Landwehr (border)
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The terms ''landwehr'' ("land defence"), ''landgraben'' ("land ditch") and ''landhege'' ("land enclosure") refer to border demarcations or border defences and enclosures in Central Europe that were either built by settlements with the right of
enclosure Enclosure or inclosure is a term, used in English landownership, that refers to the appropriation of "waste" or "common land", enclosing it, and by doing so depriving commoners of their traditional rights of access and usage. Agreements to enc ...
or to mark and defend entire
territories A territory is an area of land, sea, or space, belonging or connected to a particular country, person, or animal. In international politics, a territory is usually a geographic area which has not been granted the powers of self-government, ...
. These measures, usually comprising earthworks or dykes as well as ditches and impenetrable lines of hedging, for protecting towns and villages date mainly to the
High High may refer to: Science and technology * Height * High (atmospheric), a high-pressure area * High (computability), a quality of a Turing degree, in computability theory * High (tectonics), in geology an area where relative tectonic uplift t ...
and
Late Middle Ages The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the Periodization, period of History of Europe, European history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period ( ...
and consist, in some cases, of systems over a hundred kilometres long. Comparable earthworks have been recorded since Antiquity. The Roman ''
limes Limes may refer to: * ''Limes'' (Roman Empire), a border marker and defense system of the Roman Empire * ''Limes'' (Italian magazine), an Italian geopolitical magazine * ''Limes'' (Romanian magazine), a Romanian literary and political quarterly ma ...
'' are the best known examples of earlier ''landwehrs''. The
Danewerk The Danevirke or Danework (modern Danish spelling: ''Dannevirke''; in Old Norse: ''Danavirki'', in German: ''Danewerk'', literally meaning '' earthwork of the Danes'') is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. This h ...
is another example of this type of barrier. Many of these ''landwehrs'' have survived, especially in woods and forests, and are often protected as
heritage site A historic site or heritage site is an official location where pieces of political, military, cultural, or social history have been preserved due to their cultural heritage value. Historic sites are usually protected by law, and many have been rec ...
s.


Purpose

The construction of a ''landwehr'' was an effective way of protecting the population of a settlement or territory against attacks by neighbours or enemies in
feud A feud , also known in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, clan war, gang war, private war, or mob war, is a long-running argument or fight, often between social groups of people, especially family, families or clans. Feuds begin ...
s or war, and also to mark out the legal limits of an area. The ''landwehrs'' were a means of limiting the likelihood, success, effectiveness, and consequences of medieval warfare, and thus preventing them. They also hindered bands of robbers entering the area and hampered their retreat after a raid. The combination of fencing and thorn bushes was also useful in enclosing cattle pasture and as a guideline in wolf hunting. Wolf pits are often found along the line of a ''landwehr''. ''Landwehrs'' were also used to on a large-scale to enclose woods and agricultural areas for the protection of the local population, where they were settled in dispersed dwellings and farmsteads within the protected area. The ''landwehr'' offered protection for the peasantry, in a way analogous to the population of fortified towns who were guarded by a town wall. Often too, the fields and outlying areas surrounding many towns had a ring-shaped enclosure, a so-called ''Stadtlandwehr'' ("town Landwehr"), ''Stadthagen'' or ''Stadthege'' ("town enclosure"). An example of this is the Westphalian city of Dortmund, which, in addition to the city wall, also had a large ''landwehr'' surrounding it. As a map of 1748 portrays, Dortmund's Stone Tower was part of this ''landwehr'' ring. The only gaps in ''landwehr'' defences were on roads entering the area where, like the gates in a
town wall A defensive wall is a fortification usually used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. The walls can range from simple palisades or earthworks to extensive military fortifications such as curtain walls with to ...
, people and goods were checked as they passed through. For example, ''landwehrs'' often acted as effective customs posts, usually imposing a road toll.
Trade route A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. The term can also be used to refer to trade over land or water. Allowing goods to reach distant markets, a singl ...
s, particularly in the area of check points, were accompanied on both sides by ''landwehrs''. In addition to protecting travellers from ambushes, these ''landwehrs'' on either side of the route were mainly used to channel the flow of traffic and effectively prevent people bypassing or avoiding check points and customs posts.


