoken by only 40 of the thousand Baure people of the Beni Department of northwest of Magdalena Municipality, Beni, Magdalena, Bolivia. Some Bible portions have been translated into B ...

''; '' Muxojeone'' † ******'' Paikoneka'' † ****Terena: '' Chane'' †; '' Guana'' †; '' Kinikinau''; ''

'' ***Negro- Putumayo ****Jumana-Pase: '' Jumana'' †; ''

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'' † ****'' Kaishana'' † ****Nawiki *****'' Kabiyari'' *****Karu-Tariana ******Karu: ''

''; '' Kuripako'' ******'' Tariana'' *****'' Mepuri'' † *****Piapoko-Achagua: '' Achagua''; '' Piapoko'' *****'' Wainambu'' † *****Warekena-Mandawaka: '' Warekena''; '' Mandawaka'' † *****Yukuna-Wainuma: '' Mariate'' †; '' Wainuma'' †; ''

'' ****'' Resigaro'' ****'' Wirina'' † ***

Orinoco The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers , with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the wo ...

****Yavitero-Baniva: ''

Baniva Baniwa (also known with local variants as Baniva, Baniua, Curipaco, Vaniva, Walimanai, Wakuenai) are indigenous South Americans, who speak the Baniwa language belonging to the Maipurean (Arawak) language family. They live in the Amazon Region, ...

''; '' Yavitero'' † ****'' Maipure'' † *** Pre-Andine ****Ashaninka-Nomatsigenga *****'' Nomatsigenga'' *****''

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'' ****Piro-Manchineri: '' Kanamare'' †; '' Kuniba'' †; '' Manchineri''; '' Mashko Piro''; '' Yine'' **Eastern ***Lower Amazon ****Atlantic: '' Marawan'' †; '' Palikur'' **** Guaporé-

Tapajós The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest cle ...

*****'' Saraveka'' † *****

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Yawalapiti The Yawalapiti (also Jaulapiti, Yaulapiti, or Yawalapití) are an indigenous tribe in the Amazonian Basin of Brazil. The name is also spelled Iaualapiti in Portuguese. The current village Yawalapiti is situated more to the south, between the T ...

'' ****Waraiku: '' Waraiku'' † *** Solimões-Caribbean: '' Marawan'' †; '' Palikur'' ****'' Marawa'' † **** Caribbean *****'' Kaketio'' † *****Wayuu-Añun ******'' Añun'' ******''

Wayuu The Wayuu (also Wayu, Wayúu, Guajiro, Wahiro) are an Amerindian ethnic group of the Guajira Peninsula in northernmost part of Colombia and northwest Venezuela. The Wayuu language is part of the Maipuran (Arawak) language family. Geography ...

'' *****Lokono-Iñeri ******Iñeri: ''

Garifuna The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian C ...

''; '' Kalhiphona'' † ******''

'' *****'' Shebayo'' † *****'' Taino'' † ****Negro-Branco *****''

'' † *****'' Mainatari'' † *****

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******Bare-Guinao: '' Bare''; '' Guinao'' † ******Bawana-Kariai-Manao: ''

Bawana Bawana is a census town founded by two Gaur Brahmins Kala and Thukrai in the North West district of Delhi, India. It houses the Bawana Fortress of Zail (also called Bawana Tehsil), a Zail headquarter built by the who were (chief) of Bawana Zai ...

'' †; '' Kariai'' †; '' Manao'' † ******'' Yabaana'' † ***** Branco ******'' Mawayana'' ******Wapishana-Parawana: '' Aroaki'' †; ''

Atorada Atorada or Atoraí is a Endangered language, moribund Arawakan language of Brazil and Guyana. Henri Ramirez (2019) considers it to be a dialect of Wapishana language, Wapishana. References

Arawakan languages Languages of Brazil Lang ...

''; '' Parawana'' †; ''

Nikulin & Carvalho (2019)

Internal classification by Nikulin & Carvalho (2019: 270):Nikulin, Andrey; Fernando O. de Carvalho. 2019
Estudos diacrônicos de línguas indígenas brasileiras: um panorama
''Macabéa – Revista Eletrônica do Netlli'', v. 8, n. 2 (2019), p. 255-305.
PDF
*'' Yanesha’'' *'' Chamicuro'' *'' Palikur'' *Maritime **''

''; ''

'' **''

''; '' Wayuunaiki'', '' Añun'' * Rio Branco **''

'' **'' Mawayana'' *Japurá-Colômbia **'' Piapoco'' **'' Achagua'' **''

Yucuna Yucuna (Jukuna), also known as Matapi, Yucuna-Matapi, and Yukunais, is an Arawakan language spoken in several communities along the Mirití-Paraná River in Colombia. Extinct Guarú (Garú) was either a dialect or a closely related language. ...

'' **'' Resígaro'' **'' Tariana'' **'' Baniwa-Koripako'' **'' Warekena Antigo'' *Orinoco **'' Baré'' **'' Yavitero'' **'' Baniva of Guainia'' **'' Maipure'' **'' Warekena of Xié'' *Central **'' Paresí'' **'' Enawenê-Nawê'' **Xingu ***'' Yawalapití'' ***'' Waurá''; '' Mehináku'' *Purus **'' Apurinã'' **''

''; '' Yine/Manxinéru'' *Campa **''

'' **'' Matsiguenga'' **'' Nanti'' **'' Caquinte'' **''

Asháninka The Asháninka or Asháninca are an indigenous people living in the rainforests of Peru and in the State of Acre, Brazil. Their ancestral lands are in the forests of Junín, Pasco, Huánuco and part of Ucayali in Peru. Population The Ash� ...

'' **'' Ashéninka'' *Bolívia-Paraná **''

''; '' Carmelito''; ''

'' **''

''; '' Paunaka''; '' Mojeño (Trinitário, Ignaciano, Loretano, Javeriano)'' Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches: *''Maritime'': loss of medial Proto-Arawakan *-n-. **''Lokono-Wayuu'': first person singular prefix *ta- replacing *nu-. Carvalho also reconstructs the suffix *-ja (possibly a deictic) and *kabɨnɨ ‘three’ as characteristic of this subgroup. *''Campa'': lexical innovations such as *iNʧato ‘tree’, *-taki ‘bark’, *-toNki ‘bone’, etc. There are also typological innovations due to contact with Andean languages such as Quechua.

