Deliriants are a subclass of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics such as LSD and dissociatives such as ketamine, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed to the more lucid and less disturbed states produced by other types of hallucinogens, where rational thought is better preserved (including the ability to distinguish hallucinations from reality). Duncan, D. F., and Gold, R. S. (1982). Drugs and the Whole Person. New York: John Wiley & Sons The term generally refers to anticholinergic drugs, which are substances that inhibit the function of the

neurotransmitter A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a Chemical synapse, synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neurotra ...

acetylcholine Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic compound that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Par ...

. Common examples of deliriants include plants of the genera '' Datura'' and '' Brugmansia'', both containing scopolamine, as well as higher than recommended dosages of

diphenhydramine Diphenhydramine, sold under the brand name Benadryl among others, is an antihistamine and sedative. Although generally considered sedating, diphenhydramine can cause paradoxical central nervous system stimulation in some individuals, particula ...

( Benadryl). A number of plant deliriants such as that of the Solanaceae family, particularly in the

Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.''Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sing ...

, have been used by some indigenous cultures to reach delirious and altered states of consciousness for traditions or rituals, such as rites of passage,

divination Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...

or communicating with the ancestors. Despite their long history of use, deliriants are the least-studied class of hallucinogens in terms of their behavioral and neurological effects.

Etymology

The term was introduced by David F. Duncan and Robert S. Gold due to a characteristic delirium-like effect which is known to manifest as a reoccurring symptom for anticholinergic hallucinogens. The term deliriant originates from delirium (dēlīrĭum) which comes from the Latin verb delirare, which means 'to go off the furrow', 'to derail'. liria (furrow) - The earth thrown up between two furrows, a ridge. ex, e - out of, from. delirio - frenzy, madness, deranged. It is said to be a figurative reference to going off or out of the furrow when ploughing (agricultural) so as to be analogous to the mental aberration that is being in delirium.

Mechanism of action

The altered state of consciousness produced by common or 'classical' deliriant substances such as scopolamine, atropine and

is mediated through the drug compounds' competitive antagonism of the peripheral and central muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, especially the M₁ muscarinic receptor. M₁ receptors are located primarily in the

central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity o ...

and are involved in perception, attention, and cognitive functioning. Delirium is primarily associated with antagonism of postsynaptic M₁ receptors. However, antagonism of both the M₁ receptor and the M₂ receptor have been implicated as having negative effects on

memory Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembe ...

and

cognition Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...

, and the selective M₂ receptor antagonist hyoscyamine has been reported to produce deliriant effects similarly to M₁ receptor antagonists. Conversely, the M₃ receptor has not been implicated in cognition. The central nervous system actions of deliriants are complex, and other muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, including the M₃, M₄, and M₅ receptors, may also be involved in the effects of the drugs. As an example, the M₁, M₂, M₄ and M₅ receptors have all been implicated in regulating dopamine release, with the M₁, M₂, and M₄ receptors having inhibitory effects on dopamine release and the M₅ receptor having stimulatory effects. Peripheral muscarinic receptors are part of the autonomic nervous system. M₂ receptors are located in the brain and heart, M₃ receptors are in salivary glands and M₄ receptors are in the brain and lungs. Scopolamine is a nonspecific muscarinic antagonist at all four ( M₁, M₂, M₃, and M₄) receptor sites. Due to these compounds' inhibition of various signal transduction pathways, the decrease in

signaling is what leads to many of the cognitive deficits and mental impairments. It has also been said that common anticholinergic agents/hallucinogens should be more accurately referred to as antimuscarinics, as for instance these agents do not generally block nicotinic receptors.

Effects

The hallucinogenic experience and delirium produced, particularly by (M₁ inhibiting) anticholinergics is characterized by stupor, agitation, confusion, confabulation, emotional bluntness, dysphoria, memory deficits, incoherency of thoughts, hypoactivity ''or'' hyperactivity (mixed delirium), lucid intervals, akathisia, realistic visual hallucinations or illusions (as opposed to the pseudohallucinations experienced on other classes of hallucinogens) and regression to "phantom" behaviors such as disrobing, plucking or interacting with imaginary objects or scenes. The effects of these kinds of anticholinergic compounds have also been likened to delirious fevers, sleepwalking, fugue states or psychotic episodes in that the subject has minimal control over their actions and may have little or no recollection of the experience afterwards. This is a notable departure from the effects of serotonergic psychedelics.Sinclair, Raisa (2019). ''A Field Guide To Deliriants'' Scopolamine has been shown to exert a greater impairment on

episodic memory Episodic memory is the memory of everyday events (such as times, location geography, associated emotions, and other contextual information) that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred ...