History


Pre- and early history

Hedge A hedge or hedgerow is a line of closely spaced (3 feet or closer) shrubs and sometimes trees, planted and trained to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between neighbouring properties. Hedges that are used to separate ...
s are one of the most natural forms of boundary defence and enclosure. Their simplest and, even today, most common use is as a garden hedge. Even in
prehistoric Prehistory, also called pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the first known use of stone tools by hominins  million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use o ...
and
early historic Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history through late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the development of Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient hi ...
times, people built defensive enclosures using branches and
brambles ''Rubus'' is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, most commonly known as brambles. Fruits of various species are known as raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, and bristleberries. ...
for the protection of storage places (including caves), fortified residences, houses, estates and settlements from attack by
predator Predation is a biological interaction in which one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common List of feeding behaviours, feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation ...
s or enemies. This is common even today amongst
nomad Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the population of nomadic pa ...
ic tribes.
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...
tells e.g. of thick ''Hagen'' which were laid out by the
Nervii The Nervii or Nervians were one of the most powerful Belgae, Belgic tribes of northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome. Their territory corresponds to the central part of modern Belgium, including Brussels, and stretched southwards to C ...
, one of the most powerful
Belgic tribe The Belgae ( , ) were a large confederation of tribes living in northern Gaul, between the English Channel, the west bank of the Rhine, and the northern bank of the river Seine, from at least the third century BC. They were discussed in depth b ...
s: A more complicated form of defence was the classic
ditch A ditch is a small to moderate trench created to channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to drain water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways or fields, or to channel water from a more distant source for plant irrigation. Ditches ...
and
rampart Rampart may refer to: * Rampart (fortification), a defensive wall or bank around a castle, fort or settlement Rampart may also refer to: * LAPD Rampart Division, a division of the Los Angeles Police Department ** Rampart scandal, a blanket ter ...
system. In A.D. 16,
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
reported a border fortification built by the
Angrivarii The Angrivarii (or ''Angrivari'') were a Germanic people of the early Roman Empire, who lived in what is now northwest Germany near the middle of the Weser river. They were mentioned by the Roman authors Tacitus and Ptolemy. They were part of t ...
, the Angrivarian Wall, which was erected to defend them against the
Cherusci The Cherusci were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the plains and forests of northwestern Germania in the area of the Weser River and present-day Hanover during the first centuries BC and AD. Roman sources reported they considered thems ...
. A great battle was fought there in 16 AD. The most important border fortifications were said to have been at
Rehburg-Loccum Rehburg-Loccum () is a town 50 km north west of Hanover in the district of Nienburg in Lower Saxony, Germany. Geography Geographical location Rehburg-Loccum borders the Steinhude Lake. The closest cities are Wunstorf and Neustadt in the ...
. The ''
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the ninth century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of ...
'' speaks of a Bebbanburg around A.D. 547, which was ''"first fortified by a hedge"''. The
capitularies A capitulary (medieval Latin ) was a series of legislative or administrative acts emanating from the Frankish court of the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties, especially that of Charlemagne, the first emperor of the Romans in the west since th ...
of
Charlemagne Charlemagne ( ; 2 April 748 – 28 January 814) was List of Frankish kings, King of the Franks from 768, List of kings of the Lombards, King of the Lombards from 774, and Holy Roman Emperor, Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian ...
also mention ''"ramparts planted with hedges"''. In
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
, similar fortifications are called " dykes" or ditches. For example,
Bokerley Dyke Bokerley Dyke, Bokerly Dyke, Bokerley Ditch, is a linear earthwork long on Cranborne Chase in Dorset, partially running along the county's border with Hampshire between Woodyates and Martin. It is part of a Scheduled Monument together with Grim ...
was built around A.D. 360, transitioning into
Grim's Ditch Grim's Ditch, Grim's Dyke (also Grimsdyke or Grimes Dike in derivative names) or Grim's Bank is a name shared by a number of prehistoric bank and ditch linear earthworks across England. They are of different dates and may have had different funct ...
which dates to 300 B.C., or the 270-kilometre-long
Offa's Dyke Offa's Dyke () is a large linear Earthworks (Archaeology), earthwork that roughly follows the England–Wales border, border between England and Wales. The structure is named after Offa of Mercia, Offa, the Anglo-Saxons, Anglo-Saxon king of Mer ...
. In the case of the Normans, too, the existence of ''Hagediken'' - embankments planted with hedges - is recorded.