Ramirez (2020)

The internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2020) is as follows. This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016). :12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) († = extinct) *

Japurá Japurá is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Amazonas. Its population was 2,251 (2020) and its area is 55,791 km² (21541 Mi2). It forms the Japurá microregion together with the municipality Maraã (to the east of the Japur� ...

-Colombia (

article) **† '' Mepuri'' **† '' Yumana'', † '' Passé'' **† '' Kauixana'' **Peripheral ***† '' Mandawaka'', '' Warekena (do San Miguel)''; ''

- Koripako'' ***'' Piapoco'', '' Achagua''; '' Kabiyari'' ***† '' Resígaro'' ***† '' Wainumá-Mariaté'' ***''

'' *Upper

**'' Baniva de Maroa'' **† '' Pareni-Yavitero'' **† '' Maipure'' *Central-Amazon-Antilles ? (probable branch) **Amazon-

Antilles The Antilles (; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Antiy; es, Antillas; french: Antilles; nl, Antillen; ht, Antiy; pap, Antias; Jamaican Patois: ''Antiliiz'') is an archipelago bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the south and west, the Gulf of Mex ...

***''

'', † '' Paraujano'' ***† '' Taino'', '' Iñeri'', '' Loko'', † '' Marawá'' ***? † '' Waraiku'' ***? † '' Wirina'' **Middle Rio Negro ***† '' Baré'' ***† '' Guinau'' ***† '' Anauyá''; † '' Mainatari'', † '' Yabahana'' **Central ***† '' Bahuana''; † '' Manao'', † '' Cariaí'' ***† '' Aruã'' *** Pidjanan ****† '' Mawayana'' ****''

'', † '' Parawana'', † '' Aroaqui'' ***? † '' Shebayo'' *

Mato Grosso Mato Grosso ( – lit. "Thick Bush") is one of the states of Brazil, the third largest by area, located in the Central-West region. The state has 1.66% of the Brazilian population and is responsible for 1.9% of the Brazilian GDP. Neighborin ...

-Palikur ? (probable branch) **

Amapá Amapá () is one of the 26 states of Brazil. It is in the northern region of Brazil. It is the second least populous state and the eighteenth largest by area. Located in the far northern part of the country, Amapá is bordered clockwise by Fr ...

***'' Palikur'' **

*** Xingu ****'' Waurá'' ****''

'' *** Xaray ****'' Salumã'' ****'' Pareci'' ****† '' Sarave'' *Bolivia-Purus-Kampa-(Amuesha) ? (probable branch) **Bolivia ***''

'' ***'' Pauna''; '' Mojeño'', '' Tereno'' ** Purus ***† ''

'' ***'' Piro'' ***'' Apurinã'' ***† '' Cararí'' **Pre-Andine ***'' Kampa'' **

Pozuzo Pozuzo is a village and district in the Oxapampa Province and Pasco Region of Peru. The village, at an elevation of , is situated near the left bank of the Huancabamba River which is renamed the Pozuzo River after it passes by the village. The p ...

***'' Amuesha'' *Lower

Ucayali The Ucayali River ( es, Río Ucayali, ) is the main headstream of the Amazon River. It rises about north of Lake Titicaca, in the Arequipa region of Peru and becomes the Amazon at the confluence of the Marañón close to Nauta city. The city ...

**† '' Chamicuro'' **? † '' Moríque''

Varieties

Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties. ;Island languages *Taino / Nitaino - once spoken in the Conquest days on the

Greater Antilles The Greater Antilles ( es, Grandes Antillas or Antillas Mayores; french: Grandes Antilles; ht, Gwo Zantiy; jam, Grieta hAntiliiz) is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea, including Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, ...

Islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Dialects are: **Taino of Haiti and Quisqueya - extinct language of the island were

Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with ...

and

The Republic of Haiti ''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things that are already or about to be mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in E ...

. **Taino of Cuba - once spoken on the island of Cuba; in the nineteenth century only in the villages of Jiguaní,

Bayano Bayano, also known as Ballano or Vaino, was an African enslaved by Spaniards who led the Bayano Wars, biggest slave revolts of 16th century Panama. Captured from the Yoruba people, Yoruba community in West Africa, it has been argued that his nam ...

, and

Quivicán Quivicán is a town and municipality in Mayabeque Province of Cuba. It is located in the south west of the province, bordering the Gulf of Batabanó. The name is of Taino origin (spelled '' Quibicán''). It was founded in 1700. Geography The mun ...

; now the last descendants speak only Spanish. **Borinquen - once spoken on the island of

Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and Unincorporated ...

. **Yamaye - once spoken on the island of

Jamaica Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of Hispan ...

. **Lucaya - once spoken on the

Bahamas The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to 88% of the archi ...

Islands. *Eyed / Allouage - once spoken in the

Lesser Antilles The Lesser Antilles ( es, link=no, Antillas Menores; french: link=no, Petites Antilles; pap, Antias Menor; nl, Kleine Antillen) are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most of them are part of a long, partially volcanic island arc bet ...

. * - spoken on the eastern part of the island of

Trinidad Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies off the northeastern coast of Venezuela and sits on the continental shelf of South America. It is often referred to as the southernmos ...

. *Naparina - once spoken on the island of Trinidad. (Unattested.) *Caliponau - language spoken by the women of the Carib tribes in the Lesser Antilles. ;Guiana language *Arawak / Aruaqui / Luccumi / Locono - spoken in the Guianas. Dialects are: **Western - spoken in Guyana. **Eastern - spoken in French Guiana on the Curipi River and Oyapoque River. ;Central group *Wapishana / Matisana / Wapityan / Uapixana - spoken on the

Tacutu River The Takutu River (Takatu River, Tacutu River) is a river in the Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo Region of Guyana and Roraima in Brazil. It forms part of the boundary between the two countries. The confluence of the Takutu and Uraricoera Rivers form ...

, Mahú River, and Surumú River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil, and in the adjoining region in Guyana. *Amariba - once spoken at the sources of the

and

Rupununi River The Rupununi is a region in the south-west of Guyana, bordering the Brazilian Amazon. The Rupununi river, also known by the local indigenous peoples as ''Raponani'', flows through the Rupununi region. The name Rupununi originates from the word '' ...

