Xu Jie (Ming Dynasty)

Xu Jie (1512–1583), courtesy name Zisheng, art names Shaohu and Cunzai, was a Chinese scholar-official during the Ming dynasty. He held a high position in the court of the Jiajing Emperor in the mid-16th century, serving as minister of rites from 1549 to 1552, and later as grand secretary and head of the Grand Secretariat from 1562 to 1568.

He came from a modest family, relying on the income from a silk factory. His father held lower-level official positions, but he prioritized his son's education in Confucianism, which ultimately proved to be a wise investment for the family. Xu Jie excelled in the civil service examinations, achieving the highest level, the palace examination, at the age of eighteen in 1523. He was accepted into the Hanlin Academy, and unlike many of his colleagues, he avoided being caught up in the purges during the Great Rites Controversy between the Jiajing Emperor and the government. In 1524, he chose to stay at home to mourn his father's death, which spared him from any potential consequences. In 1530, he openly opposed the emperor and the government's proposed reforms in the ceremonies associated with the veneration of Confucius. As a result, he was sent to the remote mountainous prefecture of Yanping in the southern Chinese province of Fujian to serve as a judge. After a few years, he was promoted to the position of education intendant in Zhejiang and then in Jiangxi. In 1539, he was transferred back to Beijing to the Hanlin Academy, and in 1541, he became the head of the Imperial University. In late 1544, he was appointed as the vice minister of rites, and from early 1545, he served as the vice minister of personnel for four years.

He was not only a philosophical and ethical thinker, but also actively participated in organizing the ''jiangxue'' debates on Confucian studies and moral self-improvement. In addition to his interest in philosophy and personal growth, he also prioritized establishing connections and building relationships with other participants in the discussions. He strategically utilized these friendships and connections for political support. He was known for his efficient management skills and attention to bureaucratic details, as well as his ability to navigate power dynamics and take advantage of opportunities. As a young official, he was known for his energy and strong convictions, even when they went against the government and the emperor. However, as he matured as a politician, he became more cautious and prioritized fulfilling the emperor's wishes. Nevertheless, he was not afraid to make quick and decisive decisions when necessary.

He leveraged his high political positions to accumulate significant wealth, becoming one of the largest landowners in Jiangnan, the most economically developed region of China. After leaving office, he faced attacks from his political adversaries, but thanks to the support of Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng, his family was spared severe punishment and the confiscation of their property.

Biography

Youth and early career

Xu Jie was born in 1503 in Xuanping, Zhejiang Province. His father held the position of vice magistrate and the family later moved to Ningdu, Jiangxi Province when his father was transferred to the same position. Xu Jie's family originated from Huating County, Songjiang Prefecture (present-day Fengxian, Shanghai). They were not particularly well-known, as his father's career began as an assistant employee and he was only able to hold relatively low positions. The family's main source of wealth was a silk factory, where female employees were responsible for weaving silk fabrics. The factory was managed by Xu Jie's mother, wives, and daughter-in-law in succession.

From a young age, Xu Jie was focused on studying Confucianism. His father even went back to Huating to help him become a ''shengyuan'' (county student), and he passed the test at the age of 14, which was earlier than most students. Two years later, he failed the provincial examination, but he received help from the new magistrate, Nie Bao, who regularly met with selected students, including Xu Jie, to "discuss study" (''jiangxue''). Under Nie Bao's guidance, Xu Jie's perspective shifted from solely seeking status and wealth to contemplating the reasons for studying. He began to understand the importance of gaining literary fame, and, by 1523/1524, he realized that true success was not measured by external achievements but by internal transformation and actions based on the knowledge of one's own heart and mind.

In 1522, Xu Jie achieved considerable success by passing the provincial examination. Out of several thousand applicants, he ranked seventh among the 135 successful candidates. The following year, at the age of eighteen, he participated in the metropolitan and palace examinations in Beijing with approximately 3,500 other candidates. He achieved an impressive third place out of four hundred successful candidates. This was an exceptional achievement for someone of his age, especially considering his high ranking. During the subsequent interview, he made a strong impression on the Grand Secretaries Yang Tinghe and Fei Hong.

After successfully passing the examinations, he was appointed as a junior compiler at the Hanlin Academy. In order to officially begin his career, he was required to marry. As per his parents' arrangement, he married a girl surnamed Shen (1505–1530). On his way back to Beijing, he received the news of his father's died. He immediately returned home and spent the next year in mourning. His wife gave birth to their son, Xu Fan (), in 1529, but she died the following year. Xu Jie then remarried to a girl surnamed Zhang (1516–1583), with whom he had a daughter and two sons—Xu Kun (), born in 1544, and Xu Ying (), six years younger. Lady Zhang managed their household in Beijing with modesty, fully supported by her husband who did not approve of extravagance. Therefore, she did not spend much, but she—as a devout Buddhist—was generous in charitable donations. Together, they raised their sons to be polite, humble, and dedicated to their studies. Xu Jie's close relatives included a sister who was married to an officer from Shandong Province, and a younger brother named Xu Zhi (). In 1543, Xu Zhi passed the civil service exams and was awarded the rank of ''jinshi''. This marked the beginning of a successful civil service career for him. He eventually rose to the position of deputy minister in the Nanjing ministries of works and justice.