Middle Ages and Modern Period

As a rule, mediaeval ''landwehrs'' consist of one or more impenetrable lines of hedging made of pleached
hornbeam Hornbeams are hardwood trees in the plant genus ''Carpinus'' in the family Betulaceae. Its species occur across much of the temperateness, temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Common names The common English name ''hornbeam'' derives ...
– (the ''Gebück'') - underplanted with thorny bushes such as
blackthorn ''Prunus spinosa'', called blackthorn or sloe, is an Old World species of flowering plant in the rose family, Rosaceae. It is locally naturalized in parts of the New World. The fruits are used to make sloe gin in Britain and patxaran in Basq ...
, hawthorn, dog rose,
brambles ''Rubus'' is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, most commonly known as brambles. Fruits of various species are known as raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, and bristleberries. ...
or
holly ''Ilex'' () or holly is a genus of over 570 species of flowering plants in the family Aquifoliaceae, and the only living genus in that family. ''Ilex'' has the most species of any woody dioecious angiosperm genus. The species are evergreen o ...
– (the ''Gedörn''). In addition there was also usually a combination of one or more of the following elements: * One or more parallel earthen ramparts between or on which the hedge was planted * A path for the maintenance of the hedge and for patrolling the ''landwehr'' * Ditches in front, between and behind the ramparts, which were sometimes filled with water, depending on the location e.g. in a valley. As a rule, the ramparts were made from the excavation of the ditches. *
Watchtower A watchtower or guardtower (also spelt watch tower, guard tower) is a type of military/paramilitary or policiary tower used for guarding an area. Sometimes fortified, and armed with heavy weaponry, especially historically, the structures are ...
s, '' schanzen'',
abatis An abatis, abattis, or abbattis is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced ...
and ''haspels'' at the checkpoints where roads passed through the ''landwehr'' * A "wet border" created by flooding and water ditches From the time after the Frankish colonisation of Central Europe until the late
Late Middle Ages The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the Periodization, period of History of Europe, European history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period ( ...
, the creation of fixed sovereign territories ruled by lords and princes led to the establishment of territorial ''landwehrs'' which enclosed the land which was legally held by states and settlements. The territories of '' Gaue'', counties (''Zenten''), regional magistracies (often coterminous with church parishes), '' Ämter'' and even entire states were enclosed by ''landwehrs'' in the form of defensive hedges. There were also ''Landhagen'' and ''Stadthagen'', which were arranged in a circular shape around smaller settlements. The ''Landhegen'' bordered and protected entire regions as well as the areas surrounding towns and cities, for example the almost 70-kilometre-long Aachen Landgraben the former Aachener Reich, similar to the ones in
Frankfurt Frankfurt am Main () is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the List of cities in Germany by population, fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located in the forela ...
, Rothenburg,
Lübeck Lübeck (; or ; Latin: ), officially the Hanseatic League, Hanseatic City of Lübeck (), is a city in Northern Germany. With around 220,000 inhabitants, it is the second-largest city on the German Baltic Sea, Baltic coast and the second-larg ...
or
Mühlhausen Mühlhausen () is a town in the north-west of Thuringia, Germany, north of Niederdorla, the country's Central Germany (geography)#Geographical centre, geographical centre, north-west of Erfurt, east of Kassel and south-east of Göttingen ...
. The traces of the Rothenburg Landhege are still about 60 km long today, the Mühlhäusen Landgraben, still some 26 km long, recalls the border between Mühlhausen and
Eichsfeld The Eichsfeld ( or ; 'Oak-field') is a historical region in the southeast of the state of Lower Saxony (which is called , 'lower Eichsfeld') and northwest of the state of Thuringia (, 'upper Eichsfeld') in the south of the Harz mountains in Germany ...
. These earthworks served several functions. They marked, protected and helped to bring peace to territories that were under their reeve (''Greve''),
count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...
(''Graf'') or ''
Amtmann __NOTOC__ The ''Amtmann'' or ''Ammann'' (in Switzerland) was an official in German-speaking countries of Europe and in some of the Nordic countries from the time of the Middle Ages whose office was akin to that of a bailiff A bailiff is a ...
''. This grouping of tasks for the protection of defended territories (''Landwehr'') resonated with the term ''Hege'' (a range of measures concerning hunting and wildlife) in terms such as ''Hege, Heege, Hag, Haag'' or ''Hecke'', but also with the term ''Schutzhecke'' or "protective hedge". Numerous
toponym Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of ''wikt:toponym, toponyms'' (proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage, and types. ''Toponym'' is the general term for ...
s such as ''Zarge, Gebück, Wehrholz'' or ''Gehag'' recall different variants of these defensive structures as e.g. hedges, excavation works or staggered constructions. The main objective of these barriers was to protect the population and their land from the hostile claims, raids, predations and warlike assaults of other princes. ''Landwehrs'' were a clear border marking and, at the same time, when they defined the external border to another territory, also a customs border. Even within a territory, there were sometimes ''landwehrs'' which separated the individual districts (''Ämter'') from one another by the inclusion of streams and other natural obstacles. These 'internal' or 'intermediate' ''landwehrs'' (''Zwischenlandwehren''), were generally not as elaborate as those on the external borders. One particular variant was the so-called '' letzi'' in Switzerland, where it was often sufficient just to secure the access routes to a valley. Many of the battles of the Old Confederation with the Habsburgs took place at such ''letzis'', such as
Battle of Morgarten The Battle of Morgarten took place on 15 November 1315, when troops of Schwyz, supported by their allies of Uri and Unterwalden, ambushed an Austrian army under the command of Leopold I, Duke of Austria on the shores of Lake Ägeri, in the ...
,
Battle of Näfels The Battle of Näfels was fought on 9 April 1388 between the Swiss canton of Glarus, supported by its allies of the Old Swiss Confederation, and the Duchy of Austria ruled by the House of Habsburg. It was a decisive victory for Glarus and led t ...
and Battle of Stoss. Some ''landwehrs'' also functioned as a form of outwork for
fortress A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from L ...
es. They were built with the character of fieldworks as a first line of defence against enemy attack. Used until the
Modern Era The modern era or the modern period is considered the current historical period of human history. It was originally applied to the history of Europe and Western history for events that came after the Middle Ages, often from around the year 1500 ...
, they were designed militarily, in the form of chevaux de frise, to force the attacker of a fortress into having to conduct a
siege A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict charact ...
even before reaching the fortress. Their modern successors include the
barbed wire Roll of modern agricultural barbed wire Barbed wire, also known as barb wire or bob wire (in the Southern and Southwestern United States), is a type of steel fencing wire constructed with sharp edges or points arranged at intervals along the ...
used in both world wars. The route of many simple ''landwehrs'' shows, according to new research, that they were completely unsuitable for defence purposes in many places. From this it can be concluded that some of these installations were mainly used for border marking and collecting customs duties. They nevertheless restricted the free mobility of enemy troops, so that they were certainly of some military utility. For example, the ''Stadthagen'' around
Warendorf Warendorf (, Westphalian language, Westphalian: ''Warnduorp'') is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, and capital of Warendorf (district), Warendorf District. The town is best known today for its well-preserved medieval town centre, for eq ...
in the
Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War, fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in History of Europe, European history. An estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from battle, famine ...
succeeded in protecting the town. Although the enemy did in fact break into the municipal territory, they did not risk a major attack simply because of the danger, in a counter-attack, of not being able to beat a retreat quickly enough through the narrow breach in the ''landwehr''. As a border fortification around areas that had been given specific rights, ''landwehrs'' had gaps in some places for roads, for counter-attack routes or for trade. These gaps (called ''Schlags'') were guarded by simple
tollgate A tollbooth (or toll booth) is an enclosure placed along a toll road that is used for the purpose of collecting a Toll (fee), toll from passing traffic. A structure consisting of several tollbooths placed next to each other is called a toll p ...
s, by side roads (so-called ''Schlingen''), or - by means of towers (
watchtower A watchtower or guardtower (also spelt watch tower, guard tower) is a type of military/paramilitary or policiary tower used for guarding an area. Sometimes fortified, and armed with heavy weaponry, especially historically, the structures are ...
s, ''Wighäuser'' or
gate tower A gate tower is a tower built over or next to a major gateway. Usually it is part of a medieval fortification. This may be a town or city wall, fortress, castle or castle chapel. The gate tower may be built as a twin tower on either side of a ...
s). At the border crossing points there were usually also customs posts. The lucrative right to charge tolls (''Zollrecht''), often in connection with the right to sell alcohol (''Krugrecht'') could be given to local farmers.


Construction

Most ''landwehrs'' consisted of a simple ditch as an obstacle - on the plains this was also a water channel or
moat A moat is a deep, broad ditch dug around a castle, fortification, building, or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. Moats can be dry or filled with water. In some places, moats evolved into more extensive water d ...
- behind which was an earthen bank made of the spoil from excavating the ditch. Behind the bank was the main barrier itself, a 20 to 50 metre-wide, dense, impenetrable thicket. In upland areas, the route of the ''landwehr'' conformed to natural features such as rocks, steep slopes and
watercourse A stream is a continuous body of water, body of surface water Current (stream), flowing within the stream bed, bed and bank (geography), banks of a channel (geography), channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a strea ...
s. Often a second ditch was dug at a distance of 10 to 30 metres. The strips of vegetation and the embankments were covered with a hedge of
hornbeam Hornbeams are hardwood trees in the plant genus ''Carpinus'' in the family Betulaceae. Its species occur across much of the temperateness, temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Common names The common English name ''hornbeam'' derives ...
cut back to the height of a man, whose branches were bent, intertwined with the other branches and stuck into the ground as a further obstacle. This resulted in the so-called ''Gebück'', a plaited hedge. Understorey bushes, such as dog rose, whitethorn,
blackthorn ''Prunus spinosa'', called blackthorn or sloe, is an Old World species of flowering plant in the rose family, Rosaceae. It is locally naturalized in parts of the New World. The fruits are used to make sloe gin in Britain and patxaran in Basq ...
or
brambles ''Rubus'' is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, most commonly known as brambles. Fruits of various species are known as raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, and bristleberries. ...
, were used to make the hedge impenetrable. Hence the local name, ''Gedörn'' ("thorn hedge") used in some places. The site was kept clear of higher vegetation. The ground in front was largely cleared. The construction of a defensive hedge was described by a priest at
Eberbach Abbey Eberbach Abbey (German: Kloster Eberbach) is a former Cistercian monastery in Eltville in the Rheingau, Germany. On account of its Romanesque architecture, Romanesque and Gothic (architecture), early Gothic buildings it is considered one of the m ...
in 1790: With regular maintenance and care (''hege''), a nigh impenetrable woodland strip was created in the course of a decade. More elaborate ''landwehrs'' with a defensive function consisted of several parallel ditches and banks, planted with hedging. In particular, double ditches were designed to prevent them from being jumped by horsemen. Another design was the so-called ''Wehrhecke'' (''Wallhecke'' or ''Knick''), a hedge-planted bank, for the maintenance of which a tax called ''Knickgeld'' was raised. In
Hesse Hesse or Hessen ( ), officially the State of Hesse (), is a States of Germany, state in Germany. Its capital city is Wiesbaden, and the largest urban area is Frankfurt, which is also the country's principal financial centre. Two other major hist ...
, at the end of the 17th century, many villages on important roads or by borders, had fortifications, excluding any
fortified church A fortified church is a church that is built to serve a defensive role in times of war. Such church (building), churches were specially designed to incorporate military features, such as thick walls, battlements, and embrasures. Others, such as t ...
es, as a Hessian chronicler described in 1697: The fortification could be made of fences (known as ''Etter'' or ''Dorfetter''), hedges, bank and ditch (dry as well as wet) and gates. Another temporary artificial obstacle which could be built relatively quickly in the event of an attack, or to close gaps in a ''landwehr'', was the
abatis An abatis, abattis, or abbattis is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced ...
. This was also used as the first obstacle on the approach of castles, town and city walls, and '' schanzen'', and was made of felled trees and cut logs, shrubs and thorns. Abatis were also used during the building of a ''landwehr'', if necessary, until it was ready. Since the obstacle was made of dead wood, it was relatively easy to remove by burning once it had dried out.


Observation and entry points

Important roads passing through the ''landwehr'' at entry points were guarded with so-called barriers (''Schlägen'') and other reinforcements such as
watchtower A watchtower or guardtower (also spelt watch tower, guard tower) is a type of military/paramilitary or policiary tower used for guarding an area. Sometimes fortified, and armed with heavy weaponry, especially historically, the structures are ...
s. Road tolls were collected at the barriers which were paid to the territorial lord. From the beginning there were
inns Inns are generally establishments or buildings where travelers can seek lodging, and usually, food and drink. Inns are typically located in the country or along a highway. Before the advent of motorized transportation, they also provided accomm ...
at these points. The innkeepers provided food and drink for the passers-by. They also exercised sovereign functions by observing the ground in front of the town and by closing the barriers at night. In many cases, the roads were flanked by ditch-bank-ditch systems on both sides, so that no one could enter the villages outside the intended route. Wooden bridges often led across the ditches, so that in the event of a war, the road could be closed by removing the bridge. News of approaching enemy troops or visitors, was relayed along the ''landwehrs'' to the Hinterland, using watchtowers (for example, in Münsterland). In upland regions this was also achieved by observation posts (''Warten'') at high lookouts from which one could see far into the surrounding countryside. Warning of approaching enemies was given by optical signals in the form of smoke signals, flags, mirrors and torches, or by signal horns and
church bell A church bell is a bell in a church building designed to be heard outside the building. It can be a single bell, or part of a set of bells. Their main function is to call worshippers to the church for a service of worship, but are also rung o ...
s. The entire population of the village and its neighbouring villages were required to "immediately" respond to these emergency signals or the sounding the storm bell, but also in other emergencies, such as fire or flood, no matter what other work or activity was in progress. The striking of the bell was called ''Gerüfte'', for example, in the Münsterland.


Maintenance

To construct the ''landwehr'', the local territorial lord would use all his subjects in a service known as
socage Socage () was one of the feudal duties and land tenure forms in the English feudal system. It eventually evolved into the freehold tenure called "free and common socage", which did not involve feudal duties. Farmers held land in exchange for ...
. Likewise the whole population were required to maintain it. Many ''landwehrs'' were built and maintained jointly by neighbouring princes, for example, in Central Hesse, the ''landheege'' on the ''Hörre'' between the county of Nassau on one side and the Landgraviate of Hesse and county of Solms on the other. The construction and maintenance of ''landwehrs'' had to be carried out with a long-term perspective. Even with constant and time-consuming care (''Hegen und Pflegen'') it would be ten years before an impenetrable hedge was created. In addition, the ditches and ''Hählweg'', a patrolled road along the ''landwehr'' had to be kept free of vegetation and maintained in working order. For this reason, many ''landwehrs'' were abandoned or left unfinished for long periods of time for reasons of cost. Intentional damage of a ''landwehr'' was punished with severe penalties. In the case of the over 100-kilometre-long Westphalian Landwehr in the
Teutoburg Forest The Teutoburg Forest ( ; ) is a range of low, forested hills in the German states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia. Until the 17th century, the official name of the hill ridge was Osning. It was first renamed the ''Teutoburg Forest'' ...
, punishments ranged from cutting off the right hand to the death penalty. Even crossing a ''landwehr'' in authorised places was often punished. On the Rhön Landwehr, cutting through the hedging or using the patrol road was punishable by a fine of up to five
guilder Guilder is the English translation of the Dutch and German ''gulden'', originally shortened from Middle High German ''guldin pfenninc'' (" gold penny"). This was the term that became current in the southern and western parts of the Holy Rom ...
s. These border installations were constantly renewed and maintained until the 18th century and, in times of extreme danger, even reinforced and turned into fortifications. In 1813 in
Prussia Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a Germans, German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussia (region), Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, ...
, the obligation to defend the earthworks, which were slighted under
Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
but nevertheless remained functional, became part of the general service duties of the military formations of the Prussian
Landwehr ''Landwehr'' (), or ''Landeswehr'', is a German language term used in referring to certain national army, armies, or militias found in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Europe. In different context it refers to large-scale, low-strength fo ...
(a territorial force not to be confused with the subject of this article). In many cases the field fortifications of the Landwehr troops were abandoned after the end of an armed conflict or after the abolition of an official district, and the hedges and woods burned to make
charcoal Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, ca ...
.


Examples of ''landwehrs''


Called "Landwehr" or "Lanwehr"

* Landwehr of the former Barony of
Ahaus Ahaus (; Westphalian: ''Ausen'') is a town in the district of Borken in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located near the border with the Netherlands, lying some 20 km south-east of Enschede and 15 km south from Gr ...
* Anklam Landwehr * Bachgau Landwehr * Barop Landwehr in Hombruch * Berg Landwehr in the
Duchy of Berg Berg () was a state—originally a county, later a duchy—in the Rhineland of Germany. Its capital was Düsseldorf. It existed as a distinct political entity from the early 12th to the 19th centuries. It was a member state of the Holy Roman Emp ...
*
Landwehr Canal The Landwehr Canal (), is a canal parallel to the Spree river in Berlin, Germany, built between 1845 and 1850 to plans by Peter Joseph Lenné. It connects the upper part of the Spree at the eastern harbour () in Friedrichshain with its low ...
, Berline * Brunswick Landwehr * Bückethal Landwehr near Bad Nenndorf * Dahl Landwehr in
Mönchengladbach Mönchengladbach (, ) is a List of cities and towns in Germany, city in North Rhine-Westphalia, western Germany, west of the Rhine, halfway between Düsseldorf and the Netherlands, Dutch border. Geography Municipal subdivisions Since 2009, th ...
from Engelsholt via Ohler to Dahl *
Dinslaken Dinslaken () is a town in the Wesel (district), district of Wesel, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is known for its harness racing track, its now closed Coal mining, coal mine in Dinslaken-Lohberg, Lohberg and its wealthy neighborhoods ''Hi ...
Landwehr with remains in Dinslaken, Voerde and Hünxe * Einbeck Landwehr * Frankfurt Landwehr * Grebenstein Landwehr near
Grebenstein Grebenstein (; ) is a town in the district of Kassel, in Hesse, Germany. It is located 16 km northwest of Kassel on the German Timber-Frame Road. In 1762 it was the scene of a skirmish between British and French troops during the Seven Year ...
in the county of Kassel *
Landwehr ''Landwehr'' (), or ''Landeswehr'', is a German language term used in referring to certain national army, armies, or militias found in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Europe. In different context it refers to large-scale, low-strength fo ...
in
Hamburg Hamburg (, ; ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg,. is the List of cities in Germany by population, second-largest city in Germany after Berlin and List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits, 7th-lar ...
* Hanoverian Landwehr in
Hanover Hanover ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the States of Germany, German state of Lower Saxony. Its population of 535,932 (2021) makes it the List of cities in Germany by population, 13th-largest city in Germany as well as the fourth-l ...
municipal forest of
Eilenriede The (literally 'alder marsh' in German, meaning 'marsh populated with alder trees') is a municipal forest in Hanover, Germany. It is the largest urban city forest in Germany, one of the largest in Europe, and is nearly twice the size of Centr ...
* Hartward Landwehr * Himmelpforten Landwehr near Soest *
Helmstedt Helmstedt (; Eastphalian: ''Helmstidde'') is a town on the eastern edge of the German state of Lower Saxony. It is the capital of the District of Helmstedt. The historic university and Hanseatic city conserves an important monumental heritage o ...
Landwehr in the Lappwald * Kastel Landwehr (Kastel, also called the Mainz Landwehr ) * Lambertsgraben near
Creuzburg Creuzburg is a town and a former municipality on the Werra river in the Wartburgkreis in Thuringia, Germany. Since December 2019, it is part of the town Amt Creuzburg. Geography Creuzburg is in the area known as the Muschelkalk. Three mountains ...
* Varbrook Landwehr in Niederkrüchten-Varbrook (county of Viersen) * the Long Landwehr near
Schmalkalden Schmalkalden () is a town in the Schmalkalden-Meiningen district, in the southwest of the state of Thuringia, Germany. It is on the southern slope of the Thuringian Forest at the Schmalkalde river, a tributary to the Werra. , the town had a popul ...
* Speyer Landwehr with the Speyer Watchtower, where there is also a Landwehrstraße * Landwehr on the southern perimeter of
Neubrandenburg Neubrandenburg (, Low German ''Niegenbramborg'', both lit. ''New Brandenburg an der Havel, Brandenburg'') is a city in the southeast of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is located on the shore of a lake called Tollensesee and forms the urban c ...
* Lüneburg Landwehr * North and East Landwehr near
Dülmen Dülmen () is a town in the district of Coesfeld, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Geography Dülmen is situated in the south part of the Münsterland area, between the Lippe river to the south, the Baumberge hills to the north and the Ems ri ...
* Parchim Landwehr near
Parchim Parchim (; Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect, Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch: ''Parchen'') is a town in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is the capital of the Ludwigslust-Parchim district. It was the birthplace of Helmuth von Moltke the Elde ...
* Saxon Landwehr in South Thuringia * Schaumburg Landwehr, north of
Stadthagen Stadthagen () is the capital of the district of Landkreis Schaumburg, Schaumburg, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated approximately 20 km east of Minden and 40 km west of Hanover. The city consists of the districts Brandenburg, Enzen ...
* Würzburger Hähl in the Thuringian Rhön * Tilbeck Landwehr in the
Baumberge The Baumberge are the highest hills in the natural regions of Münsterland and Kernmünsterland with a maximum height of . They are located between Münster (Westfalen), Münster and Coesfeld, which is itself close to the southwest edge of the Ba ...
* ''Viersen Landwehr'' near Mönchengladbach-Großheide * Landwehr on the northern edge of
Calvörde Calvörde () is a municipality in the Börde district of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is part of the Verbandsgemeinde ("collective municipality") Flechtingen. Geography Calvörde is situated approximately northwest of Haldensleben and northwe ...
* other ''landwehrs'' in Barme,
Ganderkesee Ganderkesee (Northern Low Saxon: ''Gannerseer'') is a municipality in Oldenburg district, in Lower Saxony, Germany. Geography Ganderkesee is located on the northern edge of a nature park called "Wildeshauser Geest". The northernmost part of the c ...
, Hemmerde,
Landgraaf Landgraaf (; ) is a municipality in southeastern Limburg, Netherlands, forming part of the Parkstad Limburg agglomeration. ''SnowWorld'' is the largest indoor ski piste in Europe. Population centres * Nieuwenhagen * Schaesberg * Ubach over W ...
,
Leingarten Leingarten () is a town in the district of Heilbronn, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated 7 km west of Heilbronn. It was formed 1 January 1970, when the municipalities of Großgartach and Schluchtern merged. Geography Location Lein ...
,
Lübeck Lübeck (; or ; Latin: ), officially the Hanseatic League, Hanseatic City of Lübeck (), is a city in Northern Germany. With around 220,000 inhabitants, it is the second-largest city on the German Baltic Sea, Baltic coast and the second-larg ...
, Nazza, Nettlingen, Rhön,
Tönisvorst Tönisvorst is a town in the district of Viersen, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is situated approximately 5 km west of Krefeld. On 25 July 2019, weather stations in Duisburg-Baerl and Tönisvorst both recorded temperatures of , wh ...
,
Wetzlar Wetzlar () is a city in the state of Hesse, Germany. It is the twelfth largest city in Hesse with currently 55,371 inhabitants at the beginning of 2019 (including second homes). As an important cultural, industrial and commercial center, the un ...
,
Werne Werne an der Lippe (; Westphalian language, Westphalian: ''Wäen'') is a town in the Federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia in the Unna (district), Unna district in Germany. It is located on the southern edge of the Münster (region), Münsterla ...
.''Landwehr in Werne''
Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, retrieved 22 June 2013.
''Landwehr schützte vor Viehdieben''
Ruhr Nachrichten, retrieved 22 June 2013.