, Guyana. (Unattested.) *Atorai / Attaraye / Daurí - spoken between the

and

Kuyuwini River The Kuyuwini River is a river Guyana. Marudi Mountain is a critical watershed that feeds into the river. The area surrounding the river is considered traditional lands of the Wapishana, and they monitor the river for environmental threats. Conr ...

, Guyana. ;Mapidian group *Mapidian / Maotityan - spoken at the sources of the Apiniwau River, Guyana, now perhaps extinct. *Mawakwa - once spoken on the

Mavaca River Mavaca River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ind ...

, Venezuela. ;Goajira group *Goajira / Uáira - language spoken on the Goajira Peninsula in Colombia and Venezuela with two dialects, Guimpejegual and Gopujegual. *Paraujano / Parancan / Parawogwan / Pará - spoken by a tribe of lake dwellers on

Lake Maracaibo Lake Maracaibo ( Spanish: Lago de Maracaibo; Anu: Coquivacoa) is a lagoon in northwestern Venezuela, the largest lake in South America and one of the oldest on Earth, formed 36 million years ago in the Andes Mountains. The fault in the northern s ...

, Zulia state, Venezuela. *Alile - once spoken on the Guasape River, state of Zulia, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Onota - once spoken between

and the

Palmar River The Palmar River ( es, Rio El Palmar) is a river of Venezuela. It drains into Lake Maracaibo. The Palmar River rises in the Serranía del Perijá. In its lower reaches it flows through an area of the Catatumbo moist forests ecoregion. It then flow ...

in the same region, Zulia state, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Guanebucán - extinct language once spoken on the Hacha River, department of Magdalena, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Cosina / Coquibacoa - extinct language of a little known tribe of the Serranía Cosina, Goajira Peninsula, Colombia. (Unattested.) ;Caquetío group *Caquetío - extinct language once spoken on the islands of Curaçao and Aruba near the Venezuelan coast, on the

Yaracuy River The Yaracuy River is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ind ...

, Portuguesa River, and

Apure River The Apure River is a river of southwestern Venezuela, formed by the confluence of the Sarare and Uribante near Guasdualito, in Venezuela, at , and flowing across the Llanos into the Orinoco. It provides significant transportation in the area. Orig ...

, Venezuela. (only several words) *Ajagua - once spoken on the

Tocuyo River The Tocuyo River ( es, Río Tocuyo) is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea. The river drains part of the Lara-Falcón dry forests ecoregion. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By d ...

near Carera, state of Lara, Venezuela. (only two words and patronyms.) *Quinó - once spoken in the village of Lagunillas, state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Nothing.) *Tororó / Auyama - once spoken in the village of San Cristóbal, state of Táchira. (Febres Cordero 1921, pp. 116–160 passim, only six words.) *Aviamo - once spoken on the

Uribante River The Uribante River is a river of Venezuela, a tributary of the Apure River. The river is in the Orinoco basin. It drains part of the southern slope of the Táchira depression. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in ...

, state of Táchira. (Unattested.) *Tecua - once spoken on the Lengupa River and in the village of Teguas, department of Boyacá, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Yaguai - once spoken on the Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Cocaima - once spoken between the Setenta River and

Matiyure River Matiyure River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries i ...

, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Chacanta - once spoken on the Mucuchachi River, state of Mérida. (Unattested.) *Caparo - once spoken on the

Caparo River Caparo River ( es, Río Caparo) is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin and a tributary of the Sioca River, itself a tributary of the Apure River. See also * List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Vene ...

, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Támud - once spoken northeast of the Sagamoso River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Burgua - once spoken near San Camilo on the Burgua River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Cuite - once spoken on the Cuite River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Queniquea - once spoken in the same hill region in Colombia on the Pereno River. (Unattested.) *Chucuna - once spoken between the Manacacías River and

Vichada River The Vichada River ( es, Río Vichada, ) is a blackwater river in the country of Colombia, South America. It flows into the Orinoco River. The eastward course of the Vichada is offset by an impact structure An impact structure is a generally c ...

, territories of Meta and Vichada, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Guayupe - spoken on the

Güejar River Güejar River is a river of Colombia. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. Geography Güejar River flows from the Cordillera Oriental.Philippe Conrad, ''Gold in the Jungle'', 1990, p. 225 See also *List of rivers of Colombia Atlantic Oce ...

and Ariari River, Meta territory. *Sae - once spoken by the neighbors of the Guayupe tribe in the same region. (Unattested.) *Sutagao - spoken once on the

Pasca River Pasca is a town and municipality in the Cundinamarca department of Colombia located in the Andes. It belongs to the Sumapaz Province. Pasca is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense at a distance of from the capital Bogotá. It borders Fusag ...

and

Sumapaz River The Sumapaz River ( es, Río Sumapaz) is a major tributary of the Magdalena River in Colombia. The long river originates in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes at the largest páramo in the world; Sumapaz, of which it takes its name. It fo ...

, Meta territory. (Unattested.) *Chocue / Choque - once spoken on the Herorú River and Guayabero River, Meta territory. (Unattested.) *Eperigua - once spoken at the sources of the

and near San Juan de los Llanos, Meta territory. (Unattested.) *Aricagua - once spoken in the state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Achagua - spoken on the

and

Arauca River The Arauca River ( es, Río Arauca) rises in the Andes Mountains of north-central Colombia and ends at the Orinoco in Venezuela. For part of its run it is the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela. The major city on its banks is Arauca, Co ...

in the department of Boyacá and territory of Meta, Colombia. *Piapoco / Mitua / Dzáse - spoken on the

Guaviare River The Guaviare is a tributary of the Orinoco in Colombia. It flows together with the upper Orinoco (until here also called Río Parágua), which it clearly surpasses in length (altogether about 1760 km) and water flow. Thus, the Guaviare is hydrol ...