event-related potential An event-related potential (ERP) is the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sense, sensory, cognition, cognitive, or motor system, motor event. More formally, it is any stereotyped electrophysiology, electrophysiologi ...

s, memory retention and free recall compared to DPH (an anticholinergic and antihistamine). Some antihistamines may also act as deliriants in high doses. Due to scopolamine's prominent amnesiac and impairing effects, it has been used in

Colombia Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country primarily located in South America with Insular region of Colombia, insular regions in North America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuel ...

for criminal purposes such as 'drugging' individuals, usually perceived as wealthy, and robbing them due to scopolamine's discombobulating effects and enhanced suggestibility. It is usually done by putting the extracted and isolated powder form of the alkaloid in a victim's ( alcoholic) drink, oftentimes directly by or with the help of attractive women to act as criminal accomplices to the robbers. In Colombia, isolated (powdered) scopolamine has become infamous and is referred to there by several monikers such as ''Burundanga'' and "Devil's Breath". It is usually extracted by criminals from the Borrachero Tree and may even occasionally be encountered as a street drug there. The antimuscarinic plant-based alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also notorious for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations. The hallucinations themselves are often described by users as disturbing, unpleasant or dark in nature.Grinspoon, Lester and Bakalar, James B. (1997). Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered. The Lindesmith Center Other commonly reported behaviors and experiences include holding conversations with imagined persons or entities, smoking nonexistent cigarettes (even with nonsmokers), visual hallucinations of spiders or shadow figures or being unable to recognize one's own reflection in a mirror. Deliriants in particular appear to be noted for their powerful effects on users' behavior. Ken Hedges, who was curator of archaeology at the

San Diego San Diego ( , ) is a city on the Pacific coast of Southern California, adjacent to the Mexico–United States border. With a population of over 1.4 million, it is the List of United States cities by population, eighth-most populous city in t ...

Museum of Man, and also studied hallucinogen-based Kumeyaay rock art recalled how when he was a student at San Diego's Mount Miguel High School in 1960, two teenage boys in Ojai who sampled ''datura'' were found on that town's main street at night; "in a state of mind that could only be called extremely deranged, they were walking from streetlight to streetlight, banging their heads on each pole until they were covered with blood." Hedge claimed that even among Native Americans, "terrifying visions" were often the result for "those who submitted themselves to the plant's power." Anthropological assessment of the sacred Chumash ''Datura cult'' in

Southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and Cultural area, cultural List of regions of California, region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. Its densely populated coastal reg ...

ascertained that within the tribe, frequent or repeat users of ''datura'' tended to gradually become more and more antisocial, often adopting behavior patterns that the rest of the tribe viewed as "capricious malevolence". During one of his workshops in Hawaii, psychonaut Terence McKenna discussed the effects of the hallucinogenic Solanaceae plants compared to psychedelics, stating that: During an on-camera interview, author of ''The God Molecule: 5-MeO-DMT and the Spiritual Path to the Divine Light'', Gerardo Ruben Sandoval Isaac explained that in the Oaxaca "mushroom village" of San José del Pacifico, the psilocybin mushrooms are regarded as being "related to light" and that ('' Brugmansia'') is "related to the darkness" and that they (the tribes) "are aware of the polarity of this flower", further crediting the idea that the hallucinogenic experience produced by deliriants is typically of a "dark" and disturbing nature. When ''datura'' was first formally discovered in colonial Jamestown,

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...

in 1676 by English soldiers during Bacon's Rebellion, they spent 11 days in altered mental states after using the leaves of the plant, which they did not know were psychoactive and poisonous, as part of a salad. Historian Robert Beverley Jr. wrote of the observable effects seen during their intoxicated state; "They (the soldiers) turned natural fools upon it for several days: one would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much fury; and another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey, grinning and making mows (grimaces) at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch droll… They were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in their own excrements if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple tricks they played, and after eleven days returned (to) themselves again, not remembering anything that had passed."

Deliriant substances

Naturally-occurring anticholinergic deliriants are found in the plant species '' Atropa belladonna'' (deadly nightshade), various '' Brugmansia'' species (Angel's Trumpets), '' Datura stramonium'' (Jimson weed), '' Hyoscyamus niger'' (henbane), and '' Mandragora officinarum'' (mandrake) in the form of the tropane alkaloids scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine. Other, lesser known plant sources of scopolamine and related tropanes include '' Scopolia carniolica''

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

, '' Latua'' endemic to southern

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...