Called "Landgraben", "Landgraaf" or "Graben"

* Großer Landgraben near Klempenow and Boldekow in
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV; ; ), also known by its Anglicisation, anglicized name Mecklenburg–Western Pomerania, is a Federated state, state in the north-east of Germany. Of the country's States of Germany, sixteen states, Mecklenburg-Vorpom ...
* Kleiner Landgraben near Altentreptow in
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV; ; ), also known by its Anglicisation, anglicized name Mecklenburg–Western Pomerania, is a Federated state, state in the north-east of Germany. Of the country's States of Germany, sixteen states, Mecklenburg-Vorpom ...
* Landgraben on the northern border of
Mecklenburg-Strelitz The Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a duchy in Northern Germany consisting of the eastern fifth of the historic Mecklenburg region, roughly corresponding with the present-day Mecklenburg-Strelitz district (the former Lordship of Stargard) ...
* Mühlhäusen Landgraben in
Thuringia Thuringia (; officially the Free State of Thuringia, ) is one of Germany, Germany's 16 States of Germany, states. With 2.1 million people, it is 12th-largest by population, and with 16,171 square kilometers, it is 11th-largest in area. Er ...
* Quedlinburg Landgraben near
Quedlinburg Quedlinburg () is a town situated just north of the Harz mountains, in the Harz (district), district of Harz in the west of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. As an influential and prosperous trading centre during the early Middle Ages, Quedlinburg becam ...
* Lübeck Landgraben around
Lübeck Lübeck (; or ; Latin: ), officially the Hanseatic League, Hanseatic City of Lübeck (), is a city in Northern Germany. With around 220,000 inhabitants, it is the second-largest city on the German Baltic Sea, Baltic coast and the second-larg ...
* Württemberg Landgraben between Beilstein and Heuchelberger Warte * Aachen Landgraben around
Aachen Aachen is the List of cities in North Rhine-Westphalia by population, 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, 27th-largest city of Germany, with around 261,000 inhabitants. Aachen is locat ...
* various ''landwehrs'' in the
Prince-Bishopric of Münster The Prince-Bishopric of Münster (, or ) was a large ecclesiastical principality in the Holy Roman Empire, located in the northern part of today's North Rhine-Westphalia and western Lower Saxony. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, ...
for
Ahlen Ahlen (; Westphalian language, Westphalian: ''Aulen'') is a Town#Germany, town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, 30 km southeast of Münster. Ahlen is part of the Warendorf (district), District of Warendorf and is economically the most impo ...
, Beckum, Bocholt, Borken,
Coesfeld Coesfeld (; Westphalian language, Westphalian: ''Koosfeld'') is the capital of the Coesfeld (district), district of Coesfeld in the Germany, German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. History Coesfeld received its city rights in 1197, but was first ...
,
Dülmen Dülmen () is a town in the district of Coesfeld, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Geography Dülmen is situated in the south part of the Münsterland area, between the Lippe river to the south, the Baumberge hills to the north and the Ems ri ...
,
Haltern Haltern am See (''Haltern at the lake'', before December 2001 only Haltern) is a medium-sized town in the northern part of the district of Recklinghausen in the ''Regierungsbezirk'' Münster in North Rhine-Westphalia. The town is located in the n ...
,
Münster Münster (; ) is an independent city#Germany, independent city (''Kreisfreie Stadt'') in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is in the northern part of the state and is considered to be the cultural centre of the Westphalia region. It is also a ...
,
Rheine Rheine () is a city in the district of Steinfurt (district), Steinfurt in Westphalia, Germany. It is the largest city in the district and the location of Rheine Air Base. Geography Rheine is on the river Ems (river), Ems, about north of Münster ...
,
Telgte Telgte (, regionally ; ) is a town in the Warendorf (district), Warendorf district, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, on the river Ems (river), Ems 12 km east of Münster and 15 km west of Warendorf. Telgte is famous as a place of pilgri ...
,
Vreden Vreden () is a small town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany near the Dutch border. The town is located near the river Berkel. The first mentioning of the town is proven for the year 839. In 1252 Vreden obtained city rights. Demographics Relig ...
,
Warendorf Warendorf (, Westphalian language, Westphalian: ''Warnduorp'') is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, and capital of Warendorf (district), Warendorf District. The town is best known today for its well-preserved medieval town centre, for eq ...
and
Werne Werne an der Lippe (; Westphalian language, Westphalian: ''Wäen'') is a town in the Federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia in the Unna (district), Unna district in Germany. It is located on the southern edge of the Münster (region), Münsterla ...
) * other ''landwehrs'' in Adelwitz, Bickenriede, Casekow,
Glenne Glenne is a river of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is a right tributary of the Lippe, which it joins near Lippstadt. Its upstream is called Haustenbach. See also *List of rivers of North Rhine-Westphalia A list of rivers of North Rhine-W ...
, Japenzin,
Landgraaf Landgraaf (; ) is a municipality in southeastern Limburg, Netherlands, forming part of the Parkstad Limburg agglomeration. ''SnowWorld'' is the largest indoor ski piste in Europe. Population centres * Nieuwenhagen * Schaesberg * Ubach over W ...
, Lengefeld, Löwitz,
Lüdersdorf Lüdersdorf is a municipality in the Nordwestmecklenburg district, in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is close to the cities of Lübeck, Wismar and Schwerin Schwerin (; Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect, Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch Low ...
, Pöndorf,
Rednitz The Rednitz () is a long river in Franconia, Germany, tributary of the Regnitz (more precisely: its southern, left headstream). Slightly richer in water than the other source river Pegnitz and also richer in tributaries, it is hydrographicall ...
, Sachsendorf (Barby), Stockelsdorf, Striesen,
Wadersloh Wadersloh () is a municipality in the district of Warendorf, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is situated approximately 10 km north-west of Lippstadt Lippstadt () is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is the largest town ...
and on the River Oos * Dreigräben, Lower Silesia