During the mourning period of 1523–1524, Xu Jie remained in his home county and avoided involvement in the official protests that took place in Beijing in August 1524. These protests, known as the Great Rites Controversy, resulted in severe punishments for hundreds of officials, including seventeen deaths. Xu Jie only arrived in Beijing after the protests had ended and visited his friends who had been exiled to distant provinces as punishment. He assisted them in their travels, but did not offer any commentary on the ongoing conflict. This led to sarcastic remarks that he was simply "observing things from the back of the boat" while the conflict between most officials and the Jiajing Emperor unfolded.

After returning to the academy, he was tasked with teaching the emperor's eunuchs. He put in great effort, starting his lectures before dawn and ending them in the late afternoon. Unlike previous years, he raised the level of education for the eunuchs under his care. He convinced these young men, who were used to a more relaxed teaching style, that the knowledge they acquired would benefit their future rise in positions. The alliances he formed with the eunuchs during this time proved to be advantageous in his later career. In the late 1520s, he also occasionally lectured to the emperor. In addition to his official duties, he participated in philosophical discussions in Beijing with his older friend Ouyang De and other like-minded young officials. These officials were followers of the teachings of Wang Yangming, who would later become influential figures in the nation. Among them were philosophers Zu Shouyi and Luo Hongxian, as well as prolific writer Tang Shunzhi.

The rites controversy and service in the south

In 1530, Xu Jie unexpectedly opposed a proposed revision of the ceremonies and titles associated with Confucius. This proposal was put forth by Grand Secretary Zhang Cong with the knowledge and consent of the Jiajing Emperor. The emperor and grand secretary sought comments on the reform project, but were met with serious opposition. The proposed changes included stripping Confucius of his title of king (''wang'') and removing statues and paintings from Confucius' temples. They also suggested simplifying the ceremonies at the Temple of Confucius and removing their resemblance to imperial sacrifices. Xu Jie vehemently rejected these changes, arguing that the ceremonies and titles associated with Confucius had been confirmed by the founding emperor of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor. He believed that the people were accustomed to these traditions and that any changes would cause distrust in the government with unpredictable consequences. Xu Jie was supported by Censor Li Guan and Supervising Secretary Wang Rumei. The emperor suspected Li Guan of trying to revive the Great Rites Controversy and had him removed from his position. Xu Jie continued to stand by his objections, even when he was heard by Grand Secretaries Zhang Cong, Zhai Luan, and Gui E. The debate reached a climax when Xu Jie responded to Zhang Cong's accusation of disloyalty by stating that only a follower of Zhang could betray loyalty to him, which Xu Jie was not and had never been. He also refused the emperor's demand to withdraw his objections. As a result, the emperor ordered him to be transferred from Beijing. However, at the urging of Censor-in-chief Wang Hong (), who believed the emperor's decision was too lenient, Xu Jie was arrested. Xu Jie expected to die in prison, but was ultimately transferred to the inland Fujian prefecture of Yanping as a judge thanks to the intervention of high-ranking officials Wen Yuan () and Tang Long ().

His dissenting gesture earned him respect and recognition among the officials. He himself later judged it as naive when he based his objections on the belief that "Heaven gives men tongues and the power of speech, so why be afraid to use them?

He spent three years in Yanping. During this time, he was diligent in his duties, resolving long-standing court cases, suppressing banditry, rooting out corruption in the silver mines, and promoting Confucian education—he collecting and burning copies of the Legalist-Taoist treatise ''Deng Xizi'', demolishing a local shrine, and building a Confucian school in its place. He also personally taught students preparing for the civil service examinations, following in the footsteps of his own teacher, Nie Bao. When he left Yanping, his students showed their appreciation by publishing his collected works. In 1534, he was promoted to provincial educational intendant in Zhejiang Province, and in 1536, he was transferred to the same position in Jiangxi Province. In this role, he oversaw the state schools and helped organize the examinations. He was able to maintain discipline among the students without causing resistance, earning their respect. He was not afraid to discipline even the most talented students if their work was too complex or unclear. He did not teach himself, but instead asked his friend Zuo Shouyi to focus on the most gifted students in Jiangxi. In 1539, he was called back to Beijing. His career advancement was supported by Minister of Personnel Xu Zan and censors, as well as Xia Yan, who was in charge of the Grand Secretariat in the late 1530s and early 1540s. Xia Yan supported him, even though Xu Jie had refused to give special treatment to Xia Yan's relatives during his time in Jiangxi.

Return to Beijing

In Beijing, Xu Jie worked at the Hanlin Academy and served as a tutor to the heir to the throne, who was born in 1536. In 1539, several of Xu Jie's friends who shared his philosophical and political beliefs were also brought back from exile to tutor the heir. These friends included Zuo Shouyi, Luo Hongxian, Tang Shunzhi, and Zhao Shichun. All four were dismissed by 1541 due to losing the emperor's trust. Zou Shouyi had written a teaching text for the heir, which the emperor saw as a criticism of himself. Additionally, the other three proposed that the heir represent the emperor during ceremonies in 1541 when the emperor was ill. This proposal was based on precedents from previous reigns, but the Jiajing Emperor interpreted it as a desire for his death and reacted angrily. The grand secretaries called for the execution of the three, but the emperor ultimately chose to remove them from their positions. Xu Jie was able to avoid trouble because he was at home in Huating at the time, mourning the death of his mother.

In 1541, upon his return, he assumed the position of head of the Imperial University. He was well aware of the students' priorities and wrote to a friend that they were primarily interested in mastering the technique of writing the eight-legged essays required for civil service examinations. He noted with disappointment that they showed little interest in the Confucian classics, which were essential for cultivating the mind and self-improvement. In an effort to address this issue, he not only focused on the administrative management of the school, as he had done in the provinces, but also implemented stricter supervision of the students' behavior and studies. He publicly evaluated both of these aspects on a monthly basis. During his tenure, graduates were appointed to offices based on their academic performance and seniority, rather than the amount of money they donated to high-ranking officials.