, territory of Vaupés, Colombia. *Cabere / Cabre - once spoken on the Teviare River and Zama River, Vichada territory. *Maniba / Camaniba - spoken by a little known tribe that lived on the middle course of the

, Vaupés territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Amarizana - extinct language once spoken on the Vera River and Aguas Blancas River, territory of Meta. ;Maypure group *Maypure - extinct language once spoken in the village of Maipures, Vichada territory, Colombia. Inhabitants now speak only Spanish. *Avani / Abane - once spoken on the Auvana River and Tipapa River, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. (Gilij 1780-1784, vol. 3, p. 383, only six words.) ;Guinau group *Baníva - language spoken on the

Orinoco River The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers , with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the wo ...

, especially in the village of San Fernando de Atabapo, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. *Yavitero / Pareni / Yavitano - spoken on the

Atabapo River Atabapo River is a river of Venezuela and Colombia. It forms the international boundary between the two countries for much of its length. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in V ...

in the village of Yavita. ;Guinau group *Guinau / Inao / Guniare / Temomeyéme / Quinhau - once spoken at the sources of the Caura River and Merevari River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela, now perhaps extinct. ;Baré group *Baré / Ihini / Arihini - spoken on the

Casiquiare River The Casiquiare river () is a distributary of the upper Orinoco flowing southward into the Rio Negro, in Venezuela, South America. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems. It is the world's largest ...

, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela, and on the upper course of the Negro River, state of Amazonas, Brazil. *Uarequena - spoken on the

Guainía River The Rio Negro ( pt, Rio Negro, br ; es, Río Negro} "''Black River''"), or Guainía as it is known in its upper part, is the largest left tributary of the Amazon River (accounting for about 14% of the water in the Amazon basin), the largest b ...

, Vaupés territory, Colombia. *Adzáneni / Adyána / Izaneni - spoken at the sources of the Caiarí River and on the Apui River, frontier of Colombia and Brazil. *Carútana / Corecarú / Yauareté-tapuya - spoken on the frontier between Colombia and Brazil on the

Içana River Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east un ...

. *Katapolítani / Acayaca / Cadaupuritani - spoken on the

in the village of Tunuhy, Brazil. *Siusí / Ualíperi-dákeni / Uereperidákeni - spoken on the lower course of the Caiarí River and

and on the middle course of the

Aiari River Aiari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 mi ...

, state of Amazonas, Brazil. *Moriwene / Sucuriyú-tapuya - spoken on the

in the village of Seringa Upita, state of Amazonas, Brazil. *Mapanai / Ira-tapuya - spoken on the

near

Cachoeira Yandú Cachoeira ( Portuguese, meaning waterfall) is an inland municipality of Bahia, Brazil, on the Paraguaçu River. The town exports sugar, cotton, and tobacco and is a thriving commercial and industrial centre. The municipality contains 56% of the ...

, state of Amazonas. *Hohodene / Huhúteni - spoken on the

Cubate River Cubate River is a river of Amazonas state in northwestern Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 mi ...

, state of Amazonas. *Maulieni / Káua-tapuya - spoken on the

, state of Amazonas. ;Ipéca group *Ipéca / Kumada-mínanei / Baniva de rio Içana - spoken on the

near the village of San Pedro, frontier region of Brazil and Colombia. *Payualiene / Payoariene / Pacu-tapuya - spoken in the same frontier region on the Arara-paraná River. *Curipaco - spoken on the

, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. *Kárro - spoken in the territory of Amazonas on the Puitana River. *Kapité-Mínanei / Coatí-tapuya - spoken at the sources of the

, Vaupés territory, Colombia. ;Tariana group *Tariana / Yavi - spoken in the villages of Ipanoré and Yauareté on the Caiarí River, Vaupés Territory, Colombia. *Iyäine / Kumandene / Yurupary-tapuya - spoken in the same region north of the Tariana tribe. Now only Tucano is spoken. (Unattested.) *Cauyari / Acaroa / Cabuyarí - once spoken on the Cananari River and on the middle course of the

Apaporis River The Apaporis River is a river of the Vaupés Department, Colombia. It is a tributary of the Caquetá or Japurá River. In the last stretch before the river joins the Caquetá it forms part of the boundary between Colombia and Brazil Braz ...

, territory of Amazonas, Colombia. Now perhaps extinct. ;Mandauáca group *Mandauáca / Maldavaca - spoken on the Baria River, Capabury River, and Pasimoni River, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. *Cunipúsana - once spoken in Amazonas territory on the Siapa River. (Unattested.) ;Manáo group *Manáo / Oremanao / Manoa - extinct language once spoken around the modern city of Manaus on the Negro River, state of Amazonas, Brazil. *Arina - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Marauiá River, Amazonas state. (Unattested.) *Cariay / Carihiahy - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River, Araçá River, and

Padauari River Padauari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 ...

, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil. *Bahuana - spoken between the

and Araçá River. (Unattested.) *Uaranacoacena - extinct language once spoken between the

Branco River The Branco River ( pt, Rio Branco; Engl: ''White River'') is the principal affluent of the Rio Negro from the north. Basin The river drains the Guayanan Highlands moist forests ecoregion. It is enriched by many streams from the Tepui highlands ...

, Negro River, and Araçá River, Amazonas. (Unattested.) *Arauaqui - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River and Uatuma River. A few descendants now speak only

Lingua Geral Lingua (Latin, 'tongue') may refer to: * ''Lingua'' (journal), a peer-reviewed academic journal of general linguistics * ''Lingua'' (sculpture), by Jim Sanborn * ''Lingua'' (play), a 17th-century play attributed to Thomas Tomkis * Project Ling ...

or Portuguese. (Unattested.) *Dapatarú - once spoken between the Uatuma River and Urubu River and on the island of Saracá, Amazonas. (Unattested.) *Aniba - once spoken on the

Aniba River ''Aniba'' is an American neotropical flowering plant genus in the family Lauraceae. They are present in low and mountain cloud forest in Caribbean islands, Central America, and northern to central South America. Description They are shrubs ...

and around Saracá lagoon. (Unattested.) *Caboquena - once spoken on the Urubu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.) *Caburichena - once spoken on the right bank of the Negro River. (Unattested.) *Seden - once spoken between the Uatuma River and Negro River. (Unattested.) ;Uirina group *Uirina - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Marari River, territory of Rio Branco. *Yabaána / Jabâ-ana / Hobacana - language of a tribe in the territory of Rio Branco, on the Marauiá River and Cauaburi River. *Anauyá - spoken by a little known tribe on the

Castaño River Castaño is a Spanish surname meaning "auburn". *Carlos Castaño Gil (1965–2004), founder of the Peasant Self-Defense Forces of Córdoba and Urabá (ACCU), an extreme right paramilitary organization in Colombia *Carlos Castaño Panadero (born 19 ...

, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. ;Chiriána group *Chiriána / Barauána - spoken between the Marari River and Demini River, territory of Rio Branco. ;Yukúna group *Yukúna - spoken on the Miritíparaná River, Amazonas territory, Colombia. *Matapí - spoken in the same region, Amazonas territory, near Campoamor. (Unattested.) *Guarú / Garú - spoken on the Mamurá River, Cuama River, and

Meta River The Meta River is a major left tributary of the Orinoco River in eastern Colombia and southern Venezuela, South America. The Meta originates in the Eastern Ranges of the Andes and flows through the Meta Department, Colombia as the confluence of ...

, territory of Caquetá, Colombia. ;Resigaro group *Resigaro / Rrah~nihin / Rosigaro - spoken by a few families on the Igaraparaná River near Casa Arana. ;Araicú group *Marawa / Maragua - spoken in the nineteenth century between the

Juruá River The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characterist ...

and Jutai River, now in a single village at the mouth of the

, Amazonas. ;Araicú group *Araicú / Waraikú - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Jandiatuba River and on the right bank of the Jutai River, Amazonas. ;Uainumá group *Uainumá / Ajuano / Wainumá / Inabishana / Uainamby-tapuya / Uaypi - extinct language once spoken on the

Upi River United Press International (UPI) is an American international news agency whose newswires, photo, news film, and audio services provided news material to thousands of newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations for most of the 20th c ...

, a tributary of the Içá River, Amazonas. *Mariaté / Muriaté - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the Içá River. ;Jumana group *Jumana / Shomana - extinct language once spoken on the Puruê River and Juami River, Amazonas state. *Passé / Pazé - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River,

Japurá River The Japurá River or Caquetá River is a river about long in the Amazon basin. It rises in Colombia and flows eastward through Brazil to join the Amazon River. Course The river rises as the Caquetá River in the Andes in southwest Colombia. ...

, and Içá River. The few descendants now speak only Portuguese. ;Cauishana group *Cauishana / Kayuishana / Noll-hína - now spoken by a few families on the

Tocantins River The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...

and on

Lake Mapari A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, although, like the much larger ...

, Amazonas. *Pariana - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Marauiá River. (Unattested.) ;Pre-Andine group *Campa / Anti / Atzíri / Thampa / Kuruparia - spoken on the

Urubamba River The Urubamba River or Vilcamayo River (possibly from Quechua ''Willkamayu'', for "sacred river") is a river in Peru. Upstream it is called Vilcanota River (possibly from Aymara ''Willkanuta'', for "house of the sun"). Within the La Convención ...

and

Ucayali River The Ucayali River ( es, Río Ucayali, ) is the main headstream of the Amazon River. It rises about north of Lake Titicaca, in the Arequipa region of Peru and becomes the Amazon at the confluence of the Marañón close to Nauta city. The city of ...

, department of Cuzco, Peru. *Machiganga / Ugunichire / Mashigango - spoken in the department of Cuzco on the

Mantaro River The Mantaro River ( es, Río Mantaro, qu, Hatunmayu) is a long river running through the central region of Peru. Its Quechua name means "great river". The word "Mantaro" may be a word originally from the Asháninka language, who live downstream ...

, Apurimac River,

, and Paucartambo River. Dialects are: **Chanchamayo - spoken on the Perené River. **Catongo - spoken on the Tambo River. **Machiringa - spoken on the Apurimac River and

Ene River The Ene River ( es, Río Ene; que, Iniy mayu) is a Peruvian river on the eastern slopes of the South American Andes. Geography Headwaters The Ene is formed at at the confluence of the Mantaro River and the Apurímac River, circa 400 m abov ...

. (Unattested.) *Piro / Simirinche - spoken in the

department of Loreto Loreto () is Peru's northernmost department and region. Covering almost one-third of Peru's territory, Loreto is by far the nation's largest department; it is also one of the most sparsely populated regions due to its remote location in the Am ...

on the Inuya River. *Chontaquiro - spoken on the

Iaco River Iaco River is a river of Acre and Amazonas states in western Brazil. See also * List of rivers of Acre *List of rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state) List of rivers in Amazonas ( Brazilian State). The list is arranged by drainage basin, with ...

, Caeté River, and

Chandless River Chandless River is a river of Peru and the Acre The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor, or imperialism. Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to: Places United States ...

, territory of Acre, Brazil. *Mashco / Sirineiri / Moeno - spoken on the Pilcopata River, department of Madre de Dios, Peru. *Curia - spoken on the Murú River and Embira River, Acre, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) *Quirineri - spoken on the Paucartambo River and Manu River, department of Cuzco (Oppenheim 1948). *Maneteneri - extinct language from the

Purus River The Purus River (Portuguese: ''Rio Purus''; Spanish: ''Río Purús'') is a tributary of the Amazon River in South America. Its drainage basin is , and the mean annual discharge (hydrology), discharge is . The river shares its name with the Alto P ...

, Aquirí River, Caspatá River, and Araçá River, Acre territory. *Inapari / Mashco Piro - spoken between the Tacutimani River and Amigo River, department of Madre de Dios, now perhaps extinct. *Huachipairi - extinct language once spoken on the Cosñipata River and Pilcopata River, department of Madre de Dios. *Kushichineri / Cushitineri - spoken in Acre territory on the Curumaha River by a small tribe. *Cuniba - extinct language once spoken between the Juruazinho River and Jutaí River and on the

Mapuá River The Mapuá River ( pt, Rio Mapuá) is a river of Pará state in north-central Brazil. It is a left tributary of the Aramá River. Course The Mapuá River rises on the island of Marajó in the delta region where the Amazon and Tocantins rive ...