Called "Hecke", "Heg", "Haag", "Hag", "Hagen", "Landheege", "Gedörn" or "Gebück"

For the Häger in Niedersachsen, see: Adelung * Kölsches Heck near
Siegen Siegen () is a List of cities and towns in Germany, city in Germany, in the south Westphalian part of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is located in the district of Siegen-Wittgenstein in the Arnsberg (region), Arnsberg region. The university town (n ...
* Rothenburger Landhege near
Rothenburg ob der Tauber Rothenburg ob der Tauber () is a town located in the district of Ansbach (district), Ansbach of Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia), the Franconia region of Bavaria, Germany. It is well known for its well-preserved Middle Ages, medieval old town, a d ...
, see also Lichteler Landturm * Central Hessian Landheegen * Haller Landheeg near
Schwäbisch Hall Schwäbisch Hall (; 'Swabian Hall'; from 1802 until 1934 and colloquially: ''Hall'') is a city in the German state of Baden-Württemberg located in the valley of the Kocher river, the longest tributary (together with its headwater Lein) of the N ...
* Rheingauer Gebück near Walluf and
Eltville am Rhein Eltville am Rhein (; from ''Alta Villa'', Latin for "high estate, high town", corrupted to ''Eldeville'', ''Elfeld'' and later Eltville ) is a town in the Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis in the ''Regierungsbezirk'' of Darmstadt (region), Darmstadt in Hesse, ...
* Bechtheimer Gebück near
Bad Camberg Bad Camberg () is, with 14,500 inhabitants, the second largest town in Limburg-Weilburg district in Hesse, Germany, as well as the southernmost town in the ''Regierungsbezirk'' of Gießen (region), Gießen. It is located in the eastern Taunus in th ...


Unnamed

* Barriers near
Springe Springe () is a town in the Hanover (district), district of Hanover, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated near the Deister hills, southwest of Hanover. Town structure * Springe (core settlement, seat of the mayor), population 13,184 * Ben ...
in the
Deister Gate The Deister Gate () is a 550-metre-wide gap between the Deister and Kleiner Deister hill ridges in Springe in Hanover Region, Lower Saxony, Germany. The height of the pass varies between to . The River Haller (river), Haller rises in the Deiste ...


Border defences in England, Scotland, Denmark and North Germany, Poland

*
Bokerley Dyke Bokerley Dyke, Bokerly Dyke, Bokerley Ditch, is a linear earthwork long on Cranborne Chase in Dorset, partially running along the county's border with Hampshire between Woodyates and Martin. It is part of a Scheduled Monument together with Grim ...
*
Danewerk The Danevirke or Danework (modern Danish spelling: ''Dannevirke''; in Old Norse: ''Danavirki'', in German: ''Danewerk'', literally meaning '' earthwork of the Danes'') is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. This h ...
*
Grim's Ditch Grim's Ditch, Grim's Dyke (also Grimsdyke or Grimes Dike in derivative names) or Grim's Bank is a name shared by a number of prehistoric bank and ditch linear earthworks across England. They are of different dates and may have had different funct ...
*
Offa's Dyke Offa's Dyke () is a large linear Earthworks (Archaeology), earthwork that roughly follows the England–Wales border, border between England and Wales. The structure is named after Offa of Mercia, Offa, the Anglo-Saxons, Anglo-Saxon king of Mer ...
* Wansdyke *
Wat's Dyke Wat's Dyke () is a linear earthwork running through the northern Welsh Marches from Basingwerk Abbey on the River Dee estuary, passing east of Oswestry and on to Maesbury in Shropshire, England. It runs generally parallel to Offa's Dyke, s ...
*
Antonine Wall The Antonine Wall () was a turf fortification on stone foundations, built by the Romans across what is now the Central Belt of Scotland, between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. Built some twenty years after Hadrian's Wall to the south ...
*
Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall (, also known as the ''Roman Wall'', Picts' Wall, or ''Vallum Aelium'' in Latin) is a former defensive fortification of the Roman province of Roman Britain, Britannia, begun in AD 122 in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. Ru ...