In November 1544, he was appointed as vice minister of rites, and in February 1545, he became vice minister of personnel. After Minister Xu Zan was promoted to the Grand Secretariat in September 1544, the Ministry of Personnel was led by several older and ineffective men, overshadowed by the energetic and active Xu Jie. This ministry was responsible for appointing, promoting, and transferring officials, so some of Xu Jie’s predecessors avoided interacting with officials in order to maintain impartiality. Xu Jie reminded himself of the importance of honesty and integrity in his duties by inscribing it on the wall of his office. He also did not shy away from his colleagues, and was known for being polite and humble while mingling with both young and older officials. He was praised for his role in the success of several talented individuals, including Ouyang De. In February 1547, Wen Yuan became minister and took a firm hold on the administration. Xu Jie responded by applying for the position of Hanlin academician, which he was granted. In addition to his work at the ministry, he also devoted himself to guiding the graduates of the civil service examinations at the academy, alongside Ouyang De. This included future grand secretaries and Xu Jie's close associates, such as Li Chunfang and Zhang Juzheng. He also worked with Ouyang De on a new edition of '' Da Ming Huidian'', a collection of statutes for ministries and state organs at all levels, which regulated their powers and duties.

Minister

In the autumn of 1548, Xia Yan lost a power struggle in the Grand Secretariat and was ultimately executed. He was replaced by Yan Song as the head of the Grand Secretariat. In the following government changes, Xu Jie was promoted to minister of rites in March 1549. His main focus upon taking on this role was to combat corruption and informal income among officials, as well as improve the management of the ministry. The ministry's responsibilities included confirming the transfer of hereditary titles and ranks from the deceased to their heirs, both for members of the imperial family and for native officials of the ''tusi''; receiving foreign envoys; awarding posthumous titles and ranks to high officials and generals for their services to the state; and potentially financing funeral ceremonies. However, it was common for recipients of these pardons to give gifts to the officials who made the decisions. In an effort to reduce this practice, Xu Jie transferred the final decision-making power over requests from ministerial officials to the emperor. He also reorganized and expanded the ministry's Translators Institute, implementing stricter discipline and introducing examinations for translators and foreign language students. Additionally, he reformed the Imperial Academy of Medicine, reorganized the four-thousand-strong corps of cooks in the Court of Imperial Entertainments, and regulated the work of the cooks, musicians, and dancers assigned to the Court of Imperial Sacrifices. This included reducing the number of cooks from over thirteen hundred to one thousand and dismissing six hundred of the seventeen hundred musicians and dancers.

The Jiajing Emperor was impressed by Xu Jie's energy and in July 1549, he moved him to his residence in the West Park, located west of the Forbidden City and beyond Taiye Lake. The emperor had not resided in the Forbidden City since 1542, instead choosing to live in the West Park which he had transformed into a Taoist paradise for the immortals. Only a select few of his closest aides were allowed to live and work with the emperor in the West Park, including the grand secretaries, the minister of rites, Taoist priests, and a few military commanders. From 1549 until the Jiajing Emperor's death in 1567, Xu Jie performed his duties as minister (and later as grand secretary) in a limited capacity, and he could only visit his home in Beijing with the emperor's permission, which he tried to avoid asking for too often to maintain the emperor's trust in his loyalty. He spent most of his time with the emperor and made every effort to become a part of his inner circle. The emperor consulted with his Taoist priests daily to seek the will of Heaven, and he expected his closest circle to compose appropriate prayers and petitions for this purpose at any time. Some, like Xu Jie's predecessor Sun Cheng'en, did not consider writing Taoist prayers and supplications as part of their official duties; however, they did not remain in the emperor's inner circle for long. Xu Jie, on the other hand, was one of the officials who skillfully and enthusiastically composed Taoist texts for the emperor. He also sought to establish close relationships with other dignitaries in the West Park. He arranged for his third son, Xu Ying, to marry the daughter of the emperor's favorite and commander of the Embroidered Uniform Guard, Lu Bing. He also arranged for his second son to marry the granddaughter of Yan Song, but the wedding was canceled after Yan Song fell out of favor with the emperor in 1562.

In the fall of 1549, Xu Jie narrowly escaped from a career collapse. One of the perks of his high position was the ability to enroll his son in the Imperial University, where Xu Jie's eldest son, Xu Fan, was studying. However, Xu Fan decided to take the more prestigious route of the imperial examination. He applied for the provincial examination in Nanjing in 1549, but lacked confidence and sent a substitute in his place. This fraudulent act was discovered, and Xu Fan was imprisoned. One of the Nanjing officials, who was a native of Huating and a friend of Xu Jie's from their "discuss study", sent Xu Jie a warning. As a result, Xu Jie was able to defend himself and admit his guilt for failing to raise his son. He also offered to resign and proposed expelling his son from the university as punishment. The Jiajing Emperor was satisfied with his minister's humility, and when a request for severe punishment for both son and father reached him through official channels, he ignored it. Xu Jie's continued stay in office was owed to the emperor's extraordinary favor. In contrast, Grand Secretary Zhai Luan was not only dismissed from office but also expelled from the civil service for a similar offense committed by his sons five years earlier, in 1544.