, state of Amazonas. *Puncuri - spoken on the Puncuri River, Acre. (Unattested.) *Kanamare / Canamirim - spoken in the same territory on the Acre, Irariapé River and Abuña River, now probably extinct. *Epetineri - once spoken on the Pijiria River, tributary of the

, Peru. (Unattested.) *Pucapucari - once spoken on the Camisia River and Tunquini River, Peru. (Unattested.) *Tucurina - spoken by a few individuals on the Igarapé Cuchicha River, a tributary of the

, Acre. (Unattested.) ;Ipurina group *Ipurina / Apurimã / Kangiti - spoken along the

from the mouth of the Sepatiní River to the mouth of the Yaco River, Amazonas. *Casharari - spoken by a little known tribe inhabiting the tropical forests between the Abuña River and Ituxí River and on the tributaries, Curequeta River and Iquirí River, in Acre. (Unattested.) ;Apolista group *Apolista / Lapachu / Aguachile - extinct language once spoken in the old mission of

Apolobamba Apolobamba ''(Cordillera (de) Apolobamba)'' is a mountain range in the South American Andes. Geographical Location It is located in the eastern borderland of Peru and Bolivia. On the Bolivian side it is situated in the La Paz Department and on ...

, province of La Paz, Bolivia. ;Mojo group *Mojo / Ignaciano / Morocosi - spoken on the

Mamoré River The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is ...

and on the plains of Mojos, Beni province, Bolivia. *Baure / Chiquimiti - spoken on the Blanco River and around the city of

Baures Baures is a village in Iténez Province, Beni Department, in northern Bolivia. It is the capital of Baures Municipality Baures Municipality is a municipality of the Beni Department, Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia ( ...

in the same region. *Muchojeone - extinct language once spoken at the old mission El Carmen in Beni province, Bolivia. *Suberiono - extinct language once spoken west of the

and the Guapay River, Bolivia. (Unattested.) *Pauna - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Baures River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia. *Paicone - extinct language from the sources of the Paragúa River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia. ;Paresi group *Sarave / Zarabe - spoken on the

Verde River The Verde River (Yavapai: Haka'he:la) is a major tributary of the Salt River in the U.S. state of Arizona. It is about long and carries a mean flow of at its mouth. It is one of the largest perennial streams in Arizona. Description The riv ...

and Paragúa River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia, now perhaps extinct. *Parecí / Arití / Maimbari / Mahibarez - language with dialects: **Caxinití - spoken on the

Sumidouro River The Sumidouro River is a river of Santa Catarina state in southeastern Brazil. It is part of the Uruguay River basin and a tributary of the Lava-Tudo River. See also *List of rivers of Santa Catarina References Mapfrom Ministry of Transport ...

, Sepotuba River, and Sucuriú River, Mato Grosso, Brazil. **Waimaré - spoken in Mato Grosso on the

and Timalatía River. **Kozariní / Pareci-Cabixi - spoken in Mato Grosso on the

Juba River The Jubba River or Juba River ( so, Wabiga Jubba) is a river in southern Somalia which flows through the autonomous region of Jubaland. It begins at the border with Ethiopia, where the Dawa and Ganale Dorya rivers meet, and flows directly south ...

Cabaçal River The Cabaçal River (Portuguese, Rio Cabaçal) is a river of Mato Grosso state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Paraguay River. Bororo of Cabaçal, an indigenous language that is now extinct, was formerly spoken around the river.Feest, ...

, Jaurú River,

Guaporé River Guaporé River ( pt, Rio Guaporé, es, Río Iténez) is a river in western Brazil and northeastern Bolivia. It is long; of the river forms the border between Brazil and Bolivia. The Guaporé River is part of the Madeira River basin, which even ...

, Papagaio River, Burití River, and Juruena River. **Uariteré - spoken on the

Pimenta Bueno River The Pimenta Bueno River is a river of Rondônia Rondônia () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the northern subdivision of the country (central-western part). To the west is a short border with the state of Acre, to the north is th ...

, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.) ;Chané group *Chané / Izoceño - formerly spoken on the

Itiyuro River The Itiyuro River is a river of Argentina. See also *List of rivers of Argentina This is a list of rivers of Argentina. Longest Rivers By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries indented under each ...

, Salta province, Argentina, but now the tribe speaks only a language of the Tupi stock and the old language serves only for religious ceremonies. (only a few words.) *Guaná / Layano - once spoken on the Yacaré River and Galván River, Paraguay, now on the Miranda River, Mato Grosso, Brazil. *Terena - spoken in Mato Grosso on the Miranda River and Jijui River. *Echoaladí / Choarana - extinct language once spoken in Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) *Quiniquinao / Equiniquinao - once spoken near Albuquerque, now by only a few families on the Posto Cachoeirinha near

Miranda, Mato Grosso do Sul Miranda is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. A ...

. ;Waurá group *Waurá - spoken on the Batoví River (a tributary of the

Xingú River The Xingu River ( ; pt, Rio Xingu, ; Mẽbêngôkre: ''Byti'', ) is a river in north Brazil. It is a southeast tributary of the Amazon River and one of the largest clearwater rivers in the Amazon basin, accounting for about 5% of its water. ...

) Mato Grosso. *Kustenáu - spoken in the same region, Mato Grosso, on the Batoví River and Jatobá River *Yaulapíti / Yawarapiti / Ualapiti - spoken between the Meinacu River and

Curisevú River The Curisevo River (or Curisevú River) is a river of Mato Grosso state in western Brazil. It flows through the Xingu Indigenous Park.Kahn, Marina; Campanili, Maura (eds.). Almanaque Socioambiental Parque Indígena do Xingu: 50 anos'. São Paulo: I ...

, Mato Grosso. *Mehináku / Meinacu / Mináko - spoken between the Batoví River and

. *Agavotocueng - spoken by an unknown tribe between the

and

Culuene River The Culuene River, or Kuluene River is a 600 km tributary of Xingu River in Mato Grosso, a state in western Brazil. The main economic activities in the region are agriculture and cattle farming. It joins the Xingu from the southeast in the X ...

