Bahrain Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is an island country in West Asia. Situated on the Persian Gulf, it comprises a small archipelago of 50 natural islands and an additional 33 artificial islands, centered on Bahrain Island, which mak ...

s record on human rights has been described by

Human Rights Watch Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Headquartered in New York City, the group investigates and reports on issues including War crime, war crimes, crim ...

as "dismal", and having "deteriorated sharply in the latter half of 2010". Their subsequent report in 2020 noted that the human rights situation in the country had not improved. The

government of Bahrain The Cabinet of Bahrain is the chief executive body of the Kingdom of Bahrain. According to Article 32 (b) of the 2002 Constitution, "executive authority is vested in the King together with the Council of Ministers and Ministers". The Council of ...

has marginalized the native

Shia Muslim Shia Islam is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political Succession to Muhammad, successor (caliph) and as the spiritual le ...

population. Torture and

forced disappearances An enforced disappearance (or forced disappearance) is the secret abduction or imprisonment of a person with the support or acquiescence of a State (polity), state followed by a refusal to acknowledge the person's fate or whereabouts with the i ...

are common in Bahrain. The crackdown on protesters during the

2011 Arab Spring The Arab Spring () was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began in Tunisia in response to corruption and economic stagnation. From Tunisia, ...

brought further human rights complaints, including the destruction of dozens of long-standing Shia mosques. The

Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry (BICI), also known locally in Bahrain as the Bassiouni Commission, was established by the King of Bahrain on 29 June 2011''Bahrain News Agency''" HM King Hamad Sets up Royal Independent Investigation c ...

was established on 29 June 2011 by King

Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Hamad bin Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa (born 28 January 1950) is King of Bahrain since 1999. He is a member of the ruling Al Khalifa dynasty. Early life and education Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa was born on 28 January 1950 in Riffa, Bahrain. ...

to assess the incidents that occurred in the Kingdom during the period of unrest in February and March 2011 and the consequences of these events. The report was released on 23 November of that year and confirmed that there were some incidents of physical and psychological abuse on detainees. It has been criticized for not disclosing the names of individual perpetrators of abuses and extending accountability only to those who actively carried out human rights violations.

Stateless people

There is a growing problem of stateless people, known as Bedoon, who are descendants of Iranians (especially ethnic

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

s) who have lived in Bahrain for many decades. Most of Bahrain's stateless are Muslims, some of Bahrain's stateless are Christians. In Bahrain, stateless people are denied the right to hold legal residency, are not allowed the right to travel abroad, buy houses, and to hold government jobs. They are also not allowed to own land, start a business and borrow loans. Recently, the Bahraini government issued regulations preventing them from sending their children to public schools and to receive free medical care. The stateless can also get deported at any time. Since the beginning of the 1980s, the Bahraini government has deported hundreds of Bedoon to

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

Torture

Despite repeated government claims of improvement over the course of several years,

claims that "torture is a regular part of the legal process in Bahrain." According to a 2011 report by

, between 2007 and 2009, the government regularly practiced torture and ill-treatment in interrogating security suspects. Although government spokesmen have issued denials, there is no evidence of criminal investigations and the government has not imposed disciplinary measures on the alleged perpetrators. In 2011, Human Rights Watch claimed to have found evidence that protections for

migrant workers A migrant worker is a person who Human migration, migrates within a home country or outside it to pursue work. Migrant workers usually do not have an intention to stay permanently in the country or region in which they work. Migrant workers ...

have improved. According to a report published by Reprieve and Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy, death sentences in Bahrain have increased by over 600% in the last ten years. The report also called the use of torture in Bahrain "

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

", revealing cases of forced confessions, electric shocks, beatings and attempted rape.

Hakeem al-Araibi held in Thailand

In November 2018, a Bahraini footballer

Hakeem al-Araibi Hakeem Ali Mohammed Ali al-Araibi (; born 7 November 1993) is a Bahraini footballer who plays for St Albans Saints. He played for local club Al-Shabab and in the Bahraini national team before he fled as a dissident and refugee when the team w ...

, who had been sentenced in absentia by Bahrain to 10 years in prison for vandalising a police station, was arrested upon arrival in

Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...

with his wife for their honeymoon. The footballer, who was given refugee status by

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...

in 2014, urged the Thailand authorities not to deport him to Bahrain as he was previously tortured in Bahrain for his political views. He was kept in detention in Thailand while the Australian government and many international organisations and individuals lobbied for his release, until it was announced on 11 February 2019 by the Thai Office of the Attorney-General (OAG) that the extradition case against al-Araibi had been dropped by the criminal court at Bahrain's request. No reason was given by the foreign ministry, but the decision was made under Section 21 of the Prosecution Act, which allows for cases to be dropped if not in the public interest, and he would be released and allowed to return to Australia as soon as possible.

Discrimination

Against ethnic Iranians

According to reports from 2013 and 2016 Bahrainis of an Iranian descent (Like Bushehri

Lurs The Lurs, Lors or Luris () are an Iranian people living in western and southern Iran. The four Luri branches are the Bakhtiari, Mamasani, Kohgiluyeh and Lur proper, who are principally linked by the Luri language. Lorestan province is name ...

, and Achomis) that have a

Shia Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...

background face systematic racism whereas Sunni Achomis do not. Some Sunni Achomis object to being classified as "

Ajam (, ) is an Arabic word for a non-Arab, especially a Persian. It was historically used as a pejorative—figuratively ascribing muteness to those whose native language is not Arabic—during and after the Muslim conquest of Iran. Since the ea ...

" (a term usually used to refer to non-Arabs and especially people of Iranian ancestry in GCC countries and especially Achomis), and argue that this term only refers to people who migrated from Iran with a Shia background. The researcher pointed out that the linguistic and religious situation of the Sunni Persians in Bahrain is thorny, and that there is sometimes deliberate confusion between the "Huwala Arabs" and the "Sunni Persians/Achomis." Iranians of Bahrain could quite often face discrimination and

racism Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...

, and their loyalty is always questioned.Alt URL
/ref> Sectarian conflicts following the

Islamic revolution of Iran The Iranian Revolution (, ), also known as the 1979 Revolution, or the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (, ) was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. The revolution led to the replacement of the Impe ...

, 2011 events, along with

Islamic extremism Islamic extremism refers to extremist beliefs, behaviors and ideologies adhered to by some Muslims within Islam. The term 'Islamic extremism' is contentious, encompassing a spectrum of definitions, ranging from academic interpretations of Is ...

, attributed to divisions among the Ajams of Bahrain. While school students in

study Modern Standard (Formal) Arabic, Bahrainis of Iranian origins or Iranian ancestry cannot study

Farsi Persian ( ), also known by its endonym Farsi (, Fārsī ), is a Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of the Indo-European languages. Persian is a pluricentric language predominantly spoke ...

, or any other

Iranian languages The Iranian languages, also called the Iranic languages, are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau. The Iranian langu ...

, the suggestion was made between 1919-1923 and ignored. Citizenship laws in the Gulf Arab states currently mandate prolonged residency and a satisfactory proficiency in

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

as prerequisites for applying for citizenship. This can indefinitely extend the stateless status of many Gulf Iranians, particularly those facing linguistic or other challenges.Alt URL
/ref> Furthermore, online content about the country's Persian minority is virtually absent, and media outlets are forbidden from using the Persian language or addressing

Persian culture The culture of Iran () or culture of PersiaYarshater, Ehsa, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) is one of the oldest and among the most influential in the world. Iran (Persia) is widely regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.

Against Baharna

Similarly, it is reported (in 2016) that the native Bahrainis ( Baḥārna), who are Shias, also face similar prejudices simply due to their religious background.

Sectarianism

Origin

A sizeable minority of the citizen population of Bahrain are Shia Muslims. The ruling Sunni Al Khalifa family, who were supported by the US, arrived in Bahrain from

Qatar Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a country in West Asia. It occupies the Geography of Qatar, Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East; it shares Qatar–Saudi Arabia border, its sole land b ...

at the end of the eighteenth century. Shiites alleged that the Al Khalifa failed to gain legitimacy in Bahrain and established a system of "political apartheid based on racial, sectarian, and tribal discrimination."

Vali Nasr Vali Reza Nasr (, born 20 December 1960) is an Iranian-American academic and political scientist, specializing in Middle Eastern studies and the history of Islam. He is Majid Khaddouri Professor of International Affairs and Middle East Studies ...

, a leading expert on Middle East and Islamic world said "For Shi'ites, Sunni rule has been like living under apartheid".

Sectarian discrimination

According to ''

The Christian Science Monitor ''The Christian Science Monitor'' (''CSM''), commonly known as ''The Monitor'', is a nonprofit news organization that publishes daily articles both in Electronic publishing, electronic format and a weekly print edition. It was founded in 1908 ...

'', Bahrain is practicing "a form of sectarian apartheid by not allowing Shiites to hold key government posts or serve in the police or military. In fact, the security forces are staffed by Sunnis from Syria and Pakistan who also get fast-tracked to Bahraini citizenship, much to the displeasure of the indigenous Shiite population." According to the

Bahrain Centre for Human Rights The Bahrain Centre for Human Rights (BCHR; ) was a Bahraini non-profit non-governmental organisation which works to promote human rights in Bahrain, Jobs in the police and armed forced are reserved for Sunni. Sunni Saudis are admitted to Bahrain as citizens to fill these jobs. Shiites and "some Sunnis of Persian origins", are banned from residing in the city of West Riffa, where only the Sunni Muslims are permitted to live. The Bahraini government's successfully made systematic efforts to diminish the Shia majority by promotion of immigration of Sunni Muslims and granting them citizenship. According to Dr. Saeeid Shahabi, a London-based journalist, On 28 April 2007, the

lower house A lower house is the lower chamber of a bicameral legislature, where the other chamber is the upper house. Although styled as "below" the upper house, in many legislatures worldwide, the lower house has come to wield more power or otherwise e ...

of Bahraini Parliament passed a law banning unmarried migrant workers from living in residential areas. To justify the law MP Nasser Fadhala, a close ally of the government said "bachelors also use these houses to make alcohol, run prostitute rings or to rape children and housemaids". Sadiq Rahma, technical committee head, who is a member of

Al Wefaq Al-Wefaq National Islamic Society (; ), sometimes shortened to simply Al-Wefaq, was a Shi'a Bahraini political party, that operates clandestinely after being ordered by the highest court in Bahrain to be dissolved and liquidated. Although from ...

said: Bahrain Centre for Human Rights issued a press release condemning this decision as discriminatory and promoting negative racist attitudes towards migrant workers.

Nabeel Rajab Nabeel Rajab (; born 1 September 1964) is a Bahraini human rights activist and opposition figure. He is the president of the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights (BCHR), a member of the Advisory Committee of Human Rights Watch's Middle East Divi ...

, then BCHR vice president, said: There was a flurry of racially motivated hate messages sent to naturalized Bahrainis from developing countries after opposition political leaders alleged that immigration was tantamount to ‘cultural genocide’. In November 2006, ''Al Ayam'' published a collection of threats sent to naturalized citizens warning that they would have to 'choose between the suitcase and the coffin', promising 'Death and fire are your destiny' and another warned that the author hated all naturalized Bahrainis, "You are detested. You have taken from us, the sons of Bahrain, our homes, jobs and education opportunities. You will face the same destiny as the Egyptians in Iraq fter the end of the Iraq-Iran war It will be nails, hammers and a coffin. Your destiny is near." According to

, Bahrain's personal status law (Law 19/2009), adopted in 2009 and marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance cases, applies only to Sunnis although women's groups believe that it should treat all citizens equally. On 27 September 2017, Bahraini authorities attacked and took down many

Ashura Ashura (, , ) is a day of commemoration in Islam. It occurs annually on the tenth of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. For Sunni Muslims, Ashura marks the parting of the Red Sea by Moses and the salvation of the Israelites ...

banners and slogans. Ashura, the tenth day of the Islamic year, is an event commemorated by Shias annually, marking the date that

Husayn ibn Ali Husayn ibn Ali (; 11 January 626 – 10 October 680 Common Era, CE) was a social, political and religious leader in early medieval Arabia. The grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and an Alids, Alid (the son of Ali ibn Abu Talib ibn Abd a ...

, the grandson of Muhammad, was killed in the

Battle of Karbala The Battle of Karbala () was fought on 10 October 680 (10 Muharram in the year 61 Hijri year, AH of the Islamic calendar) between the army of the second Umayyad Caliphate, Umayyad caliph Yazid I () and a small army led by Husayn ibn Ali, th ...

. This is not the first time that Bahraini authorities havd attacked the commemoration of Ashura; rather, they do so on a yearly basis.

Criticism of Bahraini government

Among the journalists, authors and human rights activists who have criticized Bahrain's system as apartheid are Mansoor Al-Jamri, former editor of the Bahraini newspaper '' Al Wasat'', the Voice of Bahrain,

Saeed Shahabi Saeed al-Shehabi (Arabic:سعيد الشهابي, born 1954) is a London-based Bahraini political activist, journalist, commentator and member of the Bahrain Freedom Movement. Education Shehabi did his primary and secondary education in Bahra ...

of the

Bahrain Freedom Movement The Bahrain Freedom Movement () is a London-based Bahraini opposition group which has its headquarters in a north London mosque. Its main medium is the Voice of Bahrain website which was blocked for several years by Batelco, Bahrain's sole Inter ...

, ''

New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...

'' columnist

Nicholas Kristof Nicholas Donabet Kristof (born April 27, 1959) is an American journalist and political commentator. A winner of two Pulitzer Prizes, he is a regular CNN contributor and an op-ed columnist for ''The New York Times''. Born in Chicago, Kristof wa ...

,Nicholas Kristof, "Is This Apartheid in Bahrain?" New York Times, 22 February 2011

Irshad Manji Irshad Manji (born 1968) is a Ugandan-born Canadian educator. She is the author of '' The Trouble with Islam Today'' (2004) and ''Allah, Liberty and Love'' (2011), both of which have been banned in several Muslim countries. She also produced a P ...

, Shibil Siddiqi,

Ameen Izzadeen Ameen is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Mohamed Ameen (19101953), President and prime minister of the Maldives *Aml Ameen (born 1985), English actor * A. R. Ameen (born 2003), Indian singer * Hassan Ameen (born 1985), Emirati ...

, Ben Cohen, Professor Staci Strobl,

Ali Akbar Salehi Ali Akbar Salehi (, ; born 24 March 1949) is an Iranian academic, diplomat and former head of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, who served in this position from 2009 to 2010 and also from 2013 to 2021. He served for the first time as head ...

, the Foreign Minister of Iran. In 1996 the UK newspaper

The Guardian ''The Guardian'' is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in Manchester in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian'' and changed its name in 1959, followed by a move to London. Along with its sister paper, ''The Guardian Weekly'', ''The Guardi ...

stated that, "if Bahrain is to preserve its reputation as a financial and service center in the Gulf, then the government must begin to forge a new national consensus and end the apartheid against the Shi'ites". In 1997,

Joe Stork Joe Stork (1942 or 1943 – October 23, 2024) was an American political activist who wrote on the Middle East. He became Deputy Director for Middle East and North Africa at Human Rights Watch. Life and career Stork gained an M.A. in International ...

said the apartheid practiced against the Shia by the government appeared to be "worsening."Joe Stork, ''Routine abuse, routine denial : civil rights and the political crisis in Bahrain'', , New York, Human Rights Watch, 1997 In August 2017,

United States Secretary of State The United States secretary of state (SecState) is a member of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States and the head of the U.S. Department of State. The secretary of state serves as the principal advisor to the ...

Rex Tillerson Rex Tillerson is an American energy executive who served as the 69th United States secretary of state from 2017 to 2018 in the first administration of Donald Trump. From 2006 to 2016, he was chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of Exxon ...

spoke against the discrimination of Shias in Bahrain, saying, "Members of the Shia community there continue to report ongoing discrimination in government employment, education, and the justice system," and that "Bahrain must stop discriminating against the Shia communities." He also stated that "In Bahrain, the government continue to question, detain and arrest Shia clerics, community members and opposition politicians." Bahraini human rights defender

was released from prison on 9 June 2020. He was detained in 2016 and then sentenced for five years in prison on peacefully expressing his views on the Bahraini government online.

urged the government to release the human rights defenders, political activists, opposition leaders, and journalists who were unjustly imprisoned for peacefully expressing their opinions. In April 2021, rights defender Abdulhadi Al-Khawaja not only turned 60 years old but also completed 10 years of unconditional imprisonment. The family members of Abdulhadi are concerned about his well-being due to his declining health condition during the

COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. In January 2020, the disease spread worldwide, resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic. The symptoms of COVID‑19 can vary but often include fever ...

pandemic. According to the report issued by Civicus, an international non-profit organization, Al-Khawaja has spent 10 years of unreasonable incarceration along with abuse and mistreatment at the hands of the prison authorities. He was arrested in 2011 for a critical stance against the government and for organizing protests that demanded political reforms during the 2011 Arab uprisings. Rights organizations are now calling for his prompt release. Human rights groups reported on 9 April 2021 the detention of the family members of prominent political prisoners following their peaceful protests against their imprisonment, which included Mohammed Al-Daqqaq and his inmate on death row, Mohammed Ramadhan. The arrests were made during an event of suppression of protesters during a demonstration against the severe outbreak of coronavirus at the Jau Prison, where the political prisoners have been held. According to Ricochet, independent journalism and crowdfunded media outlet, the largest prison of Bahrain, Jau, an average cell measuring 3 by 3.4 meters house approximately 12 prisoners at a time, despite coronavirus pandemic. Many of the inmates are political prisoners arrested for opposition against the government or protests during the Arab Spring movement. The conditions at the prison are reportedly dirty and unhygienic. However, the economical and geopolitical relations shared by Ottawa and Washington with Bahrain are apparently overshadowing the violation of human rights in the Gulf nation. When the relatives of the prisoners discovered that 3 Covid-positive cases had been detected at the prison, they took to the streets to protest against the continued imprisonment of the political prisoners. The event was followed by prisoners being beaten in their cells by authorities, as per Bahrain's National Institution for Human Rights. In April 2021, the death of a Bahraini prisoner at the Jau prison due to COVID-19 led to protests from angry inmates who feared their lives following the lack of medical facilities and treatment. The sit-in lasted for 10 days at building 13. The data provided by the Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy and reviewed by the Guardian stated that at least 138 inmates at the prison had been infected with COVID-19 since 22 March 2021. The COVID-19 outbreak in Bahrain's main prison, Jau has left prisoners with poor living conditions asprison authorities continue to deliberately neglect medical needs. According to Americans for Democracy and Human Rights in Bahrain (ADHRB), a second outbreak at Jau began in mid-May’21, infecting at least 60%of the 255 political prisoners. A 22-year-old Bahraini, Mustafa Abdul-Karim Khatam, was reported to be in a bad health condition, following torture inside Jau Prison. He was allegedly interrogated and tortured to submit to charges. Despite the worsened conditions, Khatam was denied any medical assistance or care, criticized by human rights organizations. In July 2021, non-governmental organisation IFEX called upon the Bahraini government to immediately release prominent Bahraini human rights defender and academic Dr.Abduljalil AlSingace, who went on a hunger strike to protest against the degrading and punitive treatment he had been receiving from Jau Prison authorities. On 22 August 2021, ''

The Independent ''The Independent'' is a British online newspaper. It was established in 1986 as a national morning printed paper. Nicknamed the ''Indy'', it began as a broadsheet and changed to tabloid format in 2003. The last printed edition was publis ...

'' revealed that the UK government has been using British taxpayers’ money to secretly fund a Bahraini government institution, known as the National Intelligence Agency Ombudsman. The institution was accused of "whitewashing" the torture and rape of women's rights activists. The British government was condemned by Najah Yusuf and Ebtisam Al-Saegh, the two activists who were alleged to have been sexually assaulted by the Bahraini authorities. On 24 September 2021, the Americans for Democracy and Human Rights in Bahrain (ADHRB) reported that a bipartisan group of the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

senators called on the Secretary of State

Antony Blinken Antony John Blinken (born April 16, 1962) is an American lawyer and diplomat who served as the 71st United States secretary of state from 2021 to 2025. He previously served as Deputy National Security Advisor, deputy national security advisor ...

to press the Bahraini government to end human right abuses including, "

arbitrary detention Arbitrary arrest and detention is the arrest and detention of an individual in a case in which there is no likelihood or evidence that they committed a crime against legal statute, or in which there has been no proper due process of law or order. ...

torture Torture is the deliberate infliction of severe pain or suffering on a person for reasons including corporal punishment, punishment, forced confession, extracting a confession, interrogational torture, interrogation for information, or intimid ...

, cruel and degrading treatment of prisoners, restrictions on

freedom of the press Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the fundamental principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic Media (communication), media, especially publication, published materials, shoul ...

, interference with peaceful assembly, and restrictions on political participation and religious practice". In October 2021, the US Senate Appropriations Committee addressed the extensive human rights violations by the Bahraini government. The Committee expressed concerns over the "widespread use of arbitrary detention,

, violation of due process, and unfair trials in Bahrain". They also pointed out at the intolerance towards free expression and suppression of peaceful dissent. The committee's legislation stated that Government of Bahrain should release the

political prisoners A political prisoner is someone imprisoned for their political activity. The political offense is not always the official reason for the prisoner's detention. There is no internationally recognized legal definition of the concept, although ...

human rights activists A human rights defender or human rights activist is a person who, individually or with others, acts to promote or protect human rights. They can be journalists, environmentalists, whistleblowers, trade unionists, lawyers, teachers, housing campai ...

and independent journalists without condition. On 20 December 2021, 12 members of the European Parliament signed a joint letter to High Representative

Josep Borrell Josep Borrell Fontelles (; born 24 April 1947) is a Spanish politician who served as High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President of the European Commission from 2019 to 2024. A member of the Spani ...

, expressing grave concerns about the human rights violations in Bahrain. The letter, under the initiative of the European Center for Democracy and Human Rights (ECDHR), raised many questions regarding the measures taken by the

European External Action Service The European External Action Service (EEAS) is the diplomatic service in charge of executing all Foreign relations of the European Union, international relations of the European Union. The EEAS is led by the Vice-President of the European Co ...

(EEAS). The MEPs mentioned the situation of the imprisoned opposition leader,

Hasan Mushaima Hasan Mushaima () is an opposition leader in Bahrain and the secretary-general of the Haq Movement, an important opposition party in Bahrain. Before forming Haq, he was a founding member of Al Wefaq and a leading figure in the 1994 uprising ...

, and prominent opposition activist Dr.

Abduljalil Al-Singace Abduljalil Abdulla al-Singace (, born January 15, 1962) is a Bahraini engineer, blogger, and human rights activist. He was arrested in 2009 and 2010 for his human rights activities and released later. In 2011, he was arrested, allegedly tortured ...

, along with two European citizens, Abdulhadi al-Khawaja and Sheikh Mohammad Habib Al-Miqdad. The MEPs also requested in their letter to impose sanctions against members of the government of Bahrain responsible for the said violation of human rights. On 14 January 2022, the

Scottish National Party The Scottish National Party (SNP; ) is a Scottish nationalist and social democratic party. The party holds 61 of the 129 seats in the Scottish Parliament, and holds 9 out of the 57 Scottish seats in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, ...

criticised the UK's relationship with Bahrain and accused the government of prioritizing trade deals over human rights abuses. In the

House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...

, SNP's Westminster human rights spokesman

Brendan O'Hara Brendan O'Hara (born 27 April 1963) is a Scottish National Party (SNP) politician. He serves as Member of Parliament (United Kingdom), Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Argyll, Bute and South Lochaber since the 2024 United Kingdo ...

stated that when it came to right and wrong, the Government's position on Bahrain shows it has "clearly picked which side they are on", citing the case of Dr. Al-Singace, who has suffered torture and sexual abuse at the hands of Bahraini security forces. It was revealed in February 2022 that Bahrain used Israel's

Pegasus spyware Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that is designed to be covertly and remotely installed on mobile phones running iOS and Android. While NSO Group markets Pegasus as a product for fighting crime and terro ...

to hack into the phones of three individuals involved in political opposition. The targets included a prominent lawyer, an exiled Bahraini psychiatrist and a journalist. A separate investigation by the Pegasus Project revealed that 20 loyalists close to Bahrain's government, including two members of the royal family, were also listed in the leaked database of numbers targeted or hacked by NSO. The mobile phone of a US state department official, who was stationed in Bahrain at the time of her selection, also appears on the leaked database. On 5 April 2022, a report by ''

'' claimed that Bahrain failed to fulfil an undertaking it pledged at the Human Rights Council's Universal Periodic Review in 2008. The Kingdom had pledged that it "is fully committed to supporting non-governmental organizations through legal and other instruments". Instead, it shut down almost all NGOs that were critical of the regime. HRW said independent media and foreign journalists rarely have access to the country. With abusive restrictions on freedom of expression, Bahrain arbitrarily imprisons human rights defenders and those who took part in protests. The repressive Kingdom was asked to permit an access for foreign journalists and human rights organizations into the country. On 12 April 2022, Americans for Democracy & Human Rights in Bahrain (ADHRB) criticized relations of the UK and US with Bahrain, stating that the two nations turned a blind-eye towards the Arab nation's legalization of systematic repression and human rights violations. The US and UK were condemned for continuing their business-as-usual with Bahrain and for ignoring the torture, unfair trials, and killing of protesters and critics of the government. ADHRB stated that the futile political reforms enacted by the Bahraini government to improve the country's human rights situation have covered for both the US and the UK to continue their political relations with the Arab nation, while neglecting the country's human rights violations. On 10 October 2022, the

and the Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy released a joint report stating that Bahraini courts routinely violated defendants’ rights to fair trials, and sentenced defendants to death following manifestly unfair trials, based primarily on confessions allegedly coerced through torture. Since 2011, courts in Bahrain have sentenced 51 people to death, and the state has executed six since the end of a de facto moratorium on executions in 2017. As of June 2022, 26 men were on death row, and all have exhausted their appeals. In August 2023, Bahrain's government used political isolation laws to curb activists and former opposition members from public participation, resulting in rights abuses and stifled democracy, as per a report by Human Rights Watch. The laws, enacted in 2018, restricted running for parliament and serving on civic boards, prompting criticism and calls for their repeal to restore civil rights.

Calls for an election boycott

In 2010 the Al-Wafa Islamic Movement, Haq Movement and

called for a boycott of the 23 October election to the Bahraini Council of Representatives on the grounds that participation would be "tantamount to accepting the unjust sectarian apartheid system."

Silencing of Shia clerics

On 19 August 2015, Bahraini authorities arrested Shia cleric and former MP Sheikh Hassan Isa. His arrest on false charges was said to be a reprisal of the Bahraini government against him, and it was reported that the measures taken against Sheikh Isa, who was innocent, violated national and international law. On 20 June 2016, Ayatullah Sheikh Isa Qassim was stripped of his nationality. As a result, some people protested the Bahraini government's act of doing this by holding a sit-in outside the home of the Ayatullah. On 23 May 2017, however, Bahraini security forces attack the sit-in. As a result of the attack, five people died, dozens of people were injured, and hundreds of people were arrested. The Ayatullah was also placed under house arrest. In August 2017, Bahraini authorities arrested Shia cleric Sayed Mohieldin Al-Mashaal. Sayed Al-Mashaal had previously been harassed by the Bahraini authorities for about 5 years. Also in August 2017, around the three-month anniversary of Ayatullah Sheikh Isa Qassim's house arrest, it was reported that Bahraini authorities were placing concrete barriers around his house. On 1 November 2017, Bahrain imposed charges against Sheikh Ali Salman, Hassan Sultan, and Ali al-Aswad because of their efforts for reform through peaceful means. In March 2018, Bahrain refused to grant Bahraini citizenship to the daughter of Sheikh Ali Salman, a prominent Shia and opposition leader in Bahrain. This was Bahrain's retribution for the imprisoned Shiekh's peaceful attempts for reform in the country. In late April 2018, after the Bahraini monarch commuted the death sentences of four men who had been tried by Bahrain's military court, four Shia sheikhs released a statement saying that they hoped that such steps would be "extended to the rest of those sentenced

o death "O Death", also known as "O, Death", "Oh Death", "Conversations with Death", or "A Conversation with Death", is a traditional Appalachian folk song, listed as number 4933 in the Roud Folk Song Index. The song is generally attributed to the music ...

" The statement also called for a "homeland of love, tolerance, justice, and prosperity." In response, Bahrain's interior ministry threatened the sheikhs with "legal action."

Ban on Friday prayers

Since 20 June 2016, Bahrain has prevented the leader of Friday prayers of Diraz, a village of about 30,000 people, from entering.

Bahraini uprising (2011–present)

In February 2011, the tensions between the Sunni ruling minority and the Shi'a majority spilled over into street protests which was violently suppressed by police forces, resulting in multiple civilian deaths. McClatchy Newspapers/csmonitor.com reported that as of mid-May 2011,

Authorities have held secret trials where protesters have been sentenced to death, arrested prominent mainstream opposition politicians, jailed nurses and doctors who treated injured protesters, seized the health care system that had been run primarily by Shiites, fired 1,000 Shiite professionals and canceled their pensions, detained students and teachers who took part in the protests, beat and arrested journalists, and forced the closure of the only opposition newspaper.

Protesters camped out infront of the Pearl Roundabout in Bahrain

Physicians for Human Rights Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) is a US-based not-for-profit human rights NGO that uses medicine and science to document and advocate against mass atrocities and severe human rights violations around the world. PHR headquarters are in New Y ...

reported that during the 2011 uprising the Bahraini government initiated systematic and targeted attacks against medical personnel who had witnessed government atrocities while treating civilian protesters. In a report titled ''Do No Harm: A Call for Bahrain to End Systematic Attacks on Doctors and Patients'', released in April 2011,

documented violations of medical neutrality including the beating, abuse, and threatening of Shi'a physicians at Salmaniya Hospital; government security forces stealing ambulances and posing as medics; the militarization of hospitals and clinics, thus obstructing medical care; and rampant fear that prevented patients from seeking urgent medical treatment. Other key findings in the report included the use of excessive force against unarmed civilians and violent assaults on civilian detainees by government authorities and security forces. Abdulredha Buhmaid on floor

In May 2011, Richard Sollom, deputy director of

, testified before the Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission, a bipartisan caucus of the

US House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives is a chamber of the bicameral United States Congress; it is the lower house, with the U.S. Senate being the upper house. Together, the House and Senate have the authority under Article One of th ...

, at a hearing on Bahrain. He reported the abuses documented by

and called upon Congress to take a stronger stance against human rights violations in Bahrain. An estimated 1000 Bahrainis have been detained since the uprising and Bahraini and international human rights groups have documented hundreds of cases of torture and abuse of Shia detainees. According to csmonitor.org, the government has gone beyond the crushing of political dissent to what "appears" to be an attempt to "psychologically humiliating the island's Shiite majority into silent submission."Bahrain campaign to humiliate Shiites goes beyond politics
By Caryle Murphy / csmonitor.com / 7 June 2011 The

was established on 29 June 2011 by King

to assess the incidents that occurred in the Kingdom during the period of unrest in February and March 2011 and the consequences of these events. The report was released on 23 November and confirmed the Bahraini government's use of torture and other forms of physical and psychological abuse on detainees. It has been criticized for not disclosing the names of individual perpetrators of abuses and extending accountability only to those who actively carried out human rights violations. On 1 April 2022, the

Amnesty International Amnesty International (also referred to as Amnesty or AI) is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights, with its headquarters in the United Kingdom. The organization says that it has more than ten million members a ...

reported that Bahraini human rights defender, Abdulhadi al-Khawaja was being denied medical treatment for suspected

glaucoma Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases that can lead to damage of the optic nerve. The optic nerve transmits visual information from the eye to the brain. Glaucoma may cause vision loss if left untreated. It has been called the "silent thief of ...

, as a result of the injuries he sustained due to torture in 2011, including a broken jaw. After spending over a decade in wrongful imprisonment and being subjected to physical, psychological and sexual torture, Al-Khawaja suffered from chronic pain and required an additional surgery. However, his medical treatment was stopped due to his activism inside the prison in February 2022. His daughter also reported that during January, Al-Khawaja had to wait outside the hospital for three hours, before he was brought back to the prison without seeing the doctor. An academic,

Abduljalil al-Singace Abduljalil Abdulla al-Singace (, born January 15, 1962) is a Bahraini engineer, blogger, and human rights activist. He was arrested in 2009 and 2010 for his human rights activities and released later. In 2011, he was arrested, allegedly tortured ...

was arrested by the Bahraini authorities and sentenced to prison for life for his role in the 2011 uprisings. Following his arrest, he was subjected to beatings at night for two months and was kept in solitary confinement. He has been subjected to torture and ill-treatment, where he was forced to "stand on one leg for prolonged periods", tortured by pushing his crutch "into his genitals" and was "threatened him with rape and made sexually explicit comments about his wife and his daughter". In July 2021, al-Singace went on a hunger strike in protest, after the prison authorities confiscated his research work of four years. He refused to take solid food and survived on liquids and vitamins. In July 2022, al-Singace announced to further abstain from taking salts that helped in stabilizing his health condition. Amnesty International called on the Bahraini authorities to "immediately and unconditionally release” him, hand over his work to his family and to “ensure he receives the medication" required.

Conviction of medical workers

A security court handed down what have been described as " harsh sentences" to 20 Bahraini medical workers in September 2011. The accused workers, who all worked at the Salminaya Medical Center, were given prison terms ranging from 5–15 years based on government claims that the medical workers had taken over the hospital and used it for antigovernment activity. After the sentences were condemned by United Nations secretary Ban Ki-moon and international human rights groups such as

, Bahraini judicial authorities nullified the convictions and ordered retrials in civilian court. In January 2012, Richard Sollom, deputy director of

, was denied entry to Bahrain, where he had travelled to monitor the appellate court trial of the 20 previously sentenced medics. Bahrain had promised greater transparency in the wake of an international investigation into the human rights violations that occurred during the uprising, yet refused to allow Sollom, who carried a valid entry visa, to view the trial or even enter the country.

Civil and political rights

Parliamentary and municipal elections take place every four years, since the restoration of elections in 2002, when women were also given the vote for the first time as part of reforms by

King Hamad Hamad bin Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa (born 28 January 1950) is King of Bahrain since 1999. He is a member of the ruling Al Khalifa dynasty. Early life and education Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa was born on 28 January 1950 in Riffa, Bahrain. ...

. Bahrain has a

bicameral Bicameralism is a type of legislature that is divided into two separate Deliberative assembly, assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate ...

legislature with the lower chamber of parliament, the (

Council of Representatives of Bahrain The Council of Representatives (''Majlis an-nuwab''), sometimes translated as the "Chamber of Deputies", is the name given to the lower house of the Bahraini National Assembly, the national legislative body of Bahrain. The council was created b ...

), elected by universal suffrage, and the upper chamber, the (

Shura Council In Arab culture, a Majlis-ash-Shura (; Shura Council in English) is an advisory council or consultative council. In Islamic context, the Majlis-ash-Shura is one of two ways that a khalifa (Islamic leader) may be selected, the other way being b ...

), appointed directly by the

King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...

. Those represented in the Shura Council include members of Bahrain's Christian and Jewish communities. The

Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...

and government ministers are not elected. They are appointed directly by the King, but ministers can be removed by parliamentary no-confidence votes. The current Prime Minister,

Khalifah ibn Sulman Al Khalifah Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa () (24 November 1935 – 11 November 2020) was a Bahraini royal and politician who served as the prime minister of Bahrain from 10 January 1970 until his death in 2020. He took office over a year before Bahrain's ...

, is the King's paternal uncle and has been in office since 1970. Twelve of the twenty-three cabinet ministers appointed in November 2006 are members of the

Al Khalifa The House of Khalifa () is the ruling family of the Kingdom of Bahrain. They profess Sunni Islam and belong to the Anizah tribe. Some members of this tribe joined the Utub alliance which migrated from Najd in central Arabia to Kuwait, then r ...

royal family. Bahrain has a complex

civil society Civil society can be understood as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government and business, and including the family and the private sphere.European University Institute The European University Institute (EUI) is an international postgraduate and post-doctoral research-intensive university and an intergovernmental organisation with juridical personality, established by its founding member states to contribu ...

, ''Voices in Parliament, Debates in Majalis, Banners on the Street: Avenues of Political Participation in Bahrain'': For the average politically active Bahraini, there are usually a number of outlets according to the

European University Institute The European University Institute (EUI) is an international postgraduate and post-doctoral research-intensive university and an intergovernmental organisation with juridical personality, established by its founding member states to contribu ...

: The government's moves to join international treaties protecting human rights have often been opposed by parliament. The initial attempt to get parliamentary ratification of the Optional Protocol to the

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a multilateral treaty that commits nations to respect the civil and political rights of individuals, including the right to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom ...

was blocked in February 2006 on the grounds that leading MPs said contradicted Islamic laws. Al Menbar Bloc president Dr Salah Abdulrahman complained that the covenant would allow citizens to change religions without any restrictions, noting "''This means that Muslims could convert to another religion, something against the Islamic law, since those who do so should be beheaded''," he said. "Under the convention, women have the right to marry without their father's consent, while in Islam they should do so if she was a virgin". It was not until June 2006 that a second attempt was made to ratify the country's accession to the Covenant, meaning that Bahrain did not formally accede to the treaty until 20 September 2006. Civil society has been prominent in supporting specific legislation promoting human rights through parliament. One recent campaign is the call for Bahrain's government to ratify the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. It is being led by the Bahrain-branch of the Coalition for the International Criminal Court and wants the government to transfer the draft bill on ratification to parliament at the earliest. The Bahraini Coalition for the ICC is headed by Nasser Burdestani (who is also the head of the Bahrain-branch of

), who commented: Citing the role that Bahrain plays in the region and the domino effect, the Coalition for the International Criminal Court Co-ordinator for the Middle East and North Africa, Amal Basha, said Bahrain's ratification could have a significant impact among the neighbouring Persian Gulf countries: "We believe that Bahrain could serve as a real catalyst by ratifying as soon as possible," she said. "It would provide a serious boost to the growing world movement to ensure accountability for the worst violations of international human rights and humanitarian law." On 25 November 2020, ''

'' reported that three political prisoners, who claimed to have been victims of human rights abuses in Bahrain, appealed

Lewis Hamilton Sir Lewis Carl Davidson Hamilton (born 7 January 1985) is a British racing driver who competes in Formula One for Scuderia Ferrari, Ferrari. Hamilton has won a joint-record seven Formula One World Drivers' Championship titles—tied with M ...

to use his position as F1's champion to highlight the reality of their dilemma to the world. In a letter to Hamilton, they also praised his commitment to pursuing equality, anti-racism and human rights causes. Since the 2011 uprising, many Bahrainis have repeatedly protested against the hosting of the Formula 1 Grand Prix, while hundreds of political prisoners had been piled up and tortured in prisons of Bahrain. In 2012, Salah Abbas was murdered by the Bahraini police and his body was found a day before the Grand Prix. Similarly, in 2017, Najah Yusuf was arrested, tortured and sexually assaulted by the Bahraini authorities for criticizing the

Bahrain Grand Prix The Bahrain Grand Prix (), officially known as the Gulf Air Bahrain Grand Prix for sponsorship reasons, is a Formula One motor racing event in Bahrain. The first race took place at the Bahrain International Circuit on 4 April 2004. It made hist ...

on social media. On 4 October 2021, according to a report by Americans for Democracy and Human Rights in Bahrain (ADHRB), four French MPs Gérard Leseul,

Jean-Christophe Lagarde Jean-Christophe Lagarde (; born 24 October 1967) is a French politician serving as president of the Union of Democrats and Independents (UDI) since 2014. He succeeded Jean-Louis Borloo after a short interim by Yves Jégo. Lagarde has been the mem ...

Isabelle Rauch Isabelle Rauch (born 10 August 1968) is a French politician of Horizons ( Ensemble) who has been serving as a member of the French National Assembly since the 2017 elections, representing the ninth constituency of the department of Moselle. E ...

, and

Dominique Potier Dominique Potier (born 17 March 1954) is a French Socialist politician who has represented Meurthe-et-Moselle's 5th constituency in the National Assembly of France since 2012. Potier was re-elected in the 2022 French legislative election Legi ...

urged

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

's foreign minister to speak out over the deteriorating human rights situation in Bahrain, especially the imprisonment of political opponents. Bahraini's showed up to the November 2022 elections to vote for a meaningful change, only to find out that the opposition was banned, as per rights groups. Despite 330+ candidates, which included a record 73 women competing in the elections, the elections ended up being an unfair event with all of them being banned from competing.

claimed that the election was held in an "environment of political repression".

Citizenship rights

On the weekend of 31 January/1 February 2015, 72 Bahraini citizens, including "about 50 journalists, bloggers, religious figures, doctors, political and human rights activists" and about 20 people "suspected of or known to have left Bahrain to join

ISIS Isis was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingdom () as one of the main characters of the Osiris myth, in which she resurrects her sla ...

in Iraq and Syria", had their citizenships revoked. The citizenship revocations were discussed on the newly launched

al-Arab News Channel Al-Arab () was a short-lived Arabic-language news channel which vowed to practice objective journalism. It was launched on 1 February 2015 and almost immediately shut down. The channel was owned by Saudi prince and entrepreneur Al-Waleed bin T ...

on 1 February. According to

annual report 2016, Bahraini authorities can revoke the

citizenship Citizenship is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state. Though citizenship is often conflated with nationality in today's English-speaking world, international law does not usually use the term ''citizenship'' to refer to nationalit ...

of any person who involved in helping a hostile state or causing harm to the interests of the kingdom. In January, the minister of interior revoked the citizenship of 72, including former parliamentarians and politicians, claiming that they had been involved in "illegal acts," including "inciting and advocating regime change through illegal means".

Death penalty

In 2017, Bahrain ended its moratorium on the use of the death penalty, and by 2020 had executed six people. As of 2021, there are 27 individuals on death row in the country, with 25 deemed at "imminent risk" of execution according to the Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy. A report by the

published in October 2022 claimed that despite a de facto moratorium on executions put in place in 2017, executions have continued to take place in Bahrain. Approximately, 51 people were sentenced to death who had exhausted their appeals, even though the Bahraini law is controlled by King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. It was possible for the King to ratify the sentences or grant pardons to those sentenced. The report claimed that the Bahraini courts failed on multiple levels to investigate reports of torture or abuse used as a means to coerce confessions as evidence for death sentencing, prohibited under Article 7 of the

(ICCPR).

Freedom of speech

The government claims that the press is free. However, the Penal Code of 1976, still active today, has been widely criticized by local and international human rights bodies for granting the regime widespread powers to suppress dissent.

noted in 2004 that the Penal Code gives the government "wide latitude to suppress public criticism" and that it "has provisions that contradict international human rights standards".

in 2004 stated the Code can be used "as a justification to restrict freedom of expression. The organization reiterates its call for the Code to be reviewed as soon a possible to ensure compliance with international human rights standards." According to Human Rights Watch 2011 country report and the international press, freedom of the press both in print and on web sites is severely restricted, with websites blocked, journalists allegedly tortured and editors fired. As of 2017,

said Bahraini authorities are apparently targeting the family members of a prominent Bahraini activist, Sayed al-Wadaei, in retaliation for his human rights work. They have detained both his brother-in-law and his mother-in-law. Sayed has accused Bahraini authorities of serious human rights abuses. Since having forced Sayed into exile in Britain, authorities have resorted to threatening and harassing his wife, infant son, and relatives with torture. According to

Amnesty international Amnesty International (also referred to as Amnesty or AI) is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights, with its headquarters in the United Kingdom. The organization says that it has more than ten million members a ...

report on the human rights situation in Bahrain during 2016, Authorities continued imposing restrictions on the rights to freedom of expression and association and continued to curtail the right to peaceful assembly. The international organization said authorities detained several activists and banned others from travelling abroad. Authorities also continued its policy in removing opponents their citizenship. During the

2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis The Qatar diplomatic crisis was a high-profile deterioration of relations between Qatar and the Arab League between 2017 and 2021. It began when Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Egypt simultaneously severed their bilateral relat ...

, Bahrain banned any expression of sympathy towards

. Violators will face a fine and jail term up to five years. On 11 July 2020, the UK foreign office was urged to intervene to stop the execution of Mohammed Ramadan and Husain Moosa, two Bahraini pro-democracy activists who were given death sentence by a Bahrain court, despite claims of confessions extracted through torture. In January 2021, three deputies of the

Dáil Éireann Dáil Éireann ( ; , ) is the lower house and principal chamber of the Oireachtas, which also includes the president of Ireland and a senate called Seanad Éireann.Article 15.1.2° of the Constitution of Ireland reads: "The Oireachtas shall co ...

Niall Collins Niall Collins (born 30 March 1973) is an Irish Fianna Fáil politician who has served as a Minister for State since July 2020. He has been a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Limerick County constituency since 2016, and from 2011 to 2016 for the Lime ...

Joan Collins Dame Joan Henrietta Collins (born 23 May 1933) is an English actress, author and columnist. She is the recipient of several accolades, including a Golden Globe Awards, a People's Choice Award, two Soap Opera Digest Awards and a Primetime Emm ...

, and Michael Creed questioned the Irish Foreign Minister

Simon Coveney Simon Coveney (born 16 June 1972) is an Irish former Fine Gael politician who served as Minister for Enterprise, Trade and Employment from 2022 to 2024. He served as Leader of Fine Gael#Deputy leaders, deputy leader of Fine Gael from 2017 to 202 ...

over the

human rights Human rights are universally recognized Morality, moral principles or Social norm, norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both Municipal law, national and international laws. These rights are considered ...

violations in

. They called for the Irish authorities to put efforts into the release of Bahrain's opposition political party leader, Hassan Mushaima. In response to the deputies, Coveney expressed serious concerns over the violations of freedom of speech in

Manama Manama ( ', Bahrani Arabic, Bahrani pronunciation: ) is the capital and List of cities in Bahrain, largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 297,502 as of 2012. Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is ...

, and urged the regime to release Mushaima. On 13 December 2021, the ''

'' demanded that on the occasion of Bahrain National Day, 16 December 2021, authorities use the customary pardon to free everyone imprisoned for exercising freedom of expression and association. The most prominent opposition leaders, including human rights defenders, and journalists, have been behind bars for more than a decade for their role in the 2011 pro-democracy protests. According to the reports, Bahrain has one of the highest incarceration rates per capita in the Middle East. On 6 March 2023, Ebrahim Al-Mannai posted on

Twitter Twitter, officially known as X since 2023, is an American microblogging and social networking service. It is one of the world's largest social media platforms and one of the most-visited websites. Users can share short text messages, image ...

, urging the Bahraini government to reform its parliament if they wanted to showcase it internationally. Shortly after, he and three others were arrested for their social media activity. On 9 March, Bahrain's Public Prosecutor's Office released a statement on Instagram, explaining that the arrests were for "misusing social media platforms." Al-Mannai has since been released, but the current situation of the other three individuals remains uncertain.

Self-Censorship Among Internet Users in Bahrain

Internet users in Bahrain exhibit significant

self-censorship Self-censorship is the act of censoring or classifying one's own discourse, typically out of fear or deference to the perceived preferences, sensibilities, or infallibility of others, and often without overt external pressure. Self-censorship is c ...

due to fears of government reprisal. Many opt to use pseudonyms on platforms such as Twitter, online forums, and comment sections to avoid being targeted by authorities. Others prefer sharing content privately on social media rather than posting publicly. Even opposition news outlets based outside the country rarely disclose the identities of their editors. Investigations into users' online activities have also been conducted in workplaces and universities. Activists often cease tweeting following detentions and interrogations. Those who return to Twitter after being detained tend to steer clear of controversial topics, such as criticism of the king or other issues flagged by the Ministry of Interior (MOI). In May 2019, exiled journalist Adel Marzooq reported losing 180 followers on Twitter shortly after the MOI labeled his account as malicious and warned users not to follow or promote his messages. Similarly, tweets about royal family members’ alleged appropriation of public land in Arad ceased after several users received summonses in April 2019. By 2019, self-censorship on Twitter had reached extreme levels, with many users avoiding discussions beyond sports, lifestyle topics, or political views aligned with the regime. Bahraini satirical writer Mohsen Alsaffar humorously remarked in April 2019 that before posting a tweet, one must first consult a lawyer to verify its legality, a cleric to confirm its religious validity, a diplomat to ensure it aligns with international norms, a security expert to avoid accusations of supporting terrorism, and an economist to ensure it does not destabilize the country's economy.

Blasphemy Laws

Blasphemy is considered a crime in Bahrain. Articles 309 and 310 of the penal code criminalize "any method of expression" against a religious community (309), or ridiculing religious beliefs (310): "a punishment for a period not exceeding one year or a fine not exceeding BD 100 shall be inflicted upon any person who commits an offence by any method of expression against one of the recognized religious communities or ridicules the rituals thereof". The press and publications law prohibits anti-Islamic media, and mandates imprisonment for "exposing the state's official religion for offense and criticism." The law states that "any publication that prejudices the ruling system of the country and its official religion, public morals or any faith in a manner likely to disturb the peace, can be banned from publication by a ministerial order." The law allows the production and distribution of religious media and publications of minority groups, under condition that they do not criticize Islam. In September 2022, Sheikh Abdul Rahman bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Khalifa, Chairman of the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs in Bahrain, said during his participation in Bashkortostan's celebrations of the 11th anniversary of the introduction of Islam: "There is no doubt that you have followed and are following with pride the pioneering role of Muslim peoples and major Islamic institutions around the world in ''confronting campaigns to spread atheism and moral decay and threaten families, communities and values''."

Known cases

In August, 2012, a Bahraini court sentenced a man (name unknown) to two years in prison for making insulting comments about one of the Prophet Mohammad's wives. The man reportedly insulted

Aisha Aisha bint Abi Bakr () was a seventh century Arab commander, politician, Muhaddith, muhadditha and the third and youngest wife of the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. Aisha had an important role in early Islamic h ...

in comments online. In March 2015 the Lebanese feminist poet and journalist

Joumana Haddad Joumana Haddad (; Salloum; born December 6, 1970, in Beirut) is a Lebanon, Lebanese author, public speaker, journalist and human rights activist. She has been selected as one of the world’s 100 most powerful Arab women by Arabian Business, Arab ...

was banned from taking part in a cultural event in Bahrain, due to accusations that she would promote

atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the Existence of God, existence of Deity, deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the ...

and target Islamic values. In 2016, a Bahraini court sentenced Ibrahim Sharif, a founding member of the secular

National Democratic Action Society The National Democratic Labour Action Society – Wa'ad (, NDAS) is Bahrain's largest leftist political party. History and profile It emerged from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, a Marxist-Leninist armed opposition movement ...

(Waed) party, to one year in prison on the charge of "inciting hatred" for making a

pro-democracy Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. Whether and to what ...

speech. After his release, in March 2019 Sharif was sentenced to 6 months in prison for tweeting criticism of Sudan's president. In November 2016, a Bahraini court sentenced journalist and blogger Faisal Hayyat under Article 309 of the penal code to 3 months in prison for a tweet deemed to have insulted a "religious symbol and group." In June 2019, Shia Jaafari cleric Ahmed Abdulaziz Al Madhiwas accused of ‘insulting the companions of the Prophet Muhammad’ during a sermon and was prosecuted under Article 310 of the penal code. Al Madhi is one of dozens of Jaafari religious figures to be harassed and jailed by Bahraini authorities for similar charges. In October 2020, an unidentified female Bahraini citizen who mocked Islamic scripture on

, was reported which got her subsequently arrested on claims of "blasphemy and defamation of Islam and other religions on social media". According to the MOI, during the year, the ministry investigated 26 individuals for defamation of religions, a charge usually stemming from statements made during sermons, and the government prosecuted six of them for inciting religious hatred and sectarianism. Courts convicted two of the six, but authorities did not announce their sentences. The other four cases remained ongoing at year's end. The government also prosecuted 11 of the 26 individuals for "despising other religions" and convicted one person of blasphemy. On 23 May, the MOI Anti-Cyber Crime Directorate arrested a

Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...

woman and charged her with inciting sectarian hatred. According to the government, the woman said

Shia Muslims Shia Islam is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political Succession to Muhammad, successor (caliph) and as the spiritual le ...

were responsible for the spread of

. She appeared before the criminal court on 27 May. At year's end, there was no further information available on the disposition of her case. According to media, on 9 December, the MOI announced it had arrested a male citizen for blasphemy and for inciting immoral activities on social media. The MOI referred the case to the public prosecutor, and it remained pending at year's end. In 2023, Jalal al-Qassab, 60, and Redha Rajab, 67, were imprisoned after their final appeals were rejected. Both men, members of the Bahraini cultural association Al-Tajdeed (lit: reformation; referring to the reformation of Islam), were sentenced to one year in prison and fined for "mocking" Islamic beliefs. Their charges stemmed from YouTube videos where Al-Qassab questioned certain Quranic verses. Bahraini authorities accused them of violating the penal code by offending religious sects and symbols. The court's decision highlights tensions between Bahrain's penal code and its commitments to international human rights law, particularly the right to freedom of belief and expression. Prominent Shia clerics have been the most openly hostile to the organisation, denouncing its work as blasphemy and calling for Al-Tajdeed members to be ostracised. In October 2023, an Asian was reportedly arrested for posting tweets considered insulting to Islam. On 20 July 2024, two people were arrested and summoned on claims of religious blasphemy.

Information Control

Activists in Bahrain heavily depend on digital platforms, especially social media, to highlight protests and human rights violations. However, due to the risk of arrest, prosecution, and other repercussions, many users are cautious about engaging in political discussions online. Authorities have also blocked certain tools used for mobilization and campaigning, such as Telegram.

Internet Censorship

Internet censorship in

is classified as pervasive in the political and social areas, as substantial in Internet tools, and as selective in conflict/security by the

OpenNet Initiative The OpenNet Initiative (ONI) was a joint project whose goal was to monitor and report on internet filtering and surveillance practices by nations. Started in 2002, the project employed a number of technical means, as well as an international netwo ...

in August 2009."ONI Country Profiles"
Research section at the OpenNet Initiative web site, a collaborative partnership of the Citizen Lab at the Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University; and the SecDev Group, Ottawa Bahrain was placed on

Reporters Without Borders Reporters Without Borders (RWB; ; RSF) is an international non-profit and non-governmental organisation, non-governmental organization headquartered in Paris, which focuses on safeguarding the right to freedom of information. It describes its a ...

' list of Internet Enemies in 2012.''Internet Enemies''
, Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 12 March 2012 On 5 January 2009 the Ministry of Culture and Information issued an order (Resolution No 1 of 2009) pursuant to the Telecommunications Law and Press and Publications Law of Bahrain that regulates the blocking and unblocking of websites. This resolution requires all ISPs – among other things – to procure and install a website blocking software solution chosen by the Ministry. The Telecommunications Regulatory Authority ("TRA") assisted the Ministry of Culture and Information in the execution of the said Resolution by coordinating the procurement of the unified website blocking software solution. This software solution is operated solely by the Ministry of Information and Culture and neither the TRA nor ISPs have any control over sites that are blocked or unblocked. Internet censorship in Bahrain applies to anything that the Bahraini government deems inappropriate; this includes but is not limited to: political websites, independent journalism, pornographic websites, and more. The internet is a primary source of news and information for many

Bahrainis The demographics of the population of Bahrain includes population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Most of the population of Bahrain is ...

, with platforms like Twitter and Facebook serving as key outlets. However, only media organizations based outside Bahrain can report on local political matters without facing restrictions. Many independent, foreign-based news websites are blocked within the country. Despite the government's tight grip on information, opposition websites and foreign news outlets based outside Bahrain still attract traffic from users inside the country who bypass restrictions using proxy servers, dynamic IP addresses, and VPN applications. The government had previously blocked access to tools like Google Translate and Google cached pages that could help users circumvent these blocks, but these services became accessible again in May 2019. Censorship in Bahrain intensified following the prodemocracy protests of 2011, where online media played a pivotal role. Since then, strict controls on digital content have been maintained. Political content is widely restricted, though platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and international blog-hosting services remain accessible. However, several messaging and livestreaming applications have been blocked by authorities. A 2015 report revealed that over 85 percent of Bahraini websites are hosted outside the country, despite Bahrain's advanced internet infrastructure. Hosting websites abroad makes them less susceptible to government takedown requests, allowing them to remain accessible via censorship circumvention tools. In August 2016, Bahrain's Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA) mandated all telecommunications companies to implement a centralized website-blocking system managed by the TRA. This directive was linked to a US$1.2 million contract with Canadian company **Netsweeper** for the development of a national website filtering solution. Netsweeper has since been identified on nine Bahraini internet service providers (ISPs) and is known to filter political content on at least one. In May 2017, authorities blocked several Qatari news websites, including ''Al-Jazeera'', ''Al-Sharq'', and ''Al-Raya'', following Bahrain's severance of diplomatic ties with Qatar alongside Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. Previously, in June 2016, the popular communication app Telegram was banned. Telegram was widely used by independent media, opposition groups, and activists. The app and its associated website remained blocked at the end of the reported period. Other blocked sites include the ''Arab Network for Human Rights Information'' (ANHRI), the ''Bahrain Center for Human Rights'' (BCHR), and the London-based newspaper ''Al-Quds Al-Araby''. Additionally, ''Bahrain Mirror'', a prominent news site, remains inaccessible. In December 2018, the website of ''Awal Online'', an independent Bahraini news outlet, was blocked just a month after its launch. The anonymous editors of the platform attributed the blockage to critical reporting on a long-serving minister. In March 2019, their Twitter account was temporarily suspended. Livestreaming platforms like ''Ustream'' and ''Bambuser'', which were widely used during the 2011 protests, also continue to be blocked. According to a crowdsourced list from August 2018, 39 percent of the 367 blocked websites were categorized as political, while 23 percent were related to tools for bypassing censorship, such as anonymizers and web proxies.

Blocking Policies

The process for blocking websites in Bahrain is opaque, with multiple state entities, including the Ministry of Information Affairs (MIA) and the Ministry of Interior (MOI), authorized to block websites without requiring a court order. The MIA blocks websites under articles 19 and 20 of the Press Rules and Regulations, which prohibit content deemed to "instigate hatred of the political regime, encroach on the state's official religion, breach ethics, jeopardize public peace, or address prohibited topics." Additionally, article 70 criminalizes the publication of false news under the same law. Authorities routinely issue updated lists of blocked websites to internet service providers (ISPs), instructing them to "prohibit any means that allow access to blocked sites." ISPs risk having their licenses revoked by the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA) if they fail to comply with these orders. However, the list of blocked websites is not made publicly available, and administrators of blocked websites are not notified or given reasons for the bans. When users attempt to access blocked websites, they are met with a generic message stating that the site has been "blocked for violating regulations and laws of the Kingdom of Bahrain." A link for submitting unblocking requests redirects to an error page. There are no formal regulations governing an appeals process for content restrictions. In the absence of published blocking orders, website administrators face significant challenges in appealing such decisions through the court system. According to a 2009 MIA directive, no blocked website can be reinstated without explicit approval from the information minister. Website administrators may also be held legally responsible for user-generated content, including alleged libel. In February 2016, the Interior Ministry announced that administrators of WhatsApp groups could be held accountable for spreading false news if they fail to report incidents occurring within their groups. Spreading false news that endangers national security or public order is considered a criminal offense and is punishable by up to two years in prison.

Content Removal

In March 2019, Bahrain's Ministry of Housing deleted several videos from its Instagram account featuring the Minister of Housing. In the videos, the minister argued that a small housing unit is only considered small if people perceive it as such. The videos went viral, attracting widespread sarcasm and criticism, prompting their removal. Recordings of Shura Council sessions, the upper house of Bahrain's parliament, have also been selectively edited by administrators before being uploaded to the council's official YouTube Live channel. For instance, a March 3, 2019 recording omitted controversial remarks by a councilmember regarding the relationship between the village of Ma’ameer and a large industrial area where the member owned a business. Similarly, a June 2018 video excluded footage of a representative calling opponents of a new retirement law "psychos." This statement was also removed from the website of the local newspaper Al-Ayam. In July 2018, YouTube removed a video showing a verbal attack on a Bahraini cleric who had visited Israel. The video garnered 32,000 views within four hours of its upload before being taken down, though YouTube did not specify the reason for its removal. Online platforms’ reporting mechanisms have been exploited to suppress criticism of authorities and target accounts operated by activists and independent journalists. In March 2019, the Twitter account of the independent news site Awal Online was temporarily suspended due to coordinated user reporting. Similarly, in February 2019, Instagram permanently closed the account of activist Yousef al-Jamri. Earlier, in October 2018, a video of Hezbollah's leader discussing Bahrain's political situation was removed from al-Jamri's account, with Instagram citing community guideline violations. In December 2018, journalist Hani al-Fardan's Instagram account was also suspended due to organized user reporting. Transparency reports indicate that neither Google nor Twitter removed content based on requests from Bahraini authorities. While Twitter received two content removal requests in the first half of 2018, no content was withheld. Authorities have employed coercive measures, including arrests, prosecutions, and torture, to compel online forum moderators to shut down their websites. In April 2019, during the arrest of columnist Ibrahim al-Sheikh, seven tweets were deleted from his account, though it remains unclear who removed them. In the same month, former member of parliament Mohammed Khalid briefly deactivated his Twitter account following a brief detention, later reactivating it as a private account. His lawyer, Mohammed al-Othman, deactivated his Twitter account twice during the same period before restoring it.

Online Manipulation

Government authorities and pro-government

trolls A troll is a being in Nordic folklore, including Norse mythology. In Old Norse sources, beings described as trolls dwell in isolated areas of rocks, mountains, or caves, live together in small family units, and are rarely helpful to human be ...

actively shape and manipulate the online information environment in Bahrain. Officials frequently issue warnings about discussing sensitive topics or "misusing" social media platforms. In May 2019, the Ministry of Interior's (MOI) cybercrime directorate labelled the accounts of several Bahraini activists and journalists as "malicious." Shortly after, users received SMS messages and tweets cautioning that following such accounts could result in prosecution. Similarly, in June 2018, the MOI warned against reposting a resurfaced 2011 video showing a "war dance" performed by naturalized Bahraini citizens of Arab origins. The MOI claimed that sharing the video aimed to "incite sedition and disturb social peace," threatening legal action against those who shared it. Research from 2013 highlighted government ties to extremist Twitter and Facebook accounts advocating violence against both authorities and protesters. The government has also been found impersonating opposition figures online to send malicious links, such as IP trackers, to identify and prosecute anonymous critics. Organized trolling campaigns, active since 2011, have targeted activists, commentators, and journalists supportive of protests and human rights. These coordinated efforts have successfully silenced or reduced opposition activity, both within Bahrain and abroad. Trolls also spread disinformation, discredit protesters, fuel conflict, and undermine valid social media content. Some accounts even impersonate imprisoned users to interact with opposition supporters. During the November 2018 parliamentary elections, some citizens received deceptive text messages claiming their names had been removed from the electoral register, discouraging them from voting. While the government denied involvement, the MOI alleged that 40,000 messages originated from Iran in an attempt to disrupt the electoral process. It also accused Iranian-run accounts and opposition groups like Al-Wefaq of threatening candidates and promoting election boycotts. Social media accounts from Saudi Arabia and the UAE have also influenced Bahrain's online discourse. For instance, in November 2017, a Saudi-based Twitter account launched a trending hashtag blaming “terrorists”—a term often used to describe anti-government protesters—for an oil pipeline fire. The hashtag reached a wide audience, particularly in Saudi Arabia.

Censorship and Licensing Restrictions for Media Outlets

Regulatory restrictions severely limit users' ability to publish content online, while government censorship imposes indirect economic constraints, leaving many outlets reliant on personal funding. According to Decree 68/2016, newspapers in Bahrain must obtain a license from the mass media directorate to disseminate electronic media on websites or social media. However, the decree does not specify the criteria for granting or renewing the one-year license. Additionally, applicants must submit a list of their social media accounts, website addresses, and the names of their overseers, potentially exposing employees to government monitoring or coercion. Violating the licensing requirement under Bahrain's press law can result in six months of imprisonment and/or a fine of 5,000 dinars ($13,180). Decree 68/2016 also prohibits newspapers from posting videos longer than two minutes or live streaming content. Moreover, electronic media must mirror the content of their printed editions, restricting the use of multimedia and limiting creative freedom. While government restrictions extend to online advertising, some opposition websites continue to operate despite these limitations. Blocked websites face significant challenges in securing advertisements, but outlets like ''Bahrain Mirror'' manage to function with minimal resources, often relying on self-funding. In August 2019, the Information Affairs Authority (IAA) revoked the license of ''Manama Voice'', a news site managed by Bahraini journalist Hani al-Fardan, without providing a specific explanation. Al-Fardan has since continued his reporting through his

Instagram Instagram is an American photo sharing, photo and Short-form content, short-form video sharing social networking service owned by Meta Platforms. It allows users to upload media that can be edited with Social media camera filter, filters, be ...

account, as publishing on

social media Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the Content creation, creation, information exchange, sharing and news aggregator, aggregation of Content (media), content (such as ideas, interests, and other forms of expression) amongs ...

does not presently require an IAA license.

Online Surveillance and Monitoring

State surveillance of online activities in Bahrain is extensive. Reports have highlighted the government's use of spyware to target dissidents. In October 2018, it was revealed that Bahrain had acquired espionage software from private companies, including a system from Verint, designed to gather intelligence from social media. Members of Bahraini intelligence were also trained in using these surveillance systems. A September 2018 Citizen Lab report indicated that Bahrain might have utilized the

, developed by the Israeli company NSO Group. Once a user clicks on an exploit link, Pegasus is covertly installed on their phone, allowing the operator to access sensitive data such as passwords, contacts, text messages, live calls from messaging apps, and even the phone's camera and microphone. Citizen Lab found evidence suggesting that the persecuted Shia minority and members of the Coalition of February 14 may have been specifically targeted. In the lead-up to the October 2018 parliamentary elections, the Ministry of Interior (MOI) announced it was monitoring phone messages, particularly those promoting an election boycott, and warned of legal consequences for those involved. Additionally, the government of Bahrain purchased $544,000 worth of ''

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...

surveillance equipment'' between 2015 and 2017. A Cyber Safety Directorate was established in November 2013 within the Ministry of State for Telecommunications Affairs to monitor websites and social media platforms, with the stated goal of preventing their use in promoting violence or terrorism, and stopping the spread of information deemed a threat to national security and stability. This initiative followed the creation of a similar unit in 2011 tasked with responding to false information on foreign news sites and social media. In January 2017, Bahrain ratified the Arab Treaty on Combating Cybercrime, a framework aimed at regulating the misuse of telecommunications, curbing financial fraud, and preventing the spread of terrorism and pornography online. This treaty also introduces provisions for real-time monitoring and data retention, as well as cross-border information sharing. However, the treaty's weak human rights standards could potentially compromise privacy protections when it is incorporated into local law. Bahrain lacks a comprehensive privacy law. Although a personal data protection law was passed in July 2018, it includes an exemption for national security-related data processing by the Interior Ministry, security services, and other relevant government bodies.

Data Retention Policies

Since 2009, the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA) has required all telecommunications providers to retain records of customers' phone calls, emails, and website visits for up to three years. These companies must also grant security forces access to subscriber data upon request from the public prosecution, although data content access requires a court order. To obtain an operating license (see A5), telecom providers must create a “lawful access capability plan” that facilitates security forces’ access to communications metadata. In February 2016, the provider 2Connect had its license revoked for failing to establish this plan. Cybercafés are also subject to increased oversight, with a commission from four ministries ensuring strict adherence to rules that prohibit access to minors and mandate that all computer terminals remain fully visible to observers. Transparency reports from companies indicate that Bahrain made one data request to Google, six to Twitter, and three to Facebook in the first half of 2017, though all requests were denied. There were no requests made in 2018. It remains unclear how local providers comply with state requests for user data, as such information is not publicly disclosed. Bahrain introduced a personal data protection law in July 2018, which mirrors the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and outlines requirements for entities collecting, processing, and storing personal data, including obtaining user consent and informing them of data collection. However, the enforcement details of this law are still uncertain.

Freedom of Association

According to the Human Right Watch 2011 country report, freedom of association is severely curtailed by an association law, "which prohibits organizations from involvement in political activities." The

Bahrain Human Rights Society The Bahrain Human Rights Society (BHRS; ) was set up in 2002 following wide ranging political reforms by the Bahraini government to allow the functioning of independent human rights groups. In 2010 the government dissolved the BHRS's board of ...

, Bahrain Centre for Human Rights and Bahrain Youth Human Rights Society have been closed or ordered to close. In June 2017, the

party (Wa'ad) was banned on terrorism charges. The ban was criticised by

and Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy. Lynn Maalouf of Amnesty International stated that "the suspension of Waad is a flagrant attack on freedom of expression and association".

Bandargate

The Bandargate scandal refers to an alleged political conspiracy by the certain government officials in Bahrain to foment sectarian strife and marginalize the Shia community in the country. The conspiracy was allegedly led and financed by Sheikh Ahmed bin Ateyatalla Al Khalifa, Minister of Cabinet Affairs and head of the Civil Informatics Organization and member of the Al Khalifa royal family. The allegations were revealed in September 2006, in a 240-page document produced by the Gulf Centre for Democratic Development, and authored by Dr Salah Al Bandar, an adviser to the Cabinet Affairs Ministry. Following the distribution of the report, Bahraini police forcibly deported Dr Al Bandar to the United Kingdom, where he holds citizenship. According to Dr al-Bandar, the Minister paid five main operatives a total of more than $2.7 million to run: *a secret intelligence cell spying on Shi’as *GONGOs – government operated bogus NGOs like the ‘Bahraini Jurists Society’ and the ‘Bahrain Human Rights Watch Society’ *internet forums and websites that foment sectarian hatred *subsidisation of ‘new converts’ from Shia Islamic sect to the Sunni sect *payments for election rigging.

Freedom of religion

The Constitution states that Islam is the official religion and that Shari'a (Islamic law) is a principal source for legislation. Article 22 of the Constitution provides for freedom of conscience, the inviolability of worship, and the freedom to perform religious rites and hold religious parades and meetings, in accordance with the customs observed in the country; however, the Government placed some limitations on the exercise of this right. The Government continued to exert a level of control and to monitor both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims, and there continued to be government discrimination against Shi'a Muslims in certain fields. Members of other religious groups who practice their faith privately do so without interference from the Government. There were occasional reports of incidents between the Government and elements of the Shi'a majority population, who were often critical of the Sunni-controlled Government's rule. Problems continued to exist, stemming primarily from the Government's perceived unequal treatment of Shi'a in the country.

Destruction of religious facilities

In the wake of the 2011

Arab Spring The Arab Spring () was a series of Nonviolent resistance, anti-government protests, Rebellion, uprisings, and Insurgency, armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began Tunisian revolution, in Tunisia ...

uprising and crackdown against Shia protest in Bahrain, "dozens" of Shia mosques have been leveled by the government according to a report in McClatchy newspapers. According to Shiite leaders interviewed by the reporter, work crews have often arrived "in the dead of night, accompanied by police and military escorts", to demolish the mosques, and in many cases, have hauled away the buildings' rubble before townspeople awake so as to leave no trace. Sheikh Khalid bin Ali bin Abdulla al Khalifa, the minister of justice and Islamic affairs for Bahrain, defended the demolitions stating: "These are not mosques. These are illegal buildings." However the McClatchy reporter found that photos taken of several mosques before their destruction by the government "showed they were well maintained, decades-old structures."Bahrain's Sunni rulers target Shiite mosques
By Roy Gutman, McClatchy Newspapers, 11 May 2011

Media and publication

Bahrain has eight daily newspapers representing a broad section of opinion. In 2002, '' Al Wasat'' was set up by Mansoor Al-Jamri, the son of Bahrain's spiritual

Shi'a Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor ( caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community ( imam). However, his right is understoo ...

leader, Sheikh Abdul-Amir Al-Jamri and the spokesman of the

. The paper is broadly sympathetic to the Shia Islamist opposition, particularly

Ali Salman Ali Salman Ahmed Salman () is a Bahraini Twelver Shi'ism, Twelver Shia Islam, Shi'a cleric and the Secretary-General of the Al Wefaq, Al-Wefaq political society. In January 1995, the Cabinet of Bahrain, Bahraini government forcibly exiled him to ...

Akhbar Al Khaleej ''Akhbar Al Khaleej'' (in Arabic أخبار الخليج meaning ''The Gulf News'') is a Bahraini daily publication. It is the sister paper of the English-language daily, '' Gulf Daily News''. History and profile The first issue of ''Akhbar Al ...

has traditionally been close to Bahrain's Left and Arab nationalist strands, featuring controversial columnists such as Sameera Rajab. Al Ayam is seen as solidly pro-government, with its proprietor an advisor to the King. The Press Law 47 of 2002 has been strongly criticised as restrictive as it specifies criminal charges against those who criticise the head of state or Islam, or "threaten national security". However, discussion in the newspapers is often robust with journalists frequently criticising government ministers: for instance one newspaper recently criticised the Minister of Housing, Fahmi Al Jowder, for lavishing "ludicrous praise" on the King. Liberal intellectuals in the press have faced concerted campaigns against them by Islamists. In 2005, hundreds of Shia Islamists protested outside the Al Ayam's offices after it published a cartoon on Iran's

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (born Mahmoud Sabbaghian on 28 October 1956) is an Iranian Iranian principlists, principlist and Iranian nationalism, nationalist politician who served as the sixth president of Iran from 2005 to 2013. He is currently a mem ...

's election victory; while a Sunni Islamist campaign against the paper's editor, Isa Al Shaygi, was condemned at a conference of the

International Federation of Journalists The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) is the largest global union federation of journalists' trade unions in the world. It represents more than 600,000 media workers from 187 organisations in 146 countries. The IFJ is an associate ...

: "The vicious and unprovoked attack on a respected and distinguished colleague is an example of the intolerant and undemocratic character of extremist politics that is increasingly being used against the free press." Various Bahraini liberal intellectuals in Bahrain strongly criticized the Bahraini government for "favoring extremist Islamic religious groups and hastening to respond to their demands at the expense of the interests of many social groups and various sectors of production," and expressed concern "about the course that Bahraini politics is taking in light of the fear of The decline of freedoms and the issuance of Taliban-ish laws that tighten the screws on them." All broadcast media is owned and managed by the government. In 2005, three website administrators were arrested by security forces. As such, many political websites and blogs are blocked by the government, and as of November 2005 the government requires all Bahraini websites to register with the Ministry of Information. In August 2006, Bahraini government authorities blocked internet access to

Google Earth Google Earth is a web mapping, web and computer program created by Google that renders a 3D computer graphics, 3D representation of Earth based primarily on satellite imagery. The program maps the Earth by superimposition, superimposing satelli ...

and

Google Video Google Video was a free video hosting service, originally launched by Google on January 25, 2005. Initially focused on searching TV program transcripts, it soon evolved to allow hosting video clips on Google servers and embedding onto other ...

. Recently they have blocked the popular site anonymous.com In October 2006, the Criminal Court issued a ban on the publication of any news, information or commentary on the series of allegations in the Bandargate scandal, which has continued to date. In the following weeks, the Ministry of Information ordered Bahraini

ISP An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides a myriad of services related to accessing, using, managing, or participating in the Internet. ISPs can be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non ...

s to block several websites that violated the ban, include the websites of

National Democratic Action The National Democratic Labour Action Society – Wa'ad (, NDAS) is Bahrain, Bahrain's largest Left-wing politics, leftist List of political parties in Bahrain, political party. History and profile It emerged from the Popular Front for the Libe ...

(liberal opposition political society), the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights and the Arab Network for Human Rights Information. The block order was accompanied by press statements from the Ministry threatening the website owners with legal action. In January 2009, Bahrain has started blocking a vastly increased number of sites through the

Information Affairs Authority The Information Affairs Authority (IAA) is Bahrain's ministry of information that was formed in July 2010. The president of IAA is appointed directly by the King of Bahrain and has the rank of a minister (government), minister in the Bahrain go ...

(IAA). The new filtering has had a noticeable impact in internet access speeds for all traffic. On 31 August 2014, photographer Ahmed Humaidan was condemned to 10 years in prison after covering the 2011 uprising, allegedly for attacking the police.

Public gatherings

New political freedoms mean that public political activity and demonstrations are a common occurrence: according to the Ministry of Interior's figures there were 498 street demonstrations in 2006, up from 259 the previous year. In July 2005,

said: Despite this prediction, the

, in its study of civil society in Bahrain in 2006, ''Voices in Parliament, Debates in Majalis, Banners on the Street: Avenues of Political Participation in Bahrain'', found that: Bahrain is the only country in the Middle East to have sacked a senior government minister as a direct result of a human rights issue. In 2004, when the security forces fired rubber bullets at a demonstration led by Shia religious leaders,

immediately fired the country's longstanding Interior Minister (and member of the royal family) Sheikh Mohammed bin Khalifa Al Khalifa.Voices in Parliament, Debates in Majalis, Banners on the Street: Avenues of Political Participation in Bahrain
, Katja Niethammar, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute, 2006 While public demonstrations about various issues regularly take place, they have sometimes resulted in clashes between the police and youths. Fifteen Bahraini

activists were arrested between 16 and 20 May May 2007 following clashes the police. Thirteen remain in custody, (as of June 2007) according to the Bahrain Youth Society for Human Rights. In response to the problem presented by violent protestors, the Serbia-based human rights group, the Centre for Applied Non-Violent Action and Strategies, has been invited to Bahrain to teach demonstrators how to demonstrate peacefully. Under the scheme begun in 2007, peace camps will be set up in various trouble spots where specialists will advise on using protest strategies that do not involve violence. It is expected that a thousand youths will go through the training scheme. The Interior Ministry had to resist pressure in May 2007 from business leaders to 'crack down' on the rioters, as well as deal with concerns that local residents would take matters into their own hands and deal with the rioters themselves. Concerns about vigilantism resulted in a call by Central Municipal Council vice-chairman Abbas Mahfoodh for closer cooperation between politicians and the Interior Ministry to stamp out rioting, after residents of the town of Tubli confronted and chased away three masked men who allegedly planned to commit acts of sabotage using Molotov cocktail firebombs. In a report issued in 2006, the " Arab Network for Human Rights Information" (a member of the

International Freedom of Expression Exchange IFEX, formerly International Freedom of Expression Exchange, is a global network of more than 119 independent non-governmental organisations that work at a local, national, regional, or international level to defend and promote freedom of expre ...

) documented two cases of human rights activists being harassed by government authorities, through physical and sexual assaults, and fabricated cases. Since June 2016, the village of

Diraz Diraz (, also spelled Duraz) is the biggest and most populated village on the northwest coast of Bahrain. It lies to the east of Budaiya, west of Barbar, Bahrain, Barbar and north of Bani Jamra. Two Dilmun era archaeological sites, namely Diraz Te ...

has been besieged by the Bahraini government. The siege included the Bahraini government from forcibly preventing Shias to perform the congregational Juma (Friday) prayer in the Imam Al-Sadiq Mosque in Diraz.

Apostasy and changing religion

The Bahraini Penal Code does not enlist a penalty for

Apostasy Apostasy (; ) is the formal religious disaffiliation, disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that is contrary to one's previous re ...

Atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the Existence of God, existence of Deity, deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the ...

explicitly, but since Apostasy is

punishable by death Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in s ...

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

, and since Bahrain's constitution states that Islam is the official religion and that

Sharia Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...

(Islamic law) is a principal source for legislation, as such, there is an established state religion where Islamic studies are mandatory in state schools, there is a religious control over family law or legislation on moral matters, by declaring Islam as the state religion and Islamic law as the source of legislation, the constitution implies that Muslims are forbidden to change their religion. Societal pressure reinforces the Islamic principle, which forbids the conversion from Islam. therefore Bahraini citizens born to Muslim parents cannot change their religion legally.

Public restrictions during religious holidays

During

Ramadan Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. It is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (''Fasting in Islam, sawm''), communal prayer (salah), reflection, and community. It is also the month in which the Quran is believed ...

, Bahrain enforces strict laws prohibiting the public consumption of food, drink, or smoking during daylight hours, with violators—Muslim or non-Muslim—facing jail terms of up to one year and fines up to 100 Bahraini dinars, in accordance with Articles 309 and 310 of the Penal Code. These regulations aim to preserve respect for the fasting period, one of Islam's five pillars, but raise significant concerns regarding

freedom of religion Freedom of religion or religious liberty, also known as freedom of religion or belief (FoRB), is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice ...

and civil rights, particularly for non-Muslim citizens, and or

secular Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin , or or ), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. The origins of secularity can be traced to the Bible itself. The concept was fleshed out through Christian hi ...

individuals, and

expatriate An expatriate (often shortened to expat) is a person who resides outside their native country. The term often refers to a professional, skilled worker, or student from an affluent country. However, it may also refer to retirees, artists and ...

s who do not observe Ramadan. Additionally, the Ministry of Information orders the closure of bars during the month, particularly targeting

hotel A hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. Facilities provided inside a hotel room may range from a modest-quality mattress in a small room to large suites with bigger, higher-quality beds, a dresser, a re ...

s that fail to comply with the alcohol ban. Hotel representatives have criticized these measures, highlighting the negative economic impact on tourism and their infringement on individual freedoms. Critics argue that imposing such religious norms on the broader population and non-observant communities contradicts the principle of "no compulsion in religion" and harms Bahrain's reputation as a tolerant and inclusive country. While these regulations are intended to respect Islamic traditions, they are seen as limiting personal freedoms, alienating non-Muslim residents and visitors, and economically damaging key sectors like hospitality and tourism.

Religious Indoctrination

In the past, up until the

Islamic Revolution of 1979 The Iranian Revolution (, ), also known as the 1979 Revolution, or the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (, ) was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. The revolution led to the replacement of the Impe ...

, the Iranian school was the school of choice most Bahrainis would go to, as such, the school had a secular approach influenced by the

Pahlavi Dynasty The Pahlavi dynasty () is an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian royal dynasty that was the Pahlavi Iran, last to rule Iran before the country's monarchy was abolished by the Iranian Revolution in 1979. It was founded in 1925 by Reza Shah, Reza S ...

. The Iranian school was shutdown in 1996 after the "Islamic Republic of Iran", whom then had gained control of the school, was accused by the Bahraini government of interfering in the country's internal politics and affairs throughout the school. In Bahrain's

state school A state school, public school, or government school is a primary school, primary or secondary school that educates all students without charge. They are funded in whole or in part by taxation and operated by the government of the state. State-f ...

s, Islamic (

Maliki The Maliki school or Malikism is one of the four major madhhab, schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas () in the 8th century. In contrast to the Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra'y schools of thought, the ...

) studies are mandatory for all students hailing from Muslim families, not choice based as it is (said to be) in the case of Non-Muslims. As such, a lot of these schools educational materials (produced by Al-Obekan, a Saudi company) include religious references and influences. Many Bahrainis choose send their children to Bahraini schools simply due to the fact that governmental schools are free of charge for Bahraini citizens, this implies that the majority of Bahraini students are being indoctrinated at such a young age without

consent Consent occurs when one person voluntarily agrees to the proposal or desires of another. It is a term of common speech, with specific definitions used in such fields as the law, medicine, research, and sexual consent. Consent as understood i ...

. Furthermore, students from non-Muslim or secular backgrounds may feel marginalized by the religious framing of education. This raises important questions about academic integrity and the right to an education free from

religious indoctrination Indoctrination is the process of inculcating (teaching by repeated instruction) a person or people into an ideology, often avoiding critical analysis. It can refer to a general process of socialization. The term often implies forms of brainwashi ...

. International human rights standards, such as those outlined in the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is an international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly that enshrines the Human rights, rights and freedoms of all human beings. Drafted by a UN Drafting of the Universal D ...

, emphasize the importance of education that encourages critical thought and respects diverse beliefs. The practice of including religious texts in science curricula may conflict with these principles, necessitating a careful balance between cultural values and the right to a secular education.

Incorporation of Religious Texts in Scientific Education

The integration of religious texts, particularly

Quranic verses The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...

, into the science curriculum has raised concerns regarding the intersection of education and freedom of religion. Across various grades in government schools, science textbooks often include verses from the Quran alongside discussions of biological concepts, such as cells and heredity. This practice may aim to align scientific teachings with Islamic values, fostering a sense of cultural identity among students. However, the inclusion of religious texts can complicate the objective of providing a comprehensive and

secular education Secular education is a system of public education in countries with a secular government or separation of church and state, separation between religion and Sovereign state, state. History Secular educational systems were a modern development inte ...

. Critics argue that this approach may hinder students' ability to distinguish between empirical scientific knowledge and religious beliefs, potentially limiting their understanding of fundamental scientific principles.

Women and children

King Hamad's moves to promote women's rights have been described by Amnesty International as representing a "New Dawn for Bahraini Women". In 2002, women voted for the first time in national elections and were given equal political rights. However, these top-down reforms have proven contentious, with calls for reform opposed by conservatives and the

royal family A royal family is the immediate family of monarchs and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the family of an emperor or empress, and the term papal family describes the family of a pope, while th ...

. In 2002 the decision by

to grant women the right to vote and equal political rights with men was opposed by a majority of Bahraini women, with 60% of women surveyed saying they disagreed with the move. Salafists have publicly restated their opposition to women's participation in parliament, and none of the Islamist parties that dominate parliament has ever fielded a female candidate. One woman won a seat in parliament in 2006, although her victory in the sparsely populated constituency in the south of the country was seen by some as engineered by the government which wanted to see a woman represented in Council of Deputies. A bill prompted by women's rights activists in 2005 to introduce a unified personal status law to protect women's rights in marriage, divorce and other family matters was opposed in a series of large-scale demonstrations organised by an alliance of Salafists and Shia Islamists including

and

Asalah The Al-Asalah Islamic Society () is the main Sunni Salafist political party in Bahrain. The party is the political wing of the Islamic Education Society (''Al-Tarbiya Al-Islamiya'') which funds the party. Asalah's leader is Ghanim Al Buaneen ...

. The demonstrations (and the implicit threat of escalation by those who organised them) forced the government to withdraw the law and was seen as a major defeat for women's rights activists. In response to sweeping poll victories by Islamists in 2006's election, Amnesty International Bahrain's head of campaigns, Fawzia Rabea, described the threat to women's rights as 'very serious' and called on women to do everything in their power to fight laws proposed by the new parliament that could limit their freedom. After newly elected

MP, Sayed Abdulla Al A'ali, called for legislation to restrict women's employment rights by banning women from "male-orientated jobs", Ms Rabea said, "With this type of thinking I am sure we are facing a very big challenge with parliament. I am worried about this, it is very serious." Bahrain Women's Union president, Mariam Al Ruwaie, expressed surprised at the MP's suggestions, "This does not agree with His Majesty the King's reforms, which give women and men the same rights for education and work. In Bahrain's society women make up 26 per cent of the labour force, there are more girls in schools and universities than men and their results are better...I am worried because the parliament has not started and he r Al A'alihas said something like this. It is a bad start." Ghada Jamsheer, one of the most prominent women's rights activist in Bahrain has called the government's reforms "artificial and marginal". In a statement in December 2006 she said: In 2017, a British mum got jailed in Bahrain after her 'violent husband accused her of adultery.’ Hannah James was thrown behind bars after her husband claimed she had cheated on him. In recent years,

feminist activism The feminist movement, also known as the women's movement, refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for radical and liberal reforms on women's issues created by inequality between men and women. Such issues are women's ...

has gained prominence in online discussions and social media platforms. Users have utilized these spaces to raise awareness about gender-based violence and advocate for women’s rights. In August 2021, social media campaigns emerged demanding the right for Bahraini women to pass their citizenship to their children. Similarly, in September 2021, Twitter users highlighted the difficulties women face when seeking divorce due to the rigid nature of Islamic

Sharia courts Islamic court or Islamic courts may refer to: * Islamic court, a court that follows Sharia ** Sharia courts, in the judiciary of Saudi Arabia ** Syariah Court, in Malaysia ** Islamic Revolutionary Court, a special system of courts in the Islamic ...

Women in the 2011 crackdown

Bahraini human rights groups say "hundreds of women have been detained" in recent weeks prior to 30 May 2011, "the first time in the wave of protests sweeping the Arab world that large groups of women have been targeted".

Child rights

In March 2021,

and Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy claimed that children aged between 11 and 17 were being held by Bahrain police over protest-related cases since mid-February 2020. The children were unnecessarily detained during the 10th anniversary of the 2011 pro-democracy uprising. The groups claimed that the children were beaten and threatened with rape and electric shocks by the Bahraini security forces. A 13-year-old child was hit on his head, while the police continued with the threats to rape him, give him electric shocks from a car battery, and beat his genitals. Prosecutors and police barred the parents and lawyers of children from being present during the interrogations as children were terrorized into confessing. A 15-year-old boy, Hussein Sayed Taher, was arbitrarily arrested at the age of 12 and sentenced to 8 years in prison. He went on a hunger strike in August 2021 as he was being ill-treated by Bahraini authorities. On 7 February 2022, the

and Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy (BIRD) said that the Bahrain authorities detained six children, aged 14 and 15, without any written justification. They were being held in a child welfare facility. The authorities denied the parents’ requests to visit their children and to be present during their interrogations. The children's alleged offences occurred in December 2020 or January 2021, when they were 13 and 14. The Office of the Public Prosecution alleged that the boys damaged a car near a police station by throwing Molotov cocktails.

LGBT Rights

Technically, consensual sex between same sex couples is legal. However, the government has in recent years adopted restrictive measures towards what it identifies as "moral" issues. By including homosexual sexual acts and behaviour under the category of "immoral" behaviour, the government has attempted to indirectly ban homosexuality. The punishments for some of these crimes can include five months of hard labour and, although it is seldom sentenced, imprisonment of up to ten years.

Labor

According to the

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) was an international trade union. It came into being on 7 December 1949 following a split within the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU), and was dissolved on 31 October 2006 whe ...

annual report of 2006 unions are allowed to play an "effective role" with workers having the right to unionise. According to the ICTFU's annual report: The ICFTU's main concern in its 2006 report was that a new labour law would be far more restrictive of worker's rights. The ICFTU commented: A visiting delegate from the

International Labour Organization The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to advance social and economic justice by setting international labour standards. Founded in October 1919 under the League of Nations, it is one of the firs ...

at a seminar in Bahrain on trade unionism, held under the patronage of the Labour Ministry, described some of Bahrain's labour laws as out of line with international standards. According to the ILO international labour standards department deputy director, Karen Curtis, the current rules governing where strikes can be held in Bahrain were too restrictive. In response to the government's labour reforms, Bahrain's Crown Prince, Sheikh Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa, was invited as guest of honour to the

's 96th session, where he used the opportunity of addressing the conference to announce that the first regional dialogue on workers' issues would be held in Bahrain. "This will offer countries that recruit manpower and those that provide it an opportunity to engage in an open and honest discussion on the impact of globalisation." The ILO Director General Juan Somavia has described the Crown Prince as an innovator with a modern vision of commitment to change and a belief in dialogue. Somavia has noted that Bahrain had been one of the pioneers of Decent Work Country Programmes, beginning with a pilot programme in 2002.

Migrant workers

According to Human Rights Watch, in as of 2011 there were more than 458,000 guest workers in Bahrain, many of whom experience prolonged periods of withheld wages, passport confiscation, unsafe housing, excessive work hours and physical abuse. Government protective measures are "largely ineffective." In August 2009 Bahrain adopted Decision 79/2009 permitting guest workers, except for domestics, more freedom to change jobs. According to Human Rights Watch, as of 2011 many workers were unaware of this right. In 2007, government passed legislation to ban construction and other outdoor work between noon and 4 pm during the summer – the hottest times of the day. The vast majority of those involved in this type of work being expatriate labourers from the Indian sub-continent. The move was backed by a "massive" labour inspection campaign by the Ministry of Labour to ensure that companies obeyed the decision. The ban was criticized by construction companies saying that the government's decision would delay their projects, but according to the Ministry of Labour, migrant workers' protection representatives and human rights activities have welcomed the move. An ICFTU Annual Report 2006 found that "Foreign workers harshly treated": Bahrain is considered a Tier 2 country on the US State Department Trafficking in Persons report, the second highest tier, and indicated that Bahrain "does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking," but is "making significant efforts to do so."

Greenwashing

On 4 November 2021, the UK politicians accused Bahrain of "textbook

greenwashing Greenwashing (a compound word modeled on "whitewash"), also called green sheen, is a form of advertising or marketing spin that deceptively uses green PR and green marketing to persuade the public that an organization's products, goals, or ...

", as the regime promoted its green credentials at COP26 while causing 'irreparable damage' to the environment by participating in the Saudi-led Yemen war. In a joint letter sent to the crown prince

Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa (born 21 October 1969) is Crown Prince and Prime Minister of Bahrain. He is also the deputy supreme commander of the Bahrain Defence Force. Early life and education Prince Salman is the eldest son of King ...

, six British politicians and Members of Parliament stated that Bahrain's continued participation in the Saudi-led bombing campaigns destroyed ecosystems and contaminated the soil and water in

Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...

, while contributing to the humanitarian disaster in the country. The signatories said that Bahrain's involvement in the war undermines its commitment to tackle

climate change Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...

and protect the environment.

Academic whitewashing

In November 2021, the European Centre for Democracy and Human Rights (ECDHR) reported that Bahrain is using institutional collaborations to hide abysmal human rights records. Such partnerships between an academic institution and an abusive regime are based on the concept of academic whitewashing. It may include donating funds, paying regular visits, engaging in spreading misinformation or teaching courses despite awareness of the countries’ human rights abuses. According to the report, Bahrain was using this strategy of academic whitewashing to conceal its record of systematic discrimination against Shia Muslims, religious intolerance, and suppression of free speech. Bahrain's ambassador to the

maintains a relationship with

Boston University Boston University (BU) is a Private university, private research university in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. BU was founded in 1839 by a group of Boston Methodism, Methodists with its original campus in Newbury (town), Vermont, Newbur ...

and

Suffolk University Suffolk University is a private university, private research university in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. With 7,560 students on all campuses, it is the List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston, tenth-largest university ...

, while he has a history of overseeing human rights abuses committed by the Bahraini government. Besides, the UK based

University of Huddersfield The University of Huddersfield is a public research university located in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire, England. It has been a University since 1992, but has its origins in a series of institutions dating back to the 19th century. It has made te ...

is also directly involved with Bahrain's Royal Academy of Policing (RAP), an organisation that has repeatedly been accused of engaging in torture. Another example is the Italian University

La Sapienza The Sapienza University of Rome (), formally the Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", abbreviated simply as Sapienza ('Wisdom'), is a public research university located in Rome, Italy. It was founded in 1303 and is as such one of the ...

, which inaugurated a new professorship to honor Bahrain's King.

Human rights NGOs

There are several generic human rights NGOs in Bahrain, and other NGOs working in related fields such as women's rights, child rights and migrant labour. The two most prominent organisations have been the

and the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights, which have frequently been highly critical of one another, the Center accusing the Society of having been unduly close to government. Other NGOs active around 2008–10 included the Bahrain Youth Society for Human Rights, the Women's Petition Committee, the Committee for Martyrs and Victims of Torture, the Human Rights Office of the Haq Movement for Liberty and Democracy, the Committee for Citizenship-less and the Coordinating Committee for the Defence of Political Detainees. As of 2011, several human rights NGOs, including at least the first three named above, had been closed or ordered to close, as was the Bahrain Migrant Workers' Protection Society. In the wake of the 2011 uprising, Physicians for Human Rights has become internationally recognized for its work exposing human rights violations in Bahrain, particularly regarding medical neutrality. The organization released a report titled ''Do No Harm: A Call for Bahrain to End Systematic Attacks on Doctors and Patients'', in April 2011 which detailed the government's persecution of medical professionals.

Shia rights watch Shia Rights Watch (SRW) is an organization that works to defend justice and rights for Shia Muslims around the world. It is the first of its kind, a non-governmental, not for profit, organization that bases research and advocacy from case studies a ...

, an NGO based in Washington, DC, has also stepped up to expose the violations against Shia Muslims in Bahrain. The organization published a report titled ''Shia Target of Inhumane Treatment: Bahrain Report 2011'', which documents the systematic oppressions of Shia Muslims by the government of Bahrain. Bahrain also cancelled the visas of Human Rights Watch personnel. They were supposed to be in Bahrain for a conference.

National human rights institution

In 2008, during the

Universal Periodic Review The Universal Periodic Review (UPR) is a mechanism of the United Nations (UN) Human Rights Council (HRC) that emerged from the 2005 UN reform process.resolution 60/251of 3 April 2006, the UPR periodically examines the human rights performance of a ...

of its human rights record at the

UN Human Rights Council The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is a United Nations body whose mission is to promote and protect human rights around the world. The Council has 47 members elected for staggered three-year terms on a regional group basis. The ...

, the Government announced plans to create a

national human rights institution A national human rights institution (NHRI) is an independent state-based institution with the responsibility to protect and promote human rights in a country. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) aids these ...

for Bahrain. The

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is a department of the United Nations Secretariat that works to promote and protect human rights that are guaranteed under international law and stipulated in the Univers ...

and the Foreign Ministry jointly organised a workshop in Manama, bringing in NHRI experts from

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...

Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...

and

Northern Ireland Northern Ireland ( ; ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It has been #Descriptions, variously described as a country, province or region. Northern Ireland shares Repub ...

to meet a wide range of Bahraini civil society. The NHRI was duly established by the King on 11 November 2009 through Royal Order No. 46/2009. On 25 April 2010, Royal Order No. 16/2010 appointed 17 men and five women as the first members of the NHRI, including prominent human rights activists Salman al-Sayyid 'Ali Kamal al-Din, the former deputy secretary-general of the independent Bahrain Human Rights Society, as president. While the appointments were initially welcomed by

, other NGOs including the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights questioned the credibility and independence of the new institution. The Center alleged that several of the 22 nominees held government appointments or were linked to bodies accused by the Society of operating as government fronts or

GONGO A government-organized non-governmental organization (GONGO) is a non-governmental organization that was set up or sponsored by a government in order to further its political interests and mimic the civic groups and civil society at home, or promot ...

s, such as the Bahrain Human Rights Watch Society, the Jurists Society and the Association of Public Freedoms and Human Rights. On 6 September 2010, Salman Kamal al-Din resigned as president, in protest at the institution's failure to criticise the arrests of pro-democracy activists. The current president of the institution is Maria Khoury and the

Secretary General Secretary is a title often used in organizations to indicate a person having a certain amount of authority, Power (social and political), power, or importance in the organization. Secretaries announce important events and communicate to the org ...

is Dr. Khalifa Al-Fadhel. December 2016, Euro Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor condemned Bahrain's policies which restrict the freedom of press and media. The violations include arresting, and torturing journalists who have a contrary political view to the government. According to the International Monitor, these journalists are accused of being involved in acts of sabotage or even in supporting terrorism. The decline of the level of press freedom has put Bahrain in the 142 out of 180 on the global press freedom rankings for 2016.

References

Notes

External links

Human Rights Watch: BahrainAmnesty International: Bahrain

Bahrain Centre for Human Rights

Bahrain Human Rights Watch Society

International Freedom of Expression Exchange: BahrainNational Democratic Institute: Bahrain
US Department of State
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions: BahrainArab Human Rights Index: Bahrain
* , Arab Press Freedom Watch Third Annual Conference, May 2004

Proceeding of a seminar held under the auspices of Lord Avebury, the vice-chairman of the Parliamentary Human Rights Group in the

House of Lords The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the lower house, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England. One of the oldest ext ...

, 15 December 2005
Review of Bahrain
by the

United Nations Human Rights Council The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is a United Nations body whose mission is to promote and protect human rights around the world. The Council has 47 members elected for staggered three-year terms on a United Nations Regional Gro ...

, 7 April 2008 {{2011 Bahraini uprising