As minister of rites, Xu Jie successfully organized large public events, including the funeral of the heir to the throne, Zhu Zairui, in 1549. The emperor was devastated by Zhu Zairui's death, and Xu Jie made official requests for a new heir to the throne every year for several years. After the sixth request, the emperor expressed that he did not want to see any more requests, and Xu Jie stopped sending them. In 1552, a year later than was customary for imperial sons, Xu Jie convinced the emperor to perform the " capping" ceremony, which symbolized the formal acceptance into adulthood, for his remaining two sons. This also marked the beginning of their formal education and the arrangement of their weddings, which took place early the following year. Of the two surviving sons, the emperor favored the younger Zhu Zaizhen and his mother over the elder Zhu Zaiji. As a result, ceremonies and acts that would have given precedence to the elder as the presumed successor and future emperor were postponed. In 1560, the emperor sent Zhu Zaizhen from Beijing to his estate in Huguang Province, but refused to name Zhu Zaiji as heir to the throne for the rest of his life.

Xu Jie played an active role in resolving the crisis of 1550, when Mongol invaders penetrated as far as the walls of Beijing. As minister of rites, he proposed military and political measures and organized large prayers to avert barbarian invasions and natural disasters. He also remained vigilant about the situation on the northern border and worked to strengthen defenses against the Mongols.

Grand Secretary

In April 1552, Xu Jie was chosen by the Jiajing Emperor to be one of the grand secretaries. At the time, there were three secretaries, with the most influential being Yan Song. Yan Song tended to find compromise solutions to difficult situations and was often smug and complacent. Xu Jie, on the other hand, was energetic and decisive. The third grand secretary, Li Ben, was not as strong-willed as his colleagues and focused more on routine work. As the closest aides to the emperor, the secretaries were often pitted against each other, with Xu Jie being used as a counterweight to Yan Song. Despite being leaders of rival political cliques, they did not openly display their hostility towards each other. Xu Jie respected Yan Song's superior position and avoided open confrontations, but still managed to secure positions of power for himself. For example, he promoted Nie Bao to the position of minister of war in 1553, followed by another friend, Yang Bo, who served as minister from 1555–1556 and 1558–1566 before becoming minister of personnel. Xu Jie promoted Ouyang De as his successor at the Ministry of Rites. He also considered Ouyang De for the Grand Secretariat, but he unexpectedly died in 1554. Despite maintaining a facade of correctness, Xu Jie did not agree with Yan Song's proposals and actively opposed him. This led to Yan Song suspecting Xu Jie of being behind the criticism and lawsuits against him, and he even tried to persuade the emperor to dismiss Xu Jie.

One example of factionalism within the Ming government occurred in the spring of 1558. Wu Shilai, the supervising secretary for the Ministry of Justice, accused three members of Yan Song's party—the minister of war, and two high-ranking officials responsible for the defense of Datong—of incompetence and corruption. As a result, they were dismissed and imprisoned. Wu Shilai then went on to indict Yan Song and his son Yan Shifan for corruption that had led to the collapse of the northern border defenses. This indictment was supported by two bureau secretaries in the Ministry of Justice. All three of these individuals had connections to Xu Jie. Wu Shilai and one of the secretaries had passed the metropolitan and palace examinations in 1553, when Xu Jie was a member of the examination board. The other secretary was a native of Huating. Yan Song believed that Xu Jie was behind the accusation and had the three arrested. However, during interrogation, which was conducted under torture, all three denied any connection to Xu Jie and claimed that they were only concerned with the welfare of the state. It appears that the interrogators did not put much pressure on them, as they were subordinate to Lu Bing, who was Xu Jie's in-law and political ally. In the end, the trio was dismissed from their civil service positions and transferred to the troops guarding the southern border of the empire.

In 1557, Xu Jie's son, Xu Fan, was appointed as prefect of Guangnan in Yunnan Province. This appointment was likely due to his father's high position, as Xu Jie had been readmitted to the Imperial University six years earlier for the same reason. Xu Fan was also appointed as office manager of one of the chief military commissions. Xu Jie protested that his son, who was only twenty-nine years old at the time, lacked the necessary experience to effectively govern the prefecture. He also argued that he needed his son to manage his household in Beijing so that he could focus on his work. As a compromise, Xu Jie requested a position for his son in Beijing, though it would be a lower one. The emperor granted this request and appointed Xu Fan as an aide in the Seals Office.

He utilized his influence to disseminate Wang Yangming's ethical teachings, which emphasized the inherent goodness in individuals and the importance of recognizing and cultivating this goodness. During his time as minister of rites and grand secretary in the 1550s, he organized the ''jiangxue'' debates on Confucian studies, with the goal of promoting personal growth and ethical conduct among participants. These debates were held in the outskirts of Beijing, and sometimes in the city center, and attracted hundreds of students and officials, lasting for several weeks. While officially focused on discussing the correct interpretation of Confucian teachings and the development of one's character, Xu Jie was aware of their potential for political gain and used them to establish connections and a network of like-minded officials who supported his political beliefs. He navigated this carefully, as forming a political faction was a capital offense under Ming law. However, his dedication to these debates on Confucian studies ultimately caused a rift between him and Gao Gong, as well as their younger colleague Zhang Juzheng, who both leaned towards Legalism and did not share Xu Jie's passion for Confucianism.