References


Literature

* Werner Dobelmann: ''Landwehren im Osnabrücker Nordland'', in: Heimat gestern und heute. Mitteilungen des Kreisheimatbundes Bersenbrück 16 (1969), pp. 129–180 * Wilhelm Engels: ''Die Landwehren in den Randgebieten des Herzogtums Berg.'' In: Zeitschrift des Bergischen Geschichtsvereins (ZBGV), 66. Band, Jahrgang 1938, pp. 67–278. * Johannes Everling: ''Der Aachener Landgraben heute nach 500 Jahren.'' Aachen, 1973. * Norbert Klaus Fuchs:''Auf den Spuren der Sächsischen Landwehr'' in ''Das Heldburger Land–ein historischer Reiseführer''; Verlag Rockstuhl, Bad Langensalza, 2013, * Oswald Gerhard: ''Eckenhagen und Denklingen im Wandel der Zeiten. Eine Heimatgeschichte des ehemaligen Reichshofgebietes Eckenhagen.'' Hrsg.: Heimatverein Eckenhagen e. V., Eckenhagen 1953 (with map). * Albert K. Hömberg: ''Die Entstehung der westfälischen Freigrafschaften als Problem der mittelalterlichen deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte.'' In: ''Westfälische Zeitschrift, Zeitschrift für vaterländische Geschichte und Altertumskunde,'' 101/102. Band, Münster 1953, S. 1–138. * Cornelia Kneppe: ''Die Stadtlandwehren des östlichen Münsterlandes.'' Veröffentlichungen der Altertumskommission für Westfalen 14, Münster, 2004, . * Cornelia Kneppe (ed.): ''Landwehren. Zu Erscheinungsbild, Funktion und Verbreitung spätmittelalterlicher Wehranlagen''. Aschendorff, Münster, 2014. . * Cornelia Kneppe: ''Das westfälische Landwehrsystem als Aufgabe der Bodendenkmalpflege.'' In: ''Ausgrabungen und Funde in Westfalen-Lippe'', Jahrgang 9, Teil C, Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, LWL-Archäologie für Westfalen, Mainz 1999, , S. 139–166. * Thomas Küntzel: ''Stadt und Grenze – Die Landwehr der Stadtwüstung Nienover im südniedersächsischen Kontext.'' Archaeologia historica 29, 2004, pp. 167–191. * Hans Mattern, Reinhard Wolf: ''Haller Landheg. Ihr Verlauf und ihre Reste.'' Sigmaringen 1990. (Forschungen aus Württembergisch Franken. 35), . * Tim Michalak: ''Die Stadthagen. Zur Bedeutung und Funktion der Landwehren an den Grenzen der reichsstädtischen Feldmark Dortmunds.'' In: Heimat Dortmund 1/2002. Stadtgeschichte in Bildern und Berichten. Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins für Dortmund und die Grafschaft Mark e. V. in Verbindung mit dem Stadtarchiv Dortmund. pp. 12–15. * Horst W. Müller: ''Die mittelhessischen Landhheegen.'' In: ''Hinterländer Geschichtsblätter,'' Jahrgang 89, No. 4, December 2010, Biedenkopf. * Georg Müller: ''Landwehren in der Gemeinde
Ganderkesee Ganderkesee (Northern Low Saxon: ''Gannerseer'') is a municipality in Oldenburg district, in Lower Saxony, Germany. Geography Ganderkesee is located on the northern edge of a nature park called "Wildeshauser Geest". The northernmost part of the c ...
.'' Ganderkesee, 1989. * Andreas Reuschel: ''Hagenhufensiedlungen oder "Hägerhufensiedlungen" in der Ithbörde? Ein Beitrag zur Ausdifferenzierung eines siedlungsgeographischen Terminus und Phänomens'', Diss. Bonn 2009
pdf
* Heinrich Rüthing: ''Landwehren und Warten im Paderborner und Corveyer Land.'' In: Heimatkundliche Schriftenreihe der Volksbank Paderborn, 33/2002. * Gustav Siebel: ''Die Nassau-Siegener Landhecken: Eine Untersuchung der Kölnischen Hecke und gleichartiger Wehranlagen bei Siegen.'' In: ''Siegerländer Beiträge zur Geschichte und Landeskunde,'' Heft 12, Siegerländer Heimatverein, Siegen 1963. * Johann Carl Bertram Stüve: ''Untersuchungen über die Gogerichte in Westfalen und Niedersachsen.'' Frommann, Jena 1870; unveränderter Nachdruck: Wenner, Osnabrück 1972, . * Otto Weerth: ''Über Knicke und Landwehren.'' In: Korrespondenzblatt des Gesamtvereins der deutschen Geschichts- und Altertumsvereine 54, 1906, Sp. 37

* Herbert Woltering: ''Die Reichsstadt Rothenburg ob der Tauber und ihre Herrschaft über die Landwehr''. (Teil 1–2. Rothenburg o.d.T., 1965–1971); Neuauflage in einem Band 2010, Verlag Degener & Co., Insingen (= Rothenburg-Franken-Edition 4). * Josef Würdinger: ''Kriegsgeschichte von Bayern, Franken, Pfalz und Schwaben von 1347–1506,'' Munich, 1868.


External links


Cornelia Kneppe: Landwehren im Schnittpunkt von Geschichte, Archäologie und Naturkunde

Andreas Reuschel: ''Hagenhufensiedlungen oder „Hägerhufensiedlungen" in der Ithbörde? Ein Beitrag zur Ausdifferenzierung eines siedlungsgeographischen Terminus und Phänomens'', Diss. Bonn, 2009
{{Authority control Fortifications Political geography