, '' Solandra'' endemic to

Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...

and '' Duboisia myoporoides'', which is endemic to

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...

and contains both scopolamine and nicotine.Armando T. Hunziker: ''The Genera of Solanaceae''. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Ruggell, Liechtenstein 2001. Rätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications'' pub. Park Street Press 2005 Scopolamine has often been considered, pharmacologically and psychonautically the premier and paradigmatic deliriant substance, to which all other deliriants and/or antimuscarinic hallucinogens are usually compared. Synthetic compounds such as

(Benadryl) and dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) are deliriants. Nutmeg, although purportedly not as strong or as unpleasant as diphenhydramine or scopolamine, is considered a deliriant, due to its propensity to cause anticholinergic-like symptoms when taken in large doses. The effects caused by myristicin and elemicin found in nutmeg's essential oil can last up to several days, similarly to the tropane alkaloids found in ''datura''. The mushroom referred to as fly agaric with its active agents ibotenic acid and muscimol may also be considered an 'atypical' deliriant, although fly agaric is probably more accurately described as a hypnotic. In rare cases, highly toxic plants from the '' Aconitum'' (wolfsbane) genus have been used as "deliriants" by certain groups practicing European witchcraft, the left-hand path or

asceticism Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living, often for the purpose of pursuing Spirituality, spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world ...

due to the unpleasant but supposed altered state of consciousness which can be a side effect of wolfsbane poisoning. Plants of the aconitum genus contain the neurotoxin aconitine and in the case of '' Aconitum ferox'', an extremely toxic alkaloid called pseudaconitine, which is in rare cases, taken as an ordeal poison and entheogen on the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...

by ascetic groups such as the Aghori, where it may be mixed with other psychoactive plants or poisons such as datura and cannabis. Risk of death is considered very high when taking ''A. ferox'' and its use is restricted to only the most experienced adepts of their particular school of Shivaism.

Recreational use

A woman diagnosed as suffering from chronic dementia

Despite the fully legal status of several common deliriant plants and OTC medicines, deliriants are largely unpopular as recreational drugs due to the severe dysphoria, uncomfortable and generally damaging cognitive and physical effects, as well as the unpleasant nature of the hallucinations. Anticholinergics are said to be typically responsible for 15–20% of acute poisoning admissions, up to 40% of poisoning admission to

intensive care unit An intensive care unit (ICU), also known as an intensive therapy unit or intensive treatment unit (ITU) or critical care unit (CCU), is a special department of a hospital or health care facility that provides intensive care medicine. An inten ...

s and 16% of poison centre calls. The anticholinergic syndrome may be accompanied by sedation, coma, seizures and/or cardiovascular toxicity not necessarily mediated by muscarinic antagonism but rather secondary to other drug effects on other receptors or ion channels. In theory, an ideal antidote for the anticholinergic syndrome caused by these particular substances would be a selective M₁ receptor agonist. Some are in development but reportedly as of 2016, none are in clinical use. Ultimately, user reports of recreational deliriant usage on the drug resource website Erowid also generally indicate a firm unwillingness to repeat the experience. In addition to potentially dangerous mental/behavioral effects ( accidents during deliriant experiences are common) some tropane alkaloids, such as those found in plants of the Datura genus, are exceptionally toxic and can cause death due to tachycardia-induced heart failure, hypoventilation and hyperthermia even in small doses. Anticholinergics have been shown to increase the risk of developing

dementia Dementia is a syndrome associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by a general decline in cognitive abilities that affects a person's ability to perform activities of daily living, everyday activities. This typically invo ...

with long-term use, even at therapeutic doses, therefore they are presumed to carry an even greater risk when used at hallucinogenic dosages. Scopolamine in particular has been implemented in scientific models used to study the '' cholinergic hypothesis'' for Alzheimer's disease and other related dementias. Despite these overtly negative effects both on the physical and mental health of the user, usage of deliriants for recreational purposes has still gone on for centuries and was said to be introduced in

and surrounding areas by the Romani people, who would smoke or ingest plants such as ''datura'' to experience hallucinations. It has been said that certain groups who used deliriant plants, especially in hedgewitchery ( wortcunning) practices, would traditionally mix in medicinal or neuroprotective plants either directly during the

intoxications Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacteria, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect o ...

or later on to counter negative health consequences or symptoms such as dysphoria or senility.Hansen, Harold A. ''The Witch's Garden'' pub. Unity Press 1978

Occultism and folklore

Deliriants such as henbane, belladonna, mandrake, jimsonweed and fly agaric are associated with and featured in many stories and beliefs within European mythology.Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). ''The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens'' (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. pps. 261-4. In ancient Greek myth, wreaths of henbane leaves were used to crown the newly deceased to make them forget their former lives as they crossed or wandered near the River Styx in the

underworld The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld. ...

. The belladonna plant genus, Atropa is named after the Greek Fate, Atropos, who cut the thread of life. In early medieval times, Mandrake was believed to have commonly grown under gallows where bodily fluids dripped from the bodies of deceased murderers, with some sources stating blood and others claiming semen or urine. Tropane-containing nightshades have played an integral role in Old World

folklore Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...

and European witchcraft. Henbane is reputed for having been used in Greco-Roman magic during ancient times as well as being associated with black magic and maleficium during the

Late Middle Ages The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the Periodization, period of History of Europe, European history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period ( ...

. During this period in medieval Europe, the Central European species '' Scopolia carniolica'' was also used as an admixture in love potions. Belladonna was purported to aid in the "flight of witches" where they reportedly would experience " bacchanalian carousal" or hallucinatory dreaming. Mandrake (the root of '' Mandragora officinarum'') is mentioned twice in the Bible, and was also frequently mentioned as a typical ingredient in flying ointment recipes since at least as far back as the

Early Modern Period The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...

. During this time period, the

New World The term "New World" is used to describe the majority of lands of Earth's Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas, and sometimes Oceania."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: ...

plant '' datura stramonium'' (jimsonweed) was discovered in

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South Ameri ...

by colonialists and eventually lumped in with the other classic 'witches weeds' of the nightshade family that were endemic to Europe. Datura has a long history of usage both in

and the Southwestern United States by indigenous cultures using it for ritualistic,

sacred Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...

and magical purposes. In modern times, both ''Datura'' and '' Brugmansia'' are still used for sorcery, black magic, and shamanism in

Latin America Latin America is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese. Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geogr ...

.Campos, Don Jose (2011). The Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms. In certain South American countries, members of the ''Brugmansia'' genus have been known to be occasionally added to ayahuasca brews by malevolent sorcerers ( brujos) or bad shamans who wish to take advantage of unsuspecting tourists. Genuine shamans ( curanderos) believe one of the purposes for this is to "steal one's energy and/or power", of which they believe every person has a limited amount. Since medieval times, extremely noxious plants of the '' Aconitum'' (wolfsbane) genus were also associated with folklore and magic and were used for similar purposes as the tropane-containing nightshades. Despite being a highly poisonous and often deadly plant to work with, it was still often included in recipes for flying ointments and magical salves, likely as a way to help counteract both the cardiac and hyperthermic side effects of the scopolamine. The aconitum genus (specifically '' aconitum napellus'') was firmly associated with

superstition A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic (supernatural), magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly app ...

and witchcraft in Europe, particularly when it came to mythos surrounding werewolves and lycanthropy. This is believed to have originated at least partially from wolfsbane's alleged tendency to cause

paresthesia Paresthesia is a sensation of the skin that may feel like numbness (''hypoesthesia''), tingling, pricking, chilling, or burning. It can be temporary or Chronic condition, chronic and has many possible underlying causes. Paresthesia is usually p ...

which supposedly can be reported to feel like one's body is covered in fur. In

Greek mythology Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the Ancient Greece, ancient Greeks, and a genre of ancient Greek folklore, today absorbed alongside Roman mythology into the broader designation of classical mythology. These stories conc ...

, the goddess Hecate is said to have invented aconitum which

Athena Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretism, syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarde ...

used to transform Arachne into a spider.

Classes of deliriants

Anticholinergics

Tropanes

* Atropine * Hyoscyamine * Scopolamine

Ethanolamines

* Dimenhydrinate *

Diphenhydramine Diphenhydramine, sold under the brand name Benadryl among others, is an antihistamine and sedative. Although generally considered sedating, diphenhydramine can cause paradoxical central nervous system stimulation in some individuals, particula ...

* Doxylamine (anticholinergic at higher doses) Disubstituted

glycolic acid Glycolic acid (or hydroxyacetic acid; chemical formula ) is a colorless, odorless and hygroscopic crystal, crystalline solid, highly solubility, soluble in water. It is used in various skin care, skin-care products. Glycolic acid is widespread in ...

esters: * Benactyzine * Dicyclomine * ''N''-ethyl-3-piperidyl benzilate * ''N''-methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate * 3-quinuclidinyl benzilate * Ditran * EA-3167