As a politician, Xu Jie was successful. He was known for his cautious approach, but he also had the ability to be flexible and tough when necessary. According to him, political decisions should be made through a consensus among senior officials, rather than being dictated by a small group of top dignitaries. He often promoted his political ideas through informal correspondence with officials in different regions, rather than using official channels of communication. This was a unique strategy that set Xu Jie apart from other grand secretaries. Despite not having the authority to give orders, his high position and close relationship with the emperor gave weight to his recommendations and suggestions, which were often conveyed in a friendly manner. Regional officials could then present his advice as their own proposals, knowing that they would have his support and be well-received by the central government. Additionally, Xu Jie's insider knowledge of events and attitudes within the Beijing authorities was valuable to the recipients of his letters. While he likely used a similar approach with Beijing officials, these interactions were not documented as they were likely oral. One of Xu Jie's main priorities, as well as that of other grand secretaries, was to build a network of allies among the censors who had the power to impeach corrupt and incompetent government officials.

In addition to civilian officials, Xu Jie also placed great importance on talented military leaders. He did not hold any prejudice against the military elite, as his family had always maintained good relations with them. Xu Jie's father had arranged for his sister to marry an officer from Shandong, and Xu Jie himself had married his son to the daughter of a hereditary officer and commander of the Embroidered Uniform Guard, Lu Bing. Xu Jie actively sought out connections with officers, as shown by his trip to Beijing in 1541 with friends from Huating. While there, they engaged in the usual activities of scholars, such as discussing philosophy over good food and drink and visiting famous mountains and Buddhist temples. They also made a stop at the command of the coast guards in Zhenjiang. The commander even treated them to a duel between his men and a drum made from the skin of an executed pirate. Xu Jie was not impressed with the sound of this drum, as he believed it did not compare to a regular cowhide drum. Throughout his political career, Xu Jie considered the search for, promotion of, and protection of capable officers to be an essential element of his security policy.

In the 1550s and 1560s, the Beijing area faced security concerns due to ongoing Mongol raids. These raids varied in magnitude and were particularly prevalent in the wider areas of Datong, Xuanfu, and Jizhen. However, the eastern part of Liaodong and the western part of the northern border remained peaceful. The Mongols living opposite the Beijing region demanded the opening of border markets to trade horses and cattle for Chinese goods such as silk, tea, and food. While such markets were already operating in the west and east, the emperor refused to allow them in this region. This was partly to avoid appearing weak by complying with the Mongol demand, and also because there were many Chinese refugees and emigrants living among the Mongols. Opening the border would only increase the attractiveness of the Mongolian steppes for dissatisfied Ming subjects. Xu Jie, a supporter of the emperor, shared this stance. In response to Ming China's refusal, the Mongols launched repeated raids. As a result, Xu Jie spent a significant amount of time defending the Beijing region. He played a key role in organizing the recruitment and training of soldiers, selecting commanders, and coordinating supplies. He also worked closely with the ministries of war, personnel, and revenue to develop an effective defense strategy. Xu Jie's approach towards the Mongol invaders (and the coastal pirates in the south) was guided by four principles. Firstly, he viewed the invaders as wild anarchic bands rather than representatives of a proper state. Secondly, he believed it was crucial to not cede any territory or meet their demands. Instead, the focus should be on properly organizing the defense of border areas. Lastly, any agreements could only be made if the Ming government had control over the situation and could ensure their fulfillment.

The security of the Beijing region was a major point of disagreement between Xu Jie and Yan Song. Yan Song suggested abandoning Datong and Xuanfu and moving the defenses closer to Beijing, while also opening border markets. He believed that the Ming armies were no match for the Mongol cavalry and should wait on the city walls until the raiders had finished plundering and returned home. However, the emperor expected his generals to respond aggressively to the raids, and those who followed Yan Song's approach often faced punishment. Yan Song faced criticism as well, but he convinced the emperor that it was merely politically motivated. On the other hand, Xu Jie firmly opposed surrendering any territory to the enemy, but he did not have a solution to the conflict. The situation only improved with the opening of border markets and the negotiation of a peace treaty with the Mongols in 1571, after the death of the Jiajing Emperor in 1567, the resignation of Xu Jie in 1568, and the rise of a new generation of politicians, particularly Grand Secretaries Gao Gong and Zhang Juzheng.

In the 1550s, Xu Jie played a crucial role in the fight against the ''Wokou'' pirates. He focused on maintaining order in the Southern Metropolitan Area, particularly in the prefectures of Suzhou and Songjiang, which were significant sources of tax revenue. As a result, he addressed various issues such as tax arrears, poor population and land registers, problems with tax calculations and distribution, and corruption in the region. These were all matters of national importance. Additionally, Xu Jie advocated for the transition from in-kind taxes to silver. However, he shared his powers with Yan Song, who oversaw the struggle against the ''Wokou'' and the situation in Zhejiang and Fujian through his adopted son and close aide Zhao Wenhua and the supreme commander of the three coastal provinces, Hu Zongxian. While Hu Zongxian's authority technically extended to the Southern Metropolitan Area, Xu Jie still communicated with officials in Nanjing and managed affairs in the region. He paid particular attention to Songjiang Prefecture, which included his home county of Huating. He even maintained written correspondence with prefects and county magistrates, despite their low rank, which was uncommon for a grand secretary to do.

Senior Grand Secretary

During the 1550s, Xu Jie's influence gradually grew as he gained recognition among officials and the respect of the emperor. He achieved this through his administrative skills and his willingness to write Taoist prayers and participate in Taoist ceremonies. By the early 1560s, he was able to work behind the scenes to bring about the downfall of Yan Song, the imprisonment and execution of his son, the imprisonment of Hu Zongxian, the confiscation of Yan Song's family's property, and the expulsion of Yan Song from the civil service. After Yan Song's resignation, the emperor became depressed and considered abdication multiple times (in 1562, 1565, and 1566), but Xu Jie convinced him not to each time. Under Xu Jie's influence, the emperor regained interest in good governance.

