
The
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
(1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty of China. The early Qing emperors adopted the
bureaucratic
Bureaucracy ( ) is a system of organization where laws or regulatory authority are implemented by civil servants or non-elected officials (most of the time). Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments ...
structures and institutions from the preceding
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
but split rule between the
Han and
Manchus
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) an ...
with some positions also given to
Mongols
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...
. Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the
imperial examination system until the system was abolished in 1905. The Qing divided the positions into civil and military positions, each having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into a and b categories. Civil appointments ranged from an attendant to the emperor or a grand secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner, or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private.
Central government agencies
The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries), each headed by two presidents and assisted by four vice presidents. In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the
state examinations. The
Grand Secretariat
The Grand Secretariat, or the Cabinet (), was nominally a coordinating agency but ''de facto'' the highest institution in the imperial government of the Chinese Ming dynasty. It first took shape after the Hongwu Emperor abolished the office of Ch ...
, which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial
chancery
Chancery may refer to:
Offices and administration
* Court of Chancery, the chief court of equity in England and Wales until 1873
** Equity (law), also called chancery, the body of jurisprudence originating in the Court of Chancery
** Courts of e ...
. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing "
Outer Court", which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the
Forbidden City
The Forbidden City () is the Chinese Empire, imperial Chinese palace, palace complex in the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City in Beijing, China. It was the residence of 24 Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasty L ...
.
In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "
Inner Court", which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the
Grand Council. It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the
Yongzheng Emperor
The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing em ...
as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but soon took over other military and administrative duties, centralizing authority under the crown. The grand councillors served as a sort of
privy council to the emperor.
The
Six Ministries
The Three Departments and Six Ministries () system was the primary administrative structure in History of China#Imperial China, imperial China from the Sui dynasty (581–618) to the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It was also used by Balhae (698– ...
and their respective areas of responsibilities were as follows:
Board of Civil Appointments
: The personnel administration of all civil officials – including evaluation, promotion, and dismissal. It was also in charge of the "honours list".
Board of Revenue
: The literal translation of the Chinese word ''hu'' () is "household". For much of Qing history, the government's main source of revenue came from taxation on landownership supplemented by
official monopolies on salt, which was an essential household item, and tea. Thus, in the predominantly agrarian Qing dynasty, the "household" was the basis of imperial finance. The department was charged with revenue collection and the financial management of the government.
: The Board of Revenue was second in importance only to the Board of Civil appointments which was ranked first. It followed the Qing practice of 1 supervising minister (normally Manchu) and 2 ministers (1 Manchu 1 Chinese) and 2 vice-ministers (1 Manchu 1 Chinese). The Board was tasked with keeping a record of lands, provincial borders and conducting a census. The Board also controlled the collection of taxes, non-military salaries, auditing of their provincial counterparts both their treasuries and granaries as well as the central treasury, the transportation of taxes and tributes. Additionally, its responsibilities included coinage, the custom house network and the system of weights and measurements alongside the Department of works.
: The Board had 14 bureaus which were responsible to it:
:* The Board of Jiangsu and Anhui, which was responsible for land and poll taxes in the aforementioned provinces as well as the accounts of the government silk factories in Suzhou and Nanjing. It also was responsible for the arrears of taxes the provinces might be responsible for and making sure the weight stated by the provinces was true.
:* The Bureau of Zhejiang, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes in Zhejiang and the government silk factories at Hangzhou as well as reporting annually to the emperor the population and grain production of the Empire
:* The Bureau of Jiangxi, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Jiangxi and to audit and reports of inter-provincial support of its military expenses.
:* The Bureau of Fujian, which was responsible for the accounts of Zhili and Fujian, auditing the miscellaneous expenses of Zhili which drew from the central treasury, to audit customs collected at Tianjin, to administer all government relief work, auditing rent received for housing by the government for bannermen, to control the orchards of the Imperial Household Department and the nomadic prairie of Qiqihar.
:* The Bureau of Huguang, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Huguang, auditing customs collected inland in Hubei, auditing surcharges on the taxes of land, salt, tea and commodities across the empire
:* The Bureau of Shandong, which was responsible for auditing the accounts of Shandong, Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, to pay the officers of the 8 banners and control the government monopolies of salt and Ginseng.
:* The Bureau of Shanxi to audit the accounts of Shanxi
:* The Bureau of Shaanxi, which was responsible for auditing Shaanxi, Gansu and Xinjiang, controlling the government tea monopoly, to act as the paymaster of the empire except where specified.
:* The Bureau of Henan, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Henan, to audit the expenses of troops in Qiqihar, to encourage the revisions of reports rejected by the Board, to investigate reports sent to it and report to the emperor and act upon his instructions.
:* The Bureau of Sichuan, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Sichuan, auditing customs in Sichuan, to control all confiscated material, to report on crop conditions across the empire.
:* The Bureau of Guangdong, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Guangdong, to control the bannermen succession and assign Han members and control assignments of the Board.
:* The Bureau of Guangxi, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Guangxi, the customs of Guangxi, the direction and administration of the Beijing mints and the regulation of coinage as well as mining.
:* The Bureau of Yunnan, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Yunnan, the mining royalties of Yunnan, to control the transportation of grain to Beijing in select provinces.
:* The Bureau of Guizhou, which was responsible for the land and poll taxes of Guizhou, the inland and maritime customs and the auditing of the fur tributes.
The Board also controlled the relief in the event of natural disasters and maintained a granary reserve of 18,250,000 shih of grain, the practice of private granaries was also protected and both private and state granaries were guarded by bannermen. In the event of disaster the Board would often cancel tax arrears or reduce the current taxes or even not collect taxes for a time, charitable works would also be organised such as orphanages, hospitals, poorhouses, widows and the shipwrecked.
The board recorded the total size of the empire to be 1,047,783,839 Mou of land of which 70% belonged to the people, 7.8% to the military who farmed it with soldiers, 1.9% by bannermen and Imperial Clansmen, 17% frontier land which could be claimed by any citizen, 0.58% as official land and 0.1% as scholars land. Most farms during the period were reported to be small and not exceeding several Mou in size.
There were two types of taxes, the land-poll tax and commodity taxes. In 1713 the Kangxi Emperor decided that the census of that year should be used for setting the poll tax to avoid tax dodging this census was still quoted in government figures in 1887 despite the rapid growth in population in the intervening 174 years. The Poll tax was eventually combined with the land tax in 1857 almost universally, only government, sacrificial and hunting land was exempt from this alongside canals and barracks. The magistrates who collected taxes levied a 10% surcharge on the collection which was sanctioned by the Kangxi emperor in 1709 this was routinely abused however and peasants were exploited and charged higher surcharges with instances of a 50% surcharge. Despite the reputation of corruption within the Qing dynasty the collection of taxes was efficient and regular and the chief duty of magistrates was to collect taxes and this was done twice annually in spring and autumn with 2 months available for payment per period with an equal apportionment per collection. It was regular for taxes to be waived in poorer regions on an account of bad harvest as the continued collection would make the emperor appear as a tyrant. Taxes were collected per group of households 5 or 10 and each was summoned to pay taxes with records kept by the taxpayer, the magistrate and Beijing the burden of paying taxes was given to the payer though in the event of a failure to pay the Magistrate would hire professional collectors. However, there was no uniform tax rate and it varied considerably from over 2.9 taels per mou in Hubei to 0.0002 in Gansu. Thus in 1887 on 1,047,783,839 mou of land the Board only collected 31,184,042 taels an average of 0.31 per Mou a very low rate of taxation.
Board of Rites
: This board was responsible for all matters concerning court protocol. It organized the periodic worship of ancestors and various gods by the emperor, managed relations with
tributary nations, and oversaw the nationwide
civil examination system.
Board of War
Board or Boards may refer to:
Flat surface
* Lumber, or other rigid material, milled or sawn flat
** Plank (wood)
** Cutting board
** Sounding board, of a musical instrument
* Cardboard (paper product)
* Paperboard
* Fiberboard
** Hardboard ...
: Unlike its Ming predecessor, which had full control over all military matters, the Qing Board of War had very limited powers. First, the
Eight Banners
The Eight Banners (in Manchu language, Manchu: ''jakūn gūsa'', , ) were administrative and military divisions under the Later Jin (1616–1636), Later Jin and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasties of China into which all Manchu people, Manchu househol ...
were under the direct control of the emperor and hereditary Manchu and Mongol princes, leaving only the
Green Standard Army
The Green Standard Army (; ) was the name of a category of military units under the control of Qing dynasty in China. It was made up mostly of ethnic Han soldiers and operated concurrently with the Manchu-Mongol- Han Eight Banner armies. In are ...
under ministerial control. Furthermore, the ministry's functions were purely administrative. Campaigns and troop movements were monitored and directed by the emperor, first through the Manchu ruling council and later through the Grand Council.
The Board contained four Bureaus:
The Bureau of Military section, which handled the organisation of army corps and the appointment and dismissal of officials, as well as their ranks and titles.
The Bureau of Statistics, for the reward, punishment, and investigation of officials, as well as for defense, policing, and issuing passports for those leaving the country and enforcing regulations.
The Bureau of Communications, which managed the supply of horses and the relay communication system.
The Commissariat Bureau, which handled the records of servicemen, the recruitment of officers from the examinations, and the supply of ammunition and uniforms.
The division of the Board into four Bureaus did not follow a scientific process and it was confused and unsatisfactory.
As in many organisations in the Qing government, appointments were made based on racial background. Certain positions could only be held by bannermen, while others (namely, those in the provincial forces) were exclusively Chinese. Guard posts for rivers and canals were also exclusively Chinese, whereas gate posts for city gates were exclusively held by Chinese bannermen, though this exclusivity was not always present. Many of the bannermen were given concurrent appointments, holding multiple offices that did not give them work but gave them a title. Only the Zenone or Tartar-General (the commander of a province's forces) were not given concurrent appointments.
The confused organisation of troops led to severe organisational and command issues and led to a lack of standardisation. The provincial commander in chief would command a couple thousand men in Canton as would the governor of Guangdong and the viceroy of Liangguang, each would maintain their own distinct forces. The viceroy could technically command the other two being a higher-ranked official but the governor could also command the provincial commander in chief simultaneously the provincial commander in chief was the Supreme Military official of the province; however, other circuits did not have to heed the orders of the provincial commander in chief as his control was indirect thus in a province there was no singular military official.
Board of Punishments
: The Board of Punishments handled all legal matters, including the supervision of various law courts and prisons. The
Qing legal framework was relatively weak compared to modern-day legal systems, as there was no separation of executive and legislative branches of government. The legal system could be inconsistent, and, at times, arbitrary, because the emperor ruled by decree and had final say on all judicial outcomes. Emperors could (and did) overturn judgements of lower courts from time to time. Fairness of treