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Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
, Buddha (, which in classic
Indic languages Indic languages may refer to: * Indo-Aryan languages, a subgroup of the Indo-European languages spoken mainly in the north of the Indian subcontinent (used in the context of Indo-European studies) * Languages of the Indian subcontinent, all the indi ...
means "awakened one") is a
title A title is one or more words used before or after a person's name, in certain contexts. It may signify their generation, official position, military rank, professional or academic qualification, or nobility. In some languages, titles may be ins ...
for those who are spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the supreme goal of Buddhism, variously described as awakening or enlightenment (''bodhi''), '' Nirvāṇa'' ("blowing out"), and liberation (''vimokṣa''). A Buddha is also someone who fully understands the '' Dhārma'', the true nature of all things or
phenomena A phenomenon ( phenomena), sometimes spelled phaenomenon, is an observable Event (philosophy), event. The term came into its modern Philosophy, philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be ...
('' dhārmata''), the ultimate truth. Buddhahood (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
: ''buddhatva''; or ; zh, c=成佛) is the condition and state of being a Buddha. This highest spiritual state of being is also termed ''sammā-sambodhi'' (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
: ''samyaksaṃbodhi''; "full, complete awakening") and is interpreted in many different ways across schools of Buddhism. The title of "Buddha" is most commonly used for
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist lege ...
, the historical founder of Buddhism, who is often simply known as "the Buddha". The title is also used for other sentient beings who have achieved awakening or enlightenment (''bodhi'') and liberation (''vimokṣa''), such as the other human Buddhas who achieved enlightenment before Gautama; members of the Five Buddha Families such as
Amitābha Amitābha (, "Measureless" or "Limitless" Light), also known as Amituofo in Chinese language, Chinese, Amida in Japanese language, Japanese and Öpakmé in Tibetan script, Tibetan, is one of the main Buddhahood, Buddhas of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddh ...
; and the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
, known as the "Buddha of the future who will attain awakening at a future time." In
Theravāda Buddhism ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' (anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or ''Dharma (Buddhi ...
, a Buddha is commonly understood as a being with the deepest spiritual wisdom about the true nature of reality, who has transcended rebirth and all causes of suffering (''duḥkha''). He is also seen as having many miraculous and magical powers. However, a living Buddha has the limitations of a physical body, will feel pain, get old, and eventually die like other sentient beings. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, any Buddha is considered to be a transcendent being with extensive powers, who is all-knowing, immeasurably powerful, with an eternal lifespan. His wisdom light is said to pervade the cosmos, and his great compassion and skillful means are limitless. This transcendent being is not understood as having a normal physical human body; instead, Mahāyāna Buddhism defends a kind of docetism, in which Gautama Buddha's life on earth was a magical display which only appeared to have a human body. A sentient being who is on the path to become a Buddha is called a ''
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
''. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, Buddhahood is the universal goal and all Mahāyānists ultimately aim at becoming a Buddha, in order to benefit and liberate all sentient beings. Thus, Buddhahood is the goal for all the various spiritual paths found in the various Mahāyāna traditions (including Tantric Buddhism,
Zen Zen (; from Chinese: ''Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka phil ...
, and
Pure Land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
). This contrasts with the common Theravādin goal of individual liberation, or
arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
ship.


Definition

Buddhahood is the state of an awakened being, who, having found the path of cessation of
suffering Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness or aversion, possibly associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence (psyc ...
(''duḥkha'') (as originated from attachment to fetters and hindrances, distorted perception and thinking) is in the state of "no-more-Learning".
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
is devoted primarily to awakening or enlightenment (''bodhi''), '' Nirvāṇa'' ("blowing out"), and liberation (''vimokṣa'') from all causes of suffering (''duḥkha'') due to the existence of sentient beings in ''
saṃsāra ''Saṃsāra'' (Devanagari: संसार) is a Sanskrit word that means "wandering" as well as "world," wherein the term connotes "cyclic change" or, less formally, "running around in circles." ''Saṃsāra'' is referred to with terms or p ...
'' (the cycle of compulsory birth, death, and rebirth) through the threefold trainings ( ethical conduct, meditative absorption, and
wisdom Wisdom, also known as sapience, is the ability to apply knowledge, experience, and good judgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated with insight, discernment, and ethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom ha ...
). Classical Indian Buddhism emphasized the importance of the individual's
self-cultivation Self-cultivation or personal cultivation () is the development of one's mind or capacities through one's own efforts. Self-cultivation is the cultivation, integration, and coordination of mind and body. Although self-cultivation may be practice ...
(through numerous spiritual practices like keeping ethical precepts,
Buddhist meditation Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are ''bhavana, bhāvanā'' ("mental development") and ''Dhyāna in Buddhism, jhāna/dhyāna'' (a state of me ...
, and
worship Worship is an act of religious devotion usually directed towards a deity or God. For many, worship is not about an emotion, it is more about a recognition of a God. An act of worship may be performed individually, in an informal or formal group, ...
) in the process of liberation from the defilements which keep us bound to the cycle of rebirth. According to the standard Buddhist scholastic understanding, liberation arises when the proper elements (''dhārmata'') are cultivated and when the mind has been purified of its attachment to fetters and hindrances that produce unwholesome mental factors (various called defilements,
poisons A poison is any chemical substance that is harmful or lethal to living organisms. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figurati ...
, or fluxes). There is a broad spectrum of opinion on the nature of Buddhahood, its universality, and the method of attaining Buddhahood among the various schools of Buddhism. The level to which this manifestation requires ascetic practices varies from none at all to an absolute requirement, dependent on doctrine. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, Buddhahood is the universal goal and all Mahāyānists ultimately aim at becoming a Buddha, in order to benefit and liberate all sentient beings. While most Mahāyāna Buddhist schools accept the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
ideal, in which it takes aeons to reach Buddhahood, not all agree that everyone can become a Buddha or that the path to Buddhahood must necessarily take aeons. In
Theravāda Buddhism ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' (anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or ''Dharma (Buddhi ...
, ''Buddha'' refers to one who has reached awakening or enlightenment (''bodhi'') through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out the '' Dhārma''. A ''samyaksaṃbuddha'' ("full, complete Buddha") re-discovers the
Four Noble Truths In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (; ; "The Four Arya (Buddhism), arya satya") are "the truths of the noble one (the Buddha)," a statement of how things really are (Three marks of existence, the three marks of existence) when they are seen co ...
and the
Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path () or Eight Right Paths () is an early summary of the path of Buddhist practices leading to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth, in the form of nirvana. The Eightfold Path consists of eight pra ...
to awakening on their own, and then teaches these to others after his awakening. A '' pratyekabuddha'' ("solitary Buddha") also reaches '' Nirvāṇa'' through his own efforts, but is unable or unwilling to teach the ''Dhārma'' to others. An ''
arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
'' ("saint") needs to follow the teaching of a Buddha to attain ''Nirvāṇa'', and may also preach the ''Dhārma'' after attaining ''Nirvāṇa''.Snelling, John (1987), ''The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice''. London: Century Paperbacks. p. 81 In one instance the term ''Buddha'' is also used in Theravādin literature to refer to all who attain '' Nirvāṇa'', using the term '' śrāvakabuddha'' to designate an ''arhat'', someone who depends on the teachings of a Buddha to attain ''Nirvāṇa''.''Udana Commentary''. Translation Peter Masefield, volume I, 1994. Pali Text Society. p. 94. In this broader sense it is equivalent to the arhat. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, a Buddha is seen as a transcendent being with extensive powers, who is all-knowing, immeasurably powerful, with an eternal lifespan, and whose awakened
wisdom Wisdom, also known as sapience, is the ability to apply knowledge, experience, and good judgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated with insight, discernment, and ethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom ha ...
(''buddha-jñana'') is all pervasive.Hamar, Imre (2007). "The Manifestation of the Absolute in the Phenomenal World: Nature Origination in Huayan Exegesis". Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient. 94: 229–250. . This view can be found in numerous Mahāyāna texts, such as the '' Avataṃsaka Sūtra''. Mahāyāna buddhology mainly understands the Buddha through the " three bodies" (''Trikāya'') framework. In this framework, the historical Buddha or other Buddhas who appear human are understood docetically as magical " transformation bodies" (''Nirmāṇakāya''). Meanwhile, the ''real'' or ultimate Buddha is the '' Dharmakāya'', the body of ultimate reality. Thus, the '' Ratnagotravibhāga'' (''Analysis of the Jeweled Lineage''), a key Mahāyāna treatise, defines the Buddha as "the uncompounded (''asamskrta''), and spontaneous (''anabhoga'') Dharmakāya" and as "self-enlightened and self-arisen wisdom (''jñana''), compassion and power for the benefit of others." This ultimate awakened reality is understood and interpreted in numerous different ways by the different Mahāyāna schools. The doctrine of Buddha-nature (''tathāgatagarbha'') in Mahāyāna Buddhism also consider Buddhahood to be a universal and innate property which is immanent in all sentient beings. Most Buddhists do not consider
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist lege ...
to have been the only Buddha. The
Pāli Canon The Pāḷi Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhism, Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant Early Buddhist texts, early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from t ...
refers to many previous ones (see list of the named Buddhas), while the Mahāyāna texts additionally have many Buddhas of celestial origin (see
Amitābha Amitābha (, "Measureless" or "Limitless" Light), also known as Amituofo in Chinese language, Chinese, Amida in Japanese language, Japanese and Öpakmé in Tibetan script, Tibetan, is one of the main Buddhahood, Buddhas of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddh ...
or Vairocana as examples; for lists of many thousands of Buddha names, see '' Taishō Tripiṭaka'', numbers 439–448).


Views about the Buddhas


A Buddha as a supreme person

The Theravāda Buddhist tradition generally sees the Buddha as a supreme person who is neither a God in the theistic sense, nor a
deva Deva may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster * Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...
, nor a regular
human Humans (''Homo sapiens'') or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus ''Homo''. They are Hominidae, great apes characterized by their Prehistory of nakedness and clothing ...
. Thus, the Buddha is seen as a very special and unique class of persons called a "great person" (''mahāpurisa''). Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human. Instead, he is seen as having many supranormal powers (''siddhi''), such as the superknowledges (''abhijñā''), the capacity for a very long lifespan, as well as the thirty-two marks of a great man.Skilton, Andrew. ''A Concise History of Buddhism.'' 2004. pp. 64–65 In the
Pāli Canon The Pāḷi Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhism, Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant Early Buddhist texts, early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from t ...
, the Buddha is depicted as someone between a human and a divine being. He has a human body that decays and dies, and he was born from human parents (though some sources depict this as a miraculous birth). The most important element of a Buddha is that they have attained the supreme spiritual goal: '' Nirvāṇa''. This is what makes him supreme and what grants him special powers. This view of the Buddhas a supreme person with many superpowers, but which has a physical body that has many limitations of a human form was also shared by other
early Buddhist schools The early Buddhist schools refers to the History of Buddhism in India, Indian Buddhist "doctrinal schools" or "schools of thought" (Sanskrit: ''vāda'') which arose out of the early unified Buddhist monasticism, Buddhist monastic community (San ...
, like the Sarvāstivāda and the
Dharmaguptaka The Dharmaguptaka (Sanskrit: धर्मगुप्तक; ; ) are one of the eighteen or twenty early Buddhist schools from the ancient region of Gandhara, now Pakistan. They are said to have originated from another sect, the Mahīśāsakas f ...
. In the Pāli Canon, the Buddha is asked whether he was a
deva Deva may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster * Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...
or a human, and he replies that he had eliminated the deep-rooted unconscious traits that would make him either one, and should instead be called a Buddha: one who had grown up in the world but had now gone beyond it, as a lotus flower grows from the water but blossoms above it, unsoiled. The Pāli Canon also states that Gautama Buddha is known as being a "teacher of the gods and humans", superior to both the
gods A deity or god is a supernatural being considered to be sacred and worthy of worship due to having authority over some aspect of the universe and/or life. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines ''deity'' as a God (male deity), god or god ...
(devas) and humans since he has attained the highest liberation, whereas the gods are still subject to attachment, ignorance, anger, fear, and sorrow. In the ''Madhupindika Sutta'' (MN 18), Buddha is described in powerful terms, such as the "Lord of the '' Dhārma''" and the bestower of immortality. Similarly, in the ''Anuradha Sutta'' (SN 44.2), Gautama Buddha is described as the "supreme man" and the "attainer of the superlative attainment". Because he has attained the highest spiritual knowledge, the Buddha is also identified with the '' Dhārma'' (the most fundamental reality) In the ''Vakkali Sutta'' (SN 22.87).


A Buddha as a transcendent and supramundane being

In the
early Buddhist schools The early Buddhist schools refers to the History of Buddhism in India, Indian Buddhist "doctrinal schools" or "schools of thought" (Sanskrit: ''vāda'') which arose out of the early unified Buddhist monasticism, Buddhist monastic community (San ...
, the
Mahāsāṃghika The Mahāsāṃghika (Brahmi script, Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha (Buddhism), Sangha", ) was a major division (nikāya) of the early Buddhist schools in India. They were one of the two original communities th ...
branch regarded the buddhas as being characterized primarily by their supramundane (''lokottara'') nature. The Mahāsāṃghikas advocated the transcendental and supramundane nature of the buddhas and bodhisattvas and the fallibility of arhats.Baruah, Bibhuti. ''Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism.'' 2008. p. 48. Of the 48 special theses attributed by the Indian scholar Vasumitra to the Mahāsāṃghika sects of Ekavyāvahārika,
Lokottaravāda The Lokottaravāda (Sanskrit, लोकोत्तरवाद; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools according to Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahāsā ...
, and Kukkuṭika, 20 points concern the supramundane nature of buddhas and bodhisattvas. According to Vasumitra, these four groups held that the Buddha is able to know all dharmas in a single moment of the mind.Yao, Zhihua. ''The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition.'' 2005. p. 11 Yao Zhihua writes: A doctrine ascribed to the Mahāsāṃghikas is, "The power of the tathāgatas is unlimited, and the life of the buddhas is unlimited." According to Guang Xing, two main aspects of the Buddha can be seen in Mahāsāṃghika teachings: the true Buddha who is omniscient and immeasurably powerful, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings through skillful means. For the Mahāsaṃghikas, the historical Gautama Buddha was one of these transformation bodies (Skt. '' nirmāṇakāya''), while the essential real Buddha is equated with the Dharmakāya. As in Mahāyāna traditions, the Mahāsāṃghikas held the doctrine of the existence of many contemporaneous Buddhas throughout the ten directions.Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. p. 65 In the Mahāsāṃghika ''Lokānuvartana Sūtra'', it is stated, "The Buddha knows all the dharmas of the countless buddhas of the ten directions." It is also stated, "All buddhas have one body, the body of the Dharma." The concept of many bodhisattvas simultaneously working toward Buddhahood is also found among the Mahāsāṃghika tradition, and further evidence of this is given in the ''Samayabhedoparacanacakra'', which describes the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghikas. Guang Xing writes that the ''Acchariyābbhūtasutta'' of the Majjhima Nikāya along with its Chinese Madhyamāgama parallel is the most ancient source for the Mahāsāṃghika view. The sutra mentions various miracles performed by Buddha Śākyamuni before his birth and after. The Chinese version even calls him Bhagavan, which suggests the idea that the Buddha was already awakened before descending down to earth to be born.Xing, Guang. An Enquiry into the Origin of the Mahasamghika Buddhology Authors. The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2004, n. 5, p. 41-51. Similarly, the idea that the lifespan of a Buddha is limitless is also based on ancient ideas, such as the ''Mahāparinirvānasūtra's'' statement that the Buddha's lifespan is as long as an eon ( kalpa) but that he voluntarily allowed his life to end. Another early source for the Mahāsāṃghika view that a Buddha was a transcendent being is the idea of the thirty-two major marks of a Buddha's body. Furthermore, the ''Simpsapa sutta'' states that the Buddha had way more knowledge than what he taught to his disciples. The Mahāsāṃghikas took this further and argued that the Buddha knew the dharmas of innumerable other Buddhas of the ten directions.


Buddhahood in Mahāyāna Buddhism

Mahāyāna Buddhism generally follows the Mahāsāṃghika ideal of the Buddha being a transcendent and all-knowing (sarvajña) being with unlimited spiritual powers. Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an
omnipotent Omnipotence is the property of possessing maximal power. Monotheistic religions generally attribute omnipotence only to the deity of their faith. In the monotheistic religious philosophy of Abrahamic religions, omnipotence is often listed as ...
and almighty
divinity Divinity (from Latin ) refers to the quality, presence, or nature of that which is divine—a term that, before the rise of monotheism, evoked a broad and dynamic field of sacred power. In the ancient world, divinity was not limited to a single ...
"endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities". Mahāyāna cosmology also includes innumerable Buddhas who reside in innumerable buddha fields (''buddha kshetra'').Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 21. The Mahāyāna '' Lotus Sutra,'' for example, says the lifespan of the Buddha is immeasurable. It also says that the Buddha actually achieved Buddhahood countless eons (''kalpas'') ago and has already been teaching the Dharma through his numerous manifestations (''nirmana'') for eons. In spite of this transcendent nature, Mahāyāna also affirms the immanent nature of Buddhahood in all beings (through the doctrine of Buddha-nature, which is seen as something that all beings have). This view of an immanent Buddha essence in all normal human beings is common throughout East Asian Buddhism. The myriad Buddhas are also seen as active in the world, guiding all sentient beings to Buddhahood. Paul Williams writes that the Buddha in Mahāyāna is "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world".Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 27. This view entails a kind of docetism regarding the "historical" Buddha, Shakyamuni. His life and death were a "mere appearance," like a magic show; in reality, the Buddha still exists and is constantly helping living beings. Because of this transcendental view, Mahāyāna Buddhologies have sometimes been compared to various types of
theism Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of at least one deity. In common parlance, or when contrasted with '' deism'', the term often describes the philosophical conception of God that is found in classical theism—or the co ...
(including
pantheism Pantheism can refer to a number of philosophical and religious beliefs, such as the belief that the universe is God, or panentheism, the belief in a non-corporeal divine intelligence or God out of which the universe arisesAnn Thomson; Bodies ...
) by different scholars. There is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue, as well on the general relationship between Buddhism and theism. Since Buddhas remain accessible, a Mahāyānist can direct prayers to them, as well as experience visions and revelations from them. This has been very influential in the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Furthermore, a Mahāyāna devotee can also aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's Pure Land or Buddha field ('' buddhakṣetra''), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. This practice is the central element of East Asian
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism or the Pure Land School ( zh, c=淨土宗, p=Jìngtǔzōng) is a broad branch of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Pure land, Pure Land. It is one of the most widely practiced traditions of East Asi ...
.


The Buddha as just a wise human

Some modern Buddhists have argued that the Buddha was just a human being, albeit a very wise one. This is a common view in Buddhist modernism, which sought to teach a form of Buddhism that was modern,
rational Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reason. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do, or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an ...
and
scientific Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...
. One figure who sees Buddha as mainly human is
Thích Nhất Hạnh Thích Nhất Hạnh ( ; , Huế dialect: ; born Nguyễn Xuân Bảo; 11 October 1926 – 22 January 2022) was a Vietnamese Thiền Buddhist monk, peace activist, prolific author, poet, and teacher, who founded the Plum Village Tradition, ...
, a Vietnamese Buddhist monk in the
Zen Zen (; from Chinese: ''Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka phil ...
tradition, who states that "Buddha was not a god. He was a human being like you and me, and he suffered just as we do." In a similar fashion, Jack Maguire, a Western monk of the Mountains and Rivers Order in New York, writes that Buddha is inspirational based on his humanness:


Nature of the Buddha

The various Buddhist schools hold some varying interpretations on the nature of Buddha. All Buddhist traditions hold that a Buddha is fully awakened and has completely purified his mind of the
three poisons The three poisons (Sanskrit: ''triviṣa''; Tibetan: ''dug gsum'') in the Mahayana tradition or the three unwholesome roots (Sanskrit: ''akuśala-mūla''; Pāli: ''akusala-mūla'') in the Theravada tradition are a Buddhist term that refers to th ...
of craving, aversion and ignorance. A Buddha is no longer bound by
saṃsāra ''Saṃsāra'' (Devanagari: संसार) is a Sanskrit word that means "wandering" as well as "world," wherein the term connotes "cyclic change" or, less formally, "running around in circles." ''Saṃsāra'' is referred to with terms or p ...
, and has ended the
suffering Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness or aversion, possibly associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence (psyc ...
which unawakened people experience in life. Most schools of Buddhism have also held that the Buddha was omniscient. However, the early texts contain explicit repudiations of making this claim of the Buddha. Mahāyāna buddhology expands the powers of a Buddha exponentially, seeing them as having unlimited lifespan and all-pervasive omniscient wisdom, as omnipotent, and as able to produce an infinite number of magical manifestations (nirmanakayas) as well as being able to produce pure lands (heaven-like realms for bodhisattvas).


The classic superknowledges

The Early Buddhist texts (and other later sources as well) contain a classic list of " supernormal knowledges" (Skt. ''abhijñā'',
Pali Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a Classical languages of India, classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pali Canon, Pāli Can ...
: ''abhiññā'') that a Buddha has attained through spiritual practice. There is an ancient list of "six classes of superknowledge" (Pali: chalabhiññā, Skt. ṣaḍabhijña) that Buddhas have which are found in various Buddhist sources. These are: # " Higher powers" (P: ''iddhi,'' S: ''ṛddhi''), such as walking on water and through walls; flight, becoming invisible and creating mind made bodies. # "Divine ear" (Pali: ''dibbasota''), that is, clairaudience which extends in the human realm as well as into the other realms, like the realms of the gods (devas). # "Mind-penetrating knowledge" (''cetopariyañāa''), that is,
telepathy Telepathy () is the purported vicarious transmission of information from one person's mind to another's without using any known human sensory channels or physical interaction. The term was first coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Frederic ...
; # "Remember one's former abodes" (''pubbenivāsanussati''), recalling one's own past lives stretching back eons into the past. # "Divine eye" (''dibbacakkhu''), that is, knowing others' karmic destinations (where they will be reborn); and, # "Knowledge of the destruction of the mental pollutants" (''āsavakkhaya''), which is the eradication of all negative mental states and the ending of suffering. This knowledge is the "liberation of the mind" (Pali: ''cetovimutti'', Skt. ''cittavimukti'').


Miraculous displays

Buddhist texts include numerous stories of the Buddha's
miracle A miracle is an event that is inexplicable by natural or scientific lawsOne dictionary define"Miracle"as: "A surprising and welcome event that is not explicable by natural or scientific laws and is therefore considered to be the work of a divi ...
s, which include displays of the ''abhiññās,'' healings, elemental magic (such as manipulating fire and water), and various other supernatural phenomena, traveling to higher realms of
Buddhist cosmology Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the Universe according to Buddhist Tripitaka, scriptures and Atthakatha, commentaries. It consists of a temporal and a spatial cosmology. The temporal cosmology describes the ...
, and others. One of the most famous of these miracles was the Twin Miracle at Sāvatthī, in which the Buddha emitted fire from the top of his body and water from his lower body simultaneously, before alternating them and then expanding them to illuminate the cosmos.
Mahayana sutras The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as wikt:canon, canonical and authentic Buddhist texts, ''buddhavacana'' in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoke ...
contain even more extensive miracles. In the '' Vimalakirti Sutra'', the Buddha display the true pure nature of his " buddha field" to everyone on earth, who suddenly beholds the world as a perfect world filled with jewels and other majestic features. Likewise, in the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha shakes the earth and shines a beam of light which illuminates thousands of "buddha-fields".


Ten epithets of a Buddha

Some Buddhists meditate on (or contemplate) the Buddha as having ten characteristics (Ch./Jp. 十號). These characteristics are frequently mentioned in the Pāli Canon as well as in other early Buddhist sources as well as in Mahayana texts, and are chanted daily in many Buddhist monasteries. The ten epithets are: # Thus gone, thus come (Skt: ') # Worthy one (Skt: ''
arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
'') # Perfectly self-enlightened (Skt: ') # Perfected in knowledge and conduct (Skt: ' ) # Well gone (Skt: ''sugato'') # Knower of the world (Skt: ''lokavidu'') # Unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed (Skt: ') # Teacher of the gods and humans (Skt: ') # The Enlightened One (Skt: buddha) # The Blessed One or fortunate one (Skt: ''bhagavat'') The tenth epithet is sometimes listed as "The World Honored Enlightened One" (Skt. ''Buddha-Lokanatha'') or "The Blessed Enlightened One" (Skt. ''Buddha-Bhagavan'').


Acts of a Buddha

According to various Buddhist texts, upon reaching Buddhahood each Buddha performs various acts (''buddhacarita'') during his life to complete his duty as a Buddha. The Mahayana tradition generally follows the list of "Twelve Great Buddha Acts" (Skt. ''dvadaśabuddhakārya''). These are: # A Buddha must descend from Tushita heaven and transfer his throne to the next future Buddha. # A Buddha must enter his mothers womb. # A Buddha must be born (generally accompanied by miracles). # A Buddha must master numerous arts and skills in his youth. # A Buddha must live in the palace and enjoy his life with his wife. # A Buddha must make a great departure from his palace and become a renunciant ( sramana). # A Buddha must practice
asceticism Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living, often for the purpose of pursuing Spirituality, spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world ...
. # A Buddha must sit under a buddha tree (like the bodhi tree) on a bodhimanda (place of awakening) # A Buddha must defeat the demonic forces of Mara. # A Buddha must attain and manifest full awakening. # A Buddha must give his first sermon, and thus turn the wheel of the Dharma. # A Buddha must die and pass into Nirvana, demonstrating liberation and impermanence. The Pali suttas do not have such a list, but the Theravada commentarial tradition lists 30 obligatory acts of a Buddha.


Attributes of a Buddha in Mahāyāna

Various
Mahayana sutras The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as wikt:canon, canonical and authentic Buddhist texts, ''buddhavacana'' in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoke ...
and treatises contain explanations of the nature of a Buddha and the various attributes which Buddhas are said to have. These attributes are significantly different and more exalted than the way a Buddha is understood in non-Mahayana Buddhism. Some of the key attributes of Buddhahood in Mahayana buddhology include: * Triple body ( Trikāya): This is the central Mahayana buddhological theory which states that a Buddha has three aspects, or functions (Sanskrit: vṛṭṭis): the '' Dharmakāya'' (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
;
Dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
body, the ultimate reality, the true nature of all things), the ''Sambhogakāya'' (the body of self-enjoyment, a blissful divine body with infinite forms and powers) and the '' Nirmāṇakāya'' (manifestation body, the body which appears in the everyday world and presents the semblance of a
human body The human body is the entire structure of a Human, human being. It is composed of many different types of Cell (biology), cells that together create Tissue (biology), tissues and subsequently Organ (biology), organs and then Organ system, org ...
). *
Eternity Eternity, in common parlance, is an Infinity, infinite amount of time that never ends or the quality, condition or fact of being everlasting or eternal. Classical philosophy, however, defines eternity as what is timeless or exists outside tim ...
and Immutability: In its ultimate aspect (i.e. ''Dharmakāya''), Buddhahood is said to be unchanging, non-arising, un-created, eternal, permanent (nitya) and unceasing.Xing, Guang (2005). ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikāya Theory,'' p. 90. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-33344-3. Various sources like the '' Lotus Sutra'' also indicate the Buddha's lifespan (ayus) is also immeasurable or eternal ("ever enduring, never perishing"). Furthermore, in Mahayana, Buddhahood is also understood as timeless, beyond any concept of past, present or future, since any concept of time is a mental construction. * Beyond thought: A Buddha has no
thought In their most common sense, the terms thought and thinking refer to cognitive processes that can happen independently of sensory stimulation. Their most paradigmatic forms are judging, reasoning, concept formation, problem solving, and de ...
s or ordinary
cognition Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...
( samjña), he does not plan,
concept A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, ...
ualize, think (amanasikāra). His mind is beyond all mental proliferation (nis prapañca). Instead, Buddhahood naturally and spontaneously manifests myriad skillful means to benefit all beings in an automatic manner without any thought or planning.Lai, Whalen W. 'A Clue to the Authorship of the Awakening of Faith: "Siksananda's" Redaction of the Word "Nien"*' ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', Volume 3, 1980, Number 1.Buswell, R.; Lopez, D. ''The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism,'' p. 1005. Princeton University Press, 2013. Thus he is said to have a mind which is no-mind (Sanskrit: acitta) or without discrimination (nirvikalpa). * Wordless Teaching: Various sutras, like the '' Tathāgataguhya Sūtra,'' state that the Buddha "has never once uttered a single word" since Buddha is always in a state of meditative
samadhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''Samādhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
. In spite of this, the Buddha manifests innumerable skillful means that magically appears to all sentient beings as various teachings appropriate specifically for them, in whatever language or sound they can understand.Shingan, Shaku (2021).
The Secrets of the Tathāgata A Mahāyāna Sūtra
,'' pp. 32, 37. Kamakura. ISBN 978-1-716-23850-5 (Lulu).
* All-knowing wisdom: Buddha's knowledge and wisdom is said to be all-knowing (Sanskrit: sarvajña), i.e. omniscient.Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. ''Lankavatara Sutra: A Mahayana Text,'' p. xiii. 1932, London This is because a Buddha knows the true nature of all reality as well as all phenomena (dharmas). * All-pervasive: Sutras like the '' Avatamsaka Sutra'' state that Buddha's light and wisdom is all pervasive and omnipresent throughout out the cosmos. As such, Buddhahood is present everywhere, including in the minds of all beings as buddha-nature. However, most beings do not detect Buddha's presence, because their minds are deluded and clouded over by defilements. * Measureless Power: Buddha's power (anubhāva, adhiṣṭhāna) is said to be immeasurably vast, though not claimed to be
omnipotent Omnipotence is the property of possessing maximal power. Monotheistic religions generally attribute omnipotence only to the deity of their faith. In the monotheistic religious philosophy of Abrahamic religions, omnipotence is often listed as ...
per se. This power is able to influence and help liberate sentient beings in different ways.Sharf, Robert H. ''Coming to Terms With Chinese Buddhism: A Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise'', p. 119. University of Hawaii Press, Jan 1, 2002Jackson, Roger. Makransky, John. ''Buddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars'', p. 114. Routledge, Dec 16, 2013. Furthermore, the "power of the uddha'spast vows" (pūrva-praṇidhāna-vaśa) can help living beings who call on the Buddha's aid by helping them be reborn in a
Pure Land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
. This idea, also called "other-power", is central to
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism or the Pure Land School ( zh, c=淨土宗, p=Jìngtǔzōng) is a broad branch of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Pure land, Pure Land. It is one of the most widely practiced traditions of East Asi ...
. * Great Compassion: Buddha's great compassion ( mahākaruṇā) and kindness ( maitrī) is universal and embraces all beings in the universe. It is due to this great compassion that the Buddha works to liberate all beings, and will unceasingly continue to manifest immeasurable numbers of emanation bodies ('' nirmāṇakāyas'') and skillful means in order to save all beings. * Skillful Means (Upaya): Buddha's compassion and love manifests as Buddha's skillful means which take immeasurably many forms. For example, Buddha may appear as a human, any deva, animal, etc. In order to liberate all different types of beings, the Buddha also teaches many paths to awakening (such as the three vehicles), many teachings (such as the three turnings) and many methods of spiritual cultivation. * Inconceivability: In numerous sources, the Buddha is seen as being inconceivable (acintya), beyond all concepts, indescribable by language, unable to grasped by thought or intellectual understanding. One of the names of the Buddha Amitabha is Acintyaprabha, "Inconceivable Light". * Purity: Buddhahood is totally beyond the defilements (kleśa) and thus perfectly pure (viśuddhi), unstained ( anāśrava), and undefiled (akleśa). * Non-dual: While Buddhahood is said to transcend the suffering of samsara (the conditioned world), it is also not separate from samsara either, and thus is non-dual (advaya) with the world of suffering. This due to the Mahayana doctrine of " non-abiding nirvana" (apratiṣṭhita-nirvana, also "not-fixed" or "non-localized"), which holds that nirvana is not a state of total transcendence separated from the world, but is also able to freely operate in the world of suffering, ecompassing the entire cosmos and being immanent within it.