In 1561, Yan Song's wife died, causing his son to be unable to visit the palace due to his mourning. This left the 81-year-old Yan Song unable to fulfill his duties. In December of that year, a fire broke out in the Jiajing Emperor's Yongshu Palace in West Park, forcing the emperor to relocate to the smaller Yuxi Palace on the west bank of Taiye Lake. Yan Song suggested moving the emperor to an uninhabited palace to the south of the Forbidden City (where Emperor Yingzong had once been held under house arrest), arguing that rebuilding Yongshu Palace would be costly. However, the emperor angrily refused and Xu Jie suggested using materials intended for other projects in the Forbidden City to rebuild the palace. Xu Jie's son, Xu Fan, was appointed bureau secretary in the Ministry of Works and was put in charge of the reconstruction. By the end of April, the palace had been rebuilt. As a result, the emperor's attitude towards Yan Song cooled and he began to handle government affairs with Xu Jie. That same year, Xu Jie chose to send his sons from Beijing to Huating. In their absence, Xu Fan's role as his father's informal secretary was taken over by Xu Jie's friend and disciple, Yang Yusun (1521–1567), a jinshi, a decisive man, a connoisseur of people, and a brilliant philosopher. After some time, Yang Yusun could not handle the constant requests to meet with Xu Jie and decided to leave for Huguang Province to serve as the grand coordinator.

In 1562, Xu Jie took over as the senior grand secretary, succeeding Yan Song. As he assumed this position, he established three principles for governing the country, which differed from Yan Song's approach.

* the emperor should have the final say and his decrees should not be disregarded;
* the six ministries should not be controlled by the Grand Secretariat, as was the case under Yan Song;
* the censors and supervising secretaries should be able to freely express their opinions without fear of retaliation.

Xu Jie argued that the emperor should fill official positions based on the recommendations of the Ministry of Personnel or conferences of high dignitaries. However, he believed that the emperor should have the freedom to choose the grand secretaries and minister of personnel independently. Additionally, Xu Jie believed that the minister of personnel should be independent of the grand secretaries. In 1565, when Xu Jie's only colleague in the Grand Secretariat, Yuan Wei (who had replaced Li Ben in 1561), died, Xu Jie expressed to the emperor that it was not appropriate for him to be the only one in the Secretariat. However, he did not provide any recommendations for potential candidates. As a result, the emperor selected two men from southern China to serve in the Secretariat: Yan Na as the minister of personnel and Li Chunfang as the minister of rites. Both were subordinate to Xu Jie, but Yan Na resigned that same year due to illness caused by overwork. The emperor proposed Dong Fen, a former member of Yan Song's son's clique, as the successor to Li Chunfang as minister of rites. Xu Jie, who typically adhered to his principles, opposed this decision and convinced the emperor to change his mind. On the other hand, Xu Jie supported Guo Pu and Gao Gong, both northerners, which ultimately proved beneficial when Gao later opposed him.

As the senior grand secretary, Xu Jie focused primarily on the most pressing political issues of the 1560s. These included the situation on the northern borders, the defense of the eastern and southeastern coasts, the maintenance of the Grand Canal, and tax collection and reforms in Jiangnan. Xu Jie was able to focus solely on these matters without having to look back at Yan Song. In the north, the empire's defenses were strengthened. In 1563, the reckless supreme commander of Jizhen and Liaodong provoked the Mongols into a large-scale attack, which reached Tongzhou, an important transshipment point southeast of Beijing where the Grand Canal ended. The Ming army responded with more organized counterattacks than in the early 1550s, and the crisis was resolved without causing panic among the population. However, the commander in question was executed, along with several incompetent officers. The fight against pirates and raiders on the coast shifted from Jiangnan and Zhejiang to the less significant provinces of Fujian and Guangdong in the early 1560s. Fujian was cleared by 1563, while fighting in Guangdong lasted until 1565. After that, piracy was no longer a major issue. The Grand Canal required annual repairs and was severely damaged by a flood in 1565, when the Yellow River overflowed its banks and destroyed 50 km of the canal. After consulting with the grand secretaries and responsible officials, the emperor appointed Zhu Heng, a capable official with no experience in waterworks, as minister of works and vice censor-in-chief to address the situation. Within a few months, Zhu Heng organized the construction of a new 100-km channel for the river, slightly north of the old one, and restored traffic on the Grand Canal. Although floods continued to occur in subsequent years, they did not have such devastating consequences.

Resignation

In early 1567, the Jiajing Emperor died. Xu Jie, without the involvement of the other grand secretaries (Li Chunfang, Gao Gong, and Guo Pu), but with the assistance of Zhang Juzheng, who was then the head of the Hanlin Academy, drafted the Jiajing Emperor's final edict. This edict was approved by the emperor's son Longqing Emperor and was published the day after the emperor's death. Xu Jie also organized the Jiajing Emperor's funeral and the Longqing Emperor's ascension to the throne. The edict, among other things, pardoned officials who had been affected by the Jiajing Emperor's reign, whether through dismissal, demotion, or even execution. Those who were able to return to their positions were indebted to Xu Jie, which helped him establish a strong power base. However, this was met with criticism from his colleague in the Grand Secretariat, Gao Gong. Gao Gong and Guo Pu were also affected by their exclusion from the drafting of the Jiajing Emperor's final edict.

After the new emperor's accession, Xu and Gao clashed over the emperor's involvement in government. Xu believed that the Longqing Emperor, like the Jiajing Emperor, should personally select the highest-ranking officials. Gao argued that the new emperor would not be able to make successful selections from people he did not know. Ultimately, Gao's viewpoint prevailed. In the first half of 1567, Xu and Gao's supporters among the censors accused each other of various missteps and attacked the supporters of the opposing party. Gao Gong had an advantage over Xu Jie as he had been the Longqing Emperor's most popular tutor during the 1560s. However, the accusations against Gao Gong were stronger and were accompanied by demonstrations by the censors outside the gates of the Forbidden City. Despite the resignations of Xu Jie and Li Chunfang being offered, the emperor did not accept them. Gao Gong realized that he did not have enough support within the government or with the emperor and officially resigned in June 1567, citing illness as the reason. A few months later, Guo Pu also resigned, officially due to illness, but in reality due to pressure from the censors who were attacking him for his previous support of Gao Gong. In their place, the Longqing Emperor appointed Chen Yiqin, one of his tutors, and Zhang Juzheng to the Grand Secretariat. Both respected Xu Jie's leadership position in the Grand Secretariat.

One year later, a lawsuit was filed against Xu Jie by one of the inspection officials, who happened to be the chief supervising secretary of the Office of Scurtiny for Revennue. This lawsuit largely repeated previous accusations made against Xu Jie. The immediate reason for the lawsuit was that the secretary in question had accepted a large bribe from a salt merchant in exchange for a promise to secure a change in the law that would bring the merchant a significant profit. However, Xu Jie blocked the proposed change, leaving the secretary unable to return the bribe and fearing exposure. As a result, the secretary sought to eliminate Xu Jie by accusing him of writing Taoist prayers and organizing the construction of a new palace for Jiajing in 1561/1562, which was seen as dishonest behavior towards Yan Song. The lawsuit also claimed that Xu Jie's involvement in the Jiajing Emperor's final edict was a manifestation of treasonous behavior towards the empetor, and that he had exceeded his authority in dealing with the Mongol attacks of 1567, overshadowing the Longqing Emperor. In his defense, Xu Jie maintained that he had always respected Yan Song and had no involvement in his downfall. He argued that he was indicted by the censors with the support of public opinion, and that the case was investigated by officers of the Embroidered Uniform Guard with judicial organs. The emperor himself had personally decided on guilt and punishment. Xu Jie also defended his writing of the Jiajing Emperor's final edict, stating that it was a display of loyalty to the emperor as it expressed the emperor's desire to correct his mistakes and allow the Longqing Emperor to begin his reign in a favorable atmosphere. The subsequent wave of gratitude towards the Jiajing Emperor for his rehabilitation was seen as evidence of Xu Jie's loyalty. Xu Jie also explained the organization of the highest organs of state administration, particularly the competences of the grand secretaries. He clarified that their role was to draft imperial decrees based on the materials and conclusions of the responsible ministries and conferences of high officials. The emperor's decrees were then implemented by relevant officials and generals without the involvement of the grand secretaries. This was also the case in the decision-making process of 1567. Xu Jie submitted a request for resignation to the emperor, both to show that he was not attached to his position and because he was not as close to the Longqing Emperor as he was to the Jiajing Emperor. Additionally, his age was beginning to take its toll on him.

In August 1568, the emperor unexpectedly accepted Xu Jie's resignation due to backstage intrigues by Zhang Juzheng. Xu Jie left office with honor as the emperor dismissed the accusations against him. Conversely, the accuser was deposed after being accused of corruption. Li Chunfang, the most senior in the service, took over the leadership of the Grand Secretariat. Gao Gong returned to the Grand Secretariat in early 1570 and became the head of the grand secretaries in 1571 after Li Chunfang's resignation (until 1572). In the subsequent purges, Gao Gong and Zhang Juzheng's efforts to eliminate Xu Jie's followers were intertwined with their attempts to limit the influence of neo-Confucian philosophers in the state apparatus. Their debates on Confucian principles were considered "empty talk" by both Gao and Zhang. The friendships and networks of mutual support that emerged from these debates were seen as dangerous in their influence. As a result, in 1570, officials responsible for the education of Confucian students were banned from participating in the ''jiangxue'' debates. After Xu Jie's departure from political life, the dominance of Wang Yangming's ideas over China's intellectual elite weakened. For several decades, under pressure from political attacks, the movement focused more on literary expression than on the political revival of the Donglin school.

Later life

After resigning from his position, Xu Jie returned to his hometown of Huating where he managed his estates. His high status and accompanying income brought wealth to his entire family. As a result, their small estate grew to a massive 60,000 ''mu'' (over 1,700 ha), making Xu Jie one of the wealthiest landowners in Jiangnan. The family leased this land to thousands of tenants, who paid a total of 9,800 ''liang'' (365.5 kg) of silver in rent each year. In addition to their land holdings, the family also invested in lending money to merchants in both Jiangnan and Beijing, acting as a bank and cashing bills drawn in Beijing in the south. Xu Jie was not afraid to use force to protect his interests in the region, often sending hundreds of men (including servants, hired gunmen, and dependent tenants) against his opponents when necessary. However, Xu Jie did have some concerns about the extent of his land holdings. In the 1560s, he urged officials in Songjiang to investigate the activities of his sons and the administrators of the family estates and to provide redress if necessary, but none of the officials took his requests seriously. At one point, Xu Jie even considered retiring to Huguang Province to be with his friend Yang Yusun, but this plan fell through when Yang died in 1567.

In the years 1569–1570, Xu Jie became embroiled in a conflict with Grand Coordinator Hai Rui. Hai Rui, in an effort to promote societal stability and increase state revenues, sought to strengthen the small peasant class at the expense of landowners, who were typically officials or former officials. These landowners enjoyed exemptions from certain taxes, but Hai Rui demanded that they surrender part of their lands. Xu Jie complied by returning some land, but Hai Rui was not satisfied and demanded that Xu Jie hand over half of all his fields. In exchange, Hai Rui promised to leave the remaining fields untouched and not investigate how Xu Jie acquired his property. Hai Rui was forced to resign after a few months in office, but this did not end the troubles for Xu Jie with the authorities. In 1570, with the help of Zhang Juezheng, Gao Gong returned to the position of grand secretary and launched an investigation into the Xu family. This led to many individuals who had previously given bribes to Xu Jie's sons demanding their money back. Fearing that these individuals would testify against him, Xu Jie paid them back, even if their claims were fabricated. Gao Gong's commissioner gathered evidence against Xu Jie's sons, including usury and fraudulent and intimidating practices to seize small estates. The sons were arrested and recommended for the confiscation of the family's assets, with the possibility of the death penalty. However, Zhang Juzheng intervened and negotiated a milder punishment with Gao Gong. Two sons, Xu Fan and Xu Kun, were sent to military service on distant borders, while the third son, Xu Ying, was removed from his official status. Gao Gong, who had been handling the case, repeatedly urged the investigator to close it, stating that he did not want the former senior grand secretary to be arrested as it would have negative political implications. The matter later caused distrust between Gao Gong and Zhang Juzheng when rumors spread that Zhang had intervened because he received a bribe of 30,000 ''liang'' (1,119 kg) of silver from Xu Jie.

Later, Zhang Juzheng played a crucial role in the rehabilitation of Xu Jie's sons. In the following years, he continued to assist Xu Jie's family in resolving their issues with the authorities. In return, Xu Jie sought informal advice from Zhang on matters of national policy. Xu Jie maintained close contact not only with Zhang, but also with other former and active politicians. His home was always open to visitors and he corresponded with many of his political acquaintances, discussing both local affairs and national political issues. In addition to his political involvement, Xu Jie also dedicated himself to managing the family businesses and caring for his large family, which included nineteen grandsons, eight granddaughters, and several nephews and nieces. Among his grandsons, the most successful was Xu Yuanchun, who achieved the rank of ''jinshi'' in 1574 and went on to have a successful career culminated in the position of minister of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices. In 1582, Xu Jie's eightieth birthday (according to Chinese reckoning) was celebrated with great pomp. An official delegation from Beijing, representing the emperor, expressed gratitude to Xu Jie for his service to the state and presented him with lavish gifts.

Xu Jie compiled a collection of official and private documents, letters, and records called ''Shijing tang ji''. This collection was privately printed during his lifetime and only became available to the public after his death. In his later years, he created a second collection called ''Shijing tang xuji'' which was published in 1608 by one of his grandsons.

Xu Jie on 18 April 1583, in Huating, South Zhili. His death was mourned in Beijing, where offices were closed for a day. An official from the Ministry of Works was sent from Beijing to organize the funeral. In recognition of his contributions to the state, he was given the posthumous name Wenzhen, meaning "Cultured and Incorruptible".

Assessment

Xu Jie was a talented administrator, but above all, he was a skillful, tenacious, and patient player of political games. As grand secretary and then senior grand secretary, he held considerable influence, but his role was primarily advisory and he could only enforce decisions with the support of the emperor. The extent to which the emperor relied on the grand secretaries' advice was solely dependent on the emperor himself. While the Jiajing Emperor saw the grand secretaries as essential supports in decision-making, the Longqing Emperor was more lukewarm towards them. Xu Jie was well aware of the possibilities and limitations of his position and behaved accordingly, placing utmost importance on his relationship with the emperor. He managed to win the Jiajing Emperor's favor, which was no easy feat, and maintained it for over two decades, a feat that few have accomplished.

He was generally well-regarded by later Chinese historians, although some had reservations. His public persona was multifaceted, as he was seen as a philosophical and ethical thinker, a capable and efficient manager and statesman with a keen eye for administrative details, and a skilled and cunning manipulator in power struggles. His political actions were generally praised, whether in lower positions or in the secretariat, and he was recognized as the first great secretary who was able to maintain the trust of the Jiajing Emperor for a long time and use it to implement beneficial measures for the people. However, his political savvy sometimes crossed the line into manipulation, and he was not above using underhanded tactics in political battles, which was viewed negatively by moralizing historians. His support for ''jiangxue'' debates on the ethical awakening of personality was evaluated based on the historian's stance on the debates: those who approved of them also saw Xu Jie's support in a positive light, while those who did not viewed it negatively.

From a modern standpoint, John Dardess, an American historian who wrote a monograph on him, described him as a "liberal conservative". Dardess believed that he was liberal because he advocated for honesty, transparency, consensus-based decision-making, and freedom of speech among civil servants. He also believed in promoting capable and qualified individuals without being restricted by traditional formalities. Additionally, he aimed to foster an environment of trust, support, and collaboration in his governance. However, Dardess also saw him as conservative because his main objective was to effectively govern the country while maintaining the existing system, without implementing significant reforms.

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{{Authority control

1512 births
1583 deaths
Senior grand secretaries of the Ming dynasty