. (Unattested.) ;Marawan group *Marawan / Maraon - spoken on the

Oiapoque River The Oyapock or Oiapoque (; ; ) is a long river in South America that forms most of the border between the French overseas department of French Guiana and the Brazilian state of Amapá. Course The Oyapock runs through the Guianan moist f ...

and Curipi River, Amapá territory. *Caripurá / Karipuere - spoken in Amapá territory on the Urucauá River. *Palicur / Parikurú - once spoken on the middle course of the

Calçoene River Calçoene River is a river of Amapá state in north-eastern Brazil. In 1894, the river was at the heart of gold rush with there were 6,000 to 10,000 gold miners active in and around the river. See also *List of rivers of Amapá List of rivers ...

and on the upper course of the Casipore River, now on the Urucauá River in Amapá territory. *Caranariú - once spoken on the Urucauá River, now extinct. (Unattested.) *Tocoyene - once spoken in Amapá territory on the Uanarí River. (Unattested.) *Macapá - once spoken on the

Camopi River The Camopi is a long river in French Guiana. It rises in the south of the country, flowing northeast until it reaches the river Oyapock at the town of Camopi, on the border with Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Repub ...

and Yaroupi River, French Guiana, later on the upper course of the

Pará River The Pará River (), also called Parauaú River, Jacaré Grande River, Marajó River Channel, Macacos River Channel, Santa Maria River Channel and Bocas Bay, is a watercourse and immense estuarine complex that functions as a canal between the ...

, state of Pará, Brazil; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) *Tucujú - once spoken on the Jarí River, territory of Amapá, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) *Mapruan - once spoken on the Oiac River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.) ;Aruan group *Aruan / Aroã - originally spoken on the north coast of

Marajó Island Marajó () is a large coastal island in the state of Pará, Brazil. It is the main and largest of the islands in the Marajó Archipelago. Marajó Island is separated from the mainland by Marajó Bay, Pará River, smaller rivers (especially M ...

, Pará, later on the

Uaçá River Uaçá River is a river of Amapá state in Brazil. It is a tributary of the Oiapoque River. The town of Kumarumã Kumarumã is an Amerindian village of the Galibi Marwono people in the Brazilian municipality of Oiapoque, Amapá. It is the lar ...

, Amapá territory. A few descendants now speak only a French creole dialect. *Sacaca - extinct language once spoken in the eastern part of

. ;Moríque group *Moríque / Mayoruna - spoken on the border of Brazil and Peru, on the

Javarí River The Javary River, Javari River or Yavarí River ( es, Río Yavarí, links=no; pt, Rio Javari, links=no) is a tributary of the Amazon that forms the boundary between Brazil and Peru for more than . It is navigable by canoe for from above its ...

. ;Chamicuro group *Chamicuro - spoken on the Chamicuro River,

, Peru. *Chicluna - extinct language once spoken in the same region east of the Aguano tribe. (Unattested.) *Aguano / Awáno - extinct language of a tribe that lived on the lower course of the

Huallaga River The Huallaga River is a tributary of the Marañón River, part of the Amazon Basin. Old names for this river include ''Guallaga'' and ''Rio de los Motilones''. The Huallaga is born on the slopes of the Andes in central Peru and joins the Marañón ...

. The descendants, in the villages of San Lorenzo, San Xavier, and Santa Cruz, now speak only Quechua. (Unattested.) *Maparina - once spoken in the same region on the lower course of the

and at the old mission of Santiago. (Unattested.) *Cutinana - once spoken on the Samiria River, Loreto. (Unattested.) *Tibilo - once spoken in San Lorenzo village, Loreto region. (Unattested.) ;Lorenzo group *Amoishe / Amlsha / Amuescha / Amage / Lorenzo - once spoken on the Paucartambo River and

Colorado River The Colorado River ( es, Río Colorado) is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The river drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. s ...

, department of Cuzco, Peru; now mainly Quechua is spoken. *Chunatahua - once spoken at the mouth of the Chinchao River, department of Huánuco, Peru. (Unattested.) *Panatahua - spoken in the same region on the right bank of the

between Coyumba and

Monzón Monzón is a small city and municipality in the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. Its population was 17,176 as of 2014. It is in the northeast (specifically the Cinca Medio district of the province of Huesca) and adjoins the rivers Cinca a ...

, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) *Chusco - once spoken in the same region as Panatahua near

Huánuco Huánuco (; qu, Wanuku) is a city in central Peru. It had a population of 196,627 as of 2017 and in 2015 it had a population of 175,068. It is the capital of the Huánuco Region and the Huánuco District. It is the seat of the diocese of Hu� ...

. (Unattested.) ;Guahibo group *Guahibo - language spoken by many tribes in Colombia and Venezuela on the

, and

. *Dialects: *Cuiloto - spoken on the Cuiloto River and Cravo Norte River, Arauca territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Cuiva - spoken on the

, Vichada territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Amorúa - spoken in the same region on the Bita River. (Unattested.) *Chiricoa - spoken on the Ele River and Lipa River, department of Arauca, on the Cravo Norte River and

, Arauca territory, Colombia, and on the Cinaruquito River, Cinamco River, Capanaparo River, and Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Hildebrandt ms.) *Sicuane - spoken on the Tuparro River, Vichada territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Cuiapo Pihibi - spoken on the

Tomo River Tomo River is a river of Colombia. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Colombia Atlantic Ocean Amazon River Basin * Amazon River ** Guainía River or Negro River *** Vaupés River or Uaupés River **** Pa ...

, Vichada territory. (Unattested.) *Yamu - spoken on the right bank of the Ariari River, Meta territory. (Unattested.) *Catarro - spoken in the Meta territory on the Yucavo River and in the old mission of San Miguel de Salivas. (Unattested.) *Chumya / Bisanigua - language, now probably extinct, once spoken on the

and in El Piñal. *Guayabero / Guyaverun - spoken in the Meta territory on the Guayabero River.

Arawakan vs. Maipurean

In 1783, the Italian priest

Filippo Salvatore Gilii Filippo Salvatore Gilii (Spanish: Felipe Salvador Gilij) (1721–1789) was an Italian Jesuit priest who lived in the Province of Venezuela (in present day central Venezuela) on the Orinoco River. Gilii is a highly celebrated figure in early South ...

recognized the unity of the

of the Orinoco and Moxos of Bolivia; he named their family ''Maipure''. It was renamed ''Arawak'' by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) after

Arawak The Arawak are a group of indigenous peoples of northern South America and of the Caribbean. Specifically, the term "Arawak" has been applied at various times to the Lokono of South America and the Taíno, who historically lived in the Greater ...

in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents are ''Maipurean'' or ''Maipuran'' and ''Arawak'' or ''Arawakan''. The term ''Arawakan'' is now used in two senses. South American scholars use ''Aruák'' for the family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding the

Guajiboan Guajiboan (also Guahiban, Wahívoan, Guahiboan) is a language family spoken in the Orinoco River region in eastern Colombia and southwestern Venezuela, a savanna region known as the Llanos. Family division Guajiboan consists of 5 languages: ...

and Arawan families. In North America, scholars use the name ''Maipurean'' to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes called ''core Arawak(an)'' or ''Arawak(an) proper'' instead. Kaufman (1990: 40) relates the following:

he Arawakanname is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all the ''living'' Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.

Characteristics

The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefix ''nu-'', but Arawak proper has ''ta-''. Other commonalities include a second-person singular ''pi-'', relative ''ka-'', and negative ''ma-''. The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana. Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: the ''Quinquinaos'', the ''Layanas'', etc. (This is the ''Moho-Mbaure'' group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, the ''Aruan'' people spoke an Arawak dialect. The peninsula of Goajira (north of

) is occupied by the Goajires tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Goajires. C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson's ''British Guiana'' manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.

Phonology

Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999): For more detailed notes on specific languages see Aikhenvald (1999) pp. 76–77.

Shared morphological traits

General morphological type

Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.

Alienable and inalienable possession

Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed.Aikhenvald (1999), p. 82. This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below: : :

Classifiers

Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase.Aikhenvald (1999), p. 83. The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause: : :

Subject and object cross-referencing on the verb

Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb. The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment: : : : The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:

Some examples

The Arawak word for corn is ''marisi,'' and various forms of this word are found among the related languages: :

, ''marisi'', Guyana. :

, ''mahisi'', Greater Antilles. : Cauixana, ''mazy'', Rio Jupura. :

, ''maikki'', Goajira Peninsula. : Passes, ''mary'', Lower Jupura. :

Puri Puri () is a coastal city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as ''S ...

, ''maky'', Rio Paraiba. :

Wauja The Waura or Wauja (waujá) are an indigenous people of Brazil. Their language, Waura, is an Arawakan language. They live in the region near the Upper Xingu River, in the Xingu Indigenous Park, and had a population of 487 in 2010. History The W ...

, ''mainki'', Upper Xingu River.

Geographic distribution

Arawak is the largest family in the Americas with the respect to number of languages. The Arawakan languages are spoken by peoples occupying a large swath of territory, from the eastern slopes of the central

Andes Mountains The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S l ...

Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...

and

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

, across the

Amazon basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Boli ...

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

, northward into

Suriname Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north ...

, Guyana,

French Guiana French Guiana ( or ; french: link=no, Guyane ; gcr, label=French Guianese Creole, Lagwiyann ) is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France on the northern Atlantic ...

Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much List of islands of Trinidad and Tobago, small ...

and Colombia on the northern coast of South America, and as far north as

Nicaragua Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean Sea, Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to ...

, Honduras,

Belize Belize (; bzj, Bileez) is a Caribbean and Central American country on the northeastern coast of Central America. It is bordered by Mexico to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Guatemala to the west and south. It also shares a wa ...

and Guatemala. The languages used to be found in

Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, t ...

and

Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...

as well. Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago, settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of the

Cusabo The Cusabo or Cosabo were a group of American Indian tribes who lived along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in what is now South Carolina, approximately between present-day Charleston and south to the Savannah River, at the time of European colon ...

and Congaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.

, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands of

Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...

Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...

, and the

. A few Taino words are still used by

English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national id ...

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: ** Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Ca ...

, or Haitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be the

Wayuu language Wayuu ( guc, Wayuunaiki ), or Guajiro, is a major Arawakan language spoken by 305,000 indigenous Wayuu people in northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia on the Guajira Peninsula. There are 200,000 speakers of Wayuu in Venezuela and 1 ...

, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taíno

refugee A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution.

s, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.

(or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent. It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers in Honduras,

, Guatemala and

combined. Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recent ''Ta-''Arawakan (''Ta-''Maipurean) groups:

oajiro with about 300,000 speakers; and

, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next; Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comes Terêna, with 10,000 speakers; and Yanesha' mueshawith 6–8,000.

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Arawakan languages.

Proto-language

Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Aikhenvald (2002):Aikhenvald, A. (2002). Language contact in Amazonia. Oxford University Press. Accessed fro
DiACL
9 February 2020. For lists of Proto-Arawakan reconstructions by Jolkesky (2016) and Ramirez (2019),Ramirez, Henri (2019).
Enciclopédia das línguas arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados
'. (in press) see the corresponding Portuguese article.

Notes

References

* Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1999). The Arawak language family. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (Eds.), ''The Amazonian languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; . * de Goeje, C. H., (1928). ''The Arawak language of Guiana'', Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Afdeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks. * Deniker, Joseph. (1900). ''The races of man: an outline of anthropology and ethnography''. * Garifuna. (2015). In M. P. Lewis, G. F. Simmons, & C. D. Fennig (Eds.), ''Ethnologue: Languages of the world'' (18th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. * Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), ''Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages'' (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. . * Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R.E. Asher (Eds.), ''Atlas of the world's languages'' (pp. 46–76). London:

Routledge Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law, ...

. * Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Arawakan". ''Glottolog''. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. * Rudes, Blair A
"Pre-Columbian Links to the Caribbean: Evidence Connecting Cusabo to Taino"
paper presented at ''Language Variety in the South III'' conference, Tuscaloosa, AL, 16 April 2004. *

External links

Arawak Languages - Linguistics - Oxford Bibliographies

South American Phonological Inventory Database
{{Authority control Language families Macro-Arawakan languages

Name

Dispersal

Language contact

Languages

Kaufman (1994)

Aikhenvald (1999)

Ramirez (2001)

Walker & Ribeiro (2011)

Jolkesky (2016)

Nikulin & Carvalho (2019)

Ramirez (2020)

Varieties

Arawakan vs. Maipurean

Characteristics

Phonology

Shared morphological traits

General morphological type

Alienable and inalienable possession

Classifiers

Subject and object cross-referencing on the verb

Some examples

Geographic distribution

Vocabulary

Proto-language

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links