Lists of Buddhas


The Seven Buddhas of Antiquity

In the earliest strata of Pali Buddhist texts, especially in the first four Nikayas, only the following seven Buddhas, The Seven Buddhas of Antiquity (''Saptatathāgata''), are explicitly mentioned and named (see for example SN 12.4 to SN 12.10). Four of these are from the current '' kalpa'' (Pali: kappa, meaning eon or "age") called the good eon (''bhaddakappa'') and three are from past eons. # Vipassī (lived ninety-one ''kalpas'' ago) # Sikhī (lived thirty-one ''kalpas'' ago) # Vessabhū (lived thirty-one ''kalpas'' ago in the same ''kalpa'' as Sikhī) # Kakusandha (the first Buddha of the current good eon) # Koṇāgamana (the second Buddha of the current eon) # Kassapa (the third Buddha of the current eon) # Gautama (the fourth and present Buddha of the current eon) One sutta called ''Chakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta'' from an early Buddhist text called the
Digha Nikaya Digha (), is a seaside resort town in the state of West Bengal, India. It lies in Purba Medinipur district and at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal. The town has a low gradient with a shallow sand beach. It is a popular sea resort in India. ...
also mentions that following the Seven Buddhas of Antiquity, a Buddha named
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
is predicted to arise in the world. However, according to a text in the Theravada Buddhist tradition from a later stratum (between 1st and 2nd century BCE) called the '' Buddhavamsa,'' twenty-one more Buddhas were added to the list of seven names in the early texts. Theravada tradition maintains that there can be up to five Buddhas in a '' kalpa'' or world age and that the current ''kalpa'' has had four Buddhas, with the current Buddha, Gotama, being the fourth and the future Buddha Metteyya being the fifth and final Buddha of the ''kalpa''. This would make the current aeon a ''bhadrakalpa'' (fortunate aeon). In some Sanskrit and northern Buddhist traditions however, a ''bhadrakalpa'' has up to 1,000 Buddhas, with the Buddhas Gotama and Metteyya also being the fourth and fifth Buddhas of the ''kalpa'' respectively. The Koṇāgamana Buddha, is mentioned in a 3rd-century BCE inscription by
Ashoka Ashoka, also known as Asoka or Aśoka ( ; , ; – 232 BCE), and popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was List of Mauryan emperors, Emperor of Magadha from until #Death, his death in 232 BCE, and the third ruler from the Mauryan dynast ...
at Nigali Sagar, in today's
Nepal Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China Ch ...
. There is an
Ashoka pillar The pillars of Ashoka are a series of Monolith, monolithic columns dispersed throughout the Indian subcontinent, erected—or at least inscribed with Edicts of Ashoka, edicts—by the 3rd Mauryan Emperor Ashoka the Great, who reigned from to ...
at the site today. Ashoka's inscription in the
Brahmi script Brahmi ( ; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system from ancient India. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as ...
is on the fragment of the pillar still partly buried in the ground. The inscription made when Emperor Asoka at Nigali Sagar in 249 BCE records his visit, the enlargement of a stupa dedicated to the Kanakamuni Buddha, and the erection of a pillar. According to
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
, Koṇāgamana's relics were held in a stupa in Nigali Sagar, in what is now Kapilvastu District in southern
Nepal Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China Ch ...
. The historical Buddha, Gautama, also called Shakyamuni ("Sage of the
Shakyas Shakya ( Pāḷi: ; Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan clan of the northeastern region of South Asia, whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The Shakyas were organised into a (an aristocratic oligarchic republic), also known as ...
"), is mentioned epigraphically on the Pillar of Ashoka at Rummindei ( Lumbini in modern
Nepal Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China Ch ...
). The
Brahmi script Brahmi ( ; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system from ancient India. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as ...
inscription on the pillar gives evidence that
Ashoka Ashoka, also known as Asoka or Aśoka ( ; , ; – 232 BCE), and popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was List of Mauryan emperors, Emperor of Magadha from until #Death, his death in 232 BCE, and the third ruler from the Mauryan dynast ...
, emperor of the
Maurya Empire The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia with its power base in Magadha. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya around c. 320 BCE, it existed in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE. The primary source ...
, visited the place in 3rd-century BCE and identified it as the birth-place of the Buddha.


The last 28 Buddhas of Theravāda (aṭavīsi Buddha)

The
Pali literature Pali literature is concerned mainly with Theravada Buddhism, of which Pali (IAST: pāl̤i) is the traditional language. The earliest and most important Pali literature constitutes the Pāli Canon, the authoritative scriptures of Theravada school ...
of the Theravāda tradition includes tales of 28 previous Buddhas. In countries where
Theravāda Buddhism ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' (anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or ''Dharma (Buddhi ...
is practiced by the majority of people, such as
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
,
Cambodia Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
,
Laos Laos, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR), is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and ...
,
Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
,
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
, it is customary for Buddhists to hold elaborate festivals, especially during the fair weather season, paying homage to the last 28 Buddhas described in the '' Buddhavamsa''. The ''Buddhavamsa'' is a text which describes the life of
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist lege ...
and the 27 Buddhas who preceded him, along with the future Metteyya Buddha. The Buddhavamsa is part of the '' Khuddaka Nikāya'', which in turn is part of the '' Sutta Piṭaka''. The ''Sutta Piṭaka'' is one of three main sections of the ''
Pāli Canon The Pāḷi Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhism, Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant Early Buddhist texts, early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from t ...
''. The first three of these Buddhas—Taṇhaṅkara, Medhaṅkara, and Saraṇaṅkara—lived before the time of
Dīpankara Buddha Dipankara (Pali: ''Dīpaṅkara''; Sanskrit: ', "Lamp bearer") or Dipankara Buddha is one of the Buddhas of the past. He is said to have lived on Earth four asankheyyas and one hundred thousand kalpas ago. According to Buddhists, Dipankara wa ...
. The fourth Buddha, Dīpankara, is especially important, as he was the Buddha who gave ''niyatha vivarana'' (prediction of future Buddhahood) to the
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
youth who would in the distant future become the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Gautama Buddha. After Dīpankara, 25 more noble people ('' ariya-puggala'') would attain enlightenment before Gautama, the historical Buddha. Many Buddhists also pay homage to the future Buddha, Metteyya. According to Buddhist scripture, Metteyya will be a successor of Gautama who will appear on Earth, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure ''
Dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
''. The prophecy of the arrival of Metteyya is found in the canonical literature of all Buddhist sects (
Theravada ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' (anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or ''Dharma (Buddhi ...
,
Mahayana Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#Mahāyāna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
, and
Vajrayana ''Vajrayāna'' (; 'vajra vehicle'), also known as Mantrayāna ('mantra vehicle'), Guhyamantrayāna ('secret mantra vehicle'), Tantrayāna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, is a Mahāyāna Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhis ...
), and is accepted by most Buddhists as a statement about an event that will take place when the ''Dharma'' will have been forgotten on '' Jambudvipa'' (the terrestrial realm, where ordinary human beings live).


Mahāyāna Buddhas

Mahāyāna Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#Mahāyāna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
Buddhists venerate numerous Buddhas that are not found in early Buddhism or in Theravada Buddhism. They are generally seen as living in other realms, known as buddha-fields (Sanskrit: ''buddhakṣetra'') or
pure land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
s ( Ch: 淨土; p: ''Jìngtǔ'') in East Asian Buddhism. They are sometimes called "celestial Buddhas" since they are not from this earth. Some of the key Mahāyāna Buddhas are: * Akshobhya ("the Imperturbable"), appears in various sutras like the '' Vimalakirti sutra.'' His buddha-field is Abhirati (lit. "The Joyous"). *
Amitābha Amitābha (, "Measureless" or "Limitless" Light), also known as Amituofo in Chinese language, Chinese, Amida in Japanese language, Japanese and Öpakmé in Tibetan script, Tibetan, is one of the main Buddhahood, Buddhas of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddh ...
(Amida Buddha, ."Infinite Light"), the principal Buddha of
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism or the Pure Land School ( zh, c=淨土宗, p=Jìngtǔzōng) is a broad branch of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Pure land, Pure Land. It is one of the most widely practiced traditions of East Asi ...
. His buddha-field is called
Sukhāvatī Sukhavati (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Sukhāvatī''; "Blissful"; Chinese: 極樂世界, lit. "realm of ultimate bliss") is the pure land (or buddhafield) of the Buddha Amitābha in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism. Su ...
("Blissful"). * Amoghasiddhi ("Infallible Success") * Bhaiṣajyaguru ("Medicine guru") also known as "Medicine Buddha", the healing Buddha. His pure land is Vaiḍūryanirbhāsa ("Pure Beryl Light"). * Ratnasambhava ("Jewel Born") * Vairocana ("the Illuminator"), a key figure in the '' Avatamsaka Sutra'' and the '' Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra''. He is the central Buddha in Huayan Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and
Shingon is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism. It is a form of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism and is sometimes called "Tōmitsu" (東密 lit. "Esoteric uddhismof Tō- ...
. His pure land is known as the Padmagarbhalokadhātu (the lotus treasury world) and also as "Densely Arrayed Akaniṣṭha" (''Ghanavyūhakaniṣṭha''). * Prabhūtaratna ("Many Treasures"), an ancient Buddha who appears in the '' Lotus Sutra'' * Samantabhadra, a Buddha who is mentioned in the '' Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra,'' which states that the bodhisattva Akṣayamati is said to be from the Buddha field of Samantabhadra. * Lokeśvararāja, a past Buddha who is mentioned in the '' Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life'' * Budai (Jp: Hotei), the fat laughing Buddha, usually seen in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
and often mistaken as ''the'' Buddha in western culture. This figure is believed to be a representation of a medieval Chinese monk who is associated with
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
, the future Buddha. Some Mahāyāna sutras also contain long lists of Buddhas which are used in different ways. One popular list of Buddhas is the Thirty-Five Confession Buddhas which is found in the ''Sutra of the Three Heaps'' (Sanskrit: ''Triskandhadharmasutra''). This sutra is popular in
Tibetan Buddhist Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Darjeeling, Sikkim, and Arunachal Prades ...
rites of confession. The '' Bhadrakalpikasūtra'' contains a list of one thousand and four Buddhas and discusses their deeds. Most of these are Buddhas of the future.


In Vajrayana

In Tantric Buddhism (
Vajrayana ''Vajrayāna'' (; 'vajra vehicle'), also known as Mantrayāna ('mantra vehicle'), Guhyamantrayāna ('secret mantra vehicle'), Tantrayāna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, is a Mahāyāna Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhis ...
, Esoteric Buddhism) which includes Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism,
Shingon is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism. It is a form of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism and is sometimes called "Tōmitsu" (東密 lit. "Esoteric uddhismof Tō- ...
, and Nepalese Buddhism, one finds some of the same Mahayana Buddhas along with other strictly tantric Buddha figures that are unique to Vajrayana.


Five Tathāgatas

There are five primary Buddhas known as the "Five Tathagathas": Vairocana, Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitābha, and Amoghasiddhi. Each is associated with a different consort, direction, aggregate (or, aspect of the personality), emotion, element, color, symbol, and mount. The Five Tathagatas and some of their associated elements are:


Adibuddha

There is also the Vajrayana idea of the Adi-Buddha, the "first Buddha" to attain Buddhahood. Variously named as Vajradhara, Samantabhadra and Vairocana, the first Buddha is also associated with the concept of Dharmakaya.


Female Buddhas

Buddhist Tantra also includes several female Buddhas, such as Tara, the most popular female Buddha in Tibetan Buddhism, who comes in many forms and colors. In several tantric sources, each of the main five Buddhas is paired with a vidyarajñi (wisdom queen) or prajña consort. They are: * Ākāśadhātvīśvarī ("The Sovereign Lady of the Sphere of Infinite Space"), the prajñā of Vairocana * Locanā, the prajñā of Akṣobhya * Māmakī ("Mine-maker"), the prajñā of Ratnasambhava * Paṇḍāravāsinī ("White Robed One"), the prajñā of Amitabha * Tārā ('Star"), sometimes associated with Amoghasiddhi, sometimes Amitabha There are also feminine counterparts to the Adi-Buddha figure, and both are often depicted in union ( yab-yum). As such, in the Nyingma school for example, the Adi-buddha Samantabhadra is paired with a vidya called Samantabhadri, and in Sarma schools, Vajradhara is paired with a supreme female Buddha as well ( Prajñaparamita, Vajradhatu Ishvari, or Vajrayogini).Lama Yeshe. ''Becoming Vajrasattva: The Tantric Path of Purification,'' p. 28. Simon and Schuster, 2004.


Fierce Buddhas

In the Buddhist tantras, there are various
fierce deities In Buddhism, wrathful deities or fierce deities are the fierce, wrathful or forceful (Tibetan: ''trowo'', Sanskrit: ''krodha'') forms (or "aspects", "manifestations") of enlightened Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or Deva (Buddhism), Devas (divine beings); ...
which are tantric forms of the Buddhas. These may be fierce (Tibetan: ''trowo'', Sanskrit: ''krodha'') Buddha forms or semi-fierce, and may appear in sexual union with a female Buddha or as a "solitary hero". The '' Heruka'' ( Tb. ''khrag 'thung'', lit. "blood drinker") are enlightened masculine beings who adopt fierce forms to help beings. They include Yamāntaka, Cakrasaṃvara, Hevajra, Mahākāla, and Vajrakīlaya. '' Dakini'' ( Tb. ''khandroma'', "sky-goer") are their feminine counterparts, sometimes depicted with a heruka and sometimes as independent deities. The most prevalent wrathful '' dakini'' are
Vajrayogini Vajrayoginī (; , Dorjé Naljorma) is an important figure in Buddhism, especially revered in Tibetan Buddhism. In Vajrayana she is considered a female Buddhahood, Buddha and a . Vajrayoginī is often described with the epithet ''sarvabuddhaḍā ...
, Vajravārāhī, Nairātmyā, and Kurukullā. During the tantric period, Buddhist mythology overlapped with
Hindu mythology Hindu mythology refers to the collection of myths associated with Hinduism, derived from various Hindu texts and traditions. These myths are found in sacred texts such as the Vedas, the Itihasas (the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayan ...
. Akshobhya, for example, acquires a fierce Tantric form that is reminiscent of the fierce form of the Hindu god Mahākāla; in this form he became known by the Buddhist names Heruka, Hevajra, or Samvara. He is known in
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
in this guise as ''Fudō'' ("Imperturbable"). The Hindu god Bhairava, a fierce bull-headed divinity, was adopted by Tantric Buddhists as ''Vajrabhairava''. Also called '' Yamāntaka'' ("Slayer of Death") and identified as the fierce expression of the gentle Mañjuśrī, he was accorded quasi-Buddha rank.


Others

Some historical figures are also seen as Buddhas, such as the Buddhist philosopher
Nagarjuna Nāgārjuna (Sanskrit: नागार्जुन, ''Nāgārjuna''; ) was an Indian monk and Mahayana, Mahāyāna Buddhist Philosophy, philosopher of the Madhyamaka (Centrism, Middle Way) school. He is widely considered one of the most importa ...
, Tibetan historical figures like
Padmasambhava Padmasambhava ('Born from a Lotus'), also known as Guru Rinpoche ('Precious Guru'), was a legendary tantric Buddhist Vajracharya, Vajra master from Oddiyana. who fully revealed the Vajrayana in Tibet, circa 8th – 9th centuries... He is consi ...
, Tsongkhapa and Kukai.


Depictions of the Buddhas in art

Buddhas are frequently represented in the form of statues and paintings. Commonly seen postures include: * The Seated Buddha in the
Lotus position Lotus position or Padmasana () is a cross-legged sitting meditation posture, meditation pose from History of India, ancient India, in which each foot is placed on the opposite thigh. It is an ancient asana in yoga, predating hatha yoga, and ...
* Buddha seated on a throne * The Reclining Buddha (usually depicts his final nirvana) * The Standing Buddha * A walking Buddha with one step forward * The emaciated Buddha, which shows Siddhartha Gautama during his extreme ascetic practice of starvation. * The baby Buddha (usually pointing upwards). In Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha is always depicted as a monastic shown with hair and he is always shown wearing the simple monk's robe (called a kāṣāya). In Mahayana Buddhism, a Buddha is often also depicted with monastic robes, however some Buddhas are also depicted with different forms of clothing, such as princely or kingly attire, which can include crowns and jewels. It is common to depict the Buddha accompanied by other figures. In Theravada, it is common to have him flanked by his two main disciples, Moggallana and Sariputta. In Mahayana Buddhism, it is more common to have him surrounded by bodhisattvas, like Manjushri, Samantabhadra and Avalokiteshvara. The Buddha may also be depicted with various accessories, such as a victory banner ( dhvaja), a lotus seat, and a begging bowl.


Special characteristics of a Buddha's body

Most depictions of a Buddha contain a certain number of "marks" ( lakṣaṇa), which are considered the signs of his nobility and his enlightenment. The exactly design and style of these features vary regionally but most often they are elements of list of thirty-two physical characteristics of the Buddha called "the signs of a great man" (Skt. mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa). Some of the most obvious features which can be found in many buddha statues include: * The '' uṣṇīṣa,'' a protuberance on the top of the head which symbolizes superb wisdom. * The ''ūrṇā'', or ūrṇākośa, a spiral tuft of hair or circular dot between the eyebrows. * Dharma wheels on the soles of his feet and on his hands * Other auspicious symbols on his body (such as lotuses,
swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍, ) is a symbol used in various Eurasian religions and cultures, as well as a few Indigenous peoples of Africa, African and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, American cultures. In the Western world, it is widely rec ...
s,
endless knot file:Endless knot detail, from- Burmese-Pali Manuscript. Wellcome L0026495 (cropped).jpg, Endless knot in a Burmese Pali manuscript The endless knot or eternal knot is a symbolic Knot (mathematics), knot and one of the Ashtamangala, Eight Au ...
s, etc.) * Long earlobes, symbolizing denoting superb perception * Unnaturally long arms and long thin fingers * Golden skin


Hand-gestures

The poses and hand-gestures of these statues, known respectively as
asana An āsana (Sanskrit: आसन) is a body posture, originally and still a general term for a sitting meditation pose,Verse 46, chapter II, "Patanjali Yoga sutras" by Swami Prabhavananda, published by the Sri Ramakrishna Math p. 111 and late ...
s and
mudra A mudra (; , , "seal", "mark", or "gesture"; ) is a symbolic or ritual gesture or pose in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. While some mudras involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers. As well as being spiritual ges ...
s, are significant to their overall meaning. The popularity of any particular mudra or asana tends to be region-specific, such as the ''
Vajra The Vajra (, , ), is a legendary and ritualistic tool, symbolizing the properties of a diamond (indestructibility) and a thunderbolt (irresistible force). It is also described as a "ritual weapon". The use of the bell and vajra together as s ...
'' (or ''Chi Ken-in'') mudra, which is popular in
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
and
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
but rarely seen in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. Others are more common; for example, the ''Varada'' (Wish-Granting) mudra is common among standing statues of the Buddha, particularly when coupled with the ''Abhaya'' (Fearlessness and Protection) mudra.


See also

*
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
* Eternal Buddha * Glossary of Buddhism * List of Buddha claimants *
List of bodhisattvas In Buddhist thought, a bodhisattva (Hindi, Devanagari: बोधिसत्व; Burmese: ဗောဓိသတ်;Sinhalese:බෝධිසත්ව; ; Khmer:ពោធិសត្វ; Thai: โพธิสัตว์; ) is a being who is ded ...
* List of named Buddhas * Secular Buddhism * Ten Bodhisattas * Thirty-five Confession Buddhas


References


Citations


Sources

* * * * *


External links


BuddhaNet
{{Authority control Buddhist philosophical concepts Buddhist stages of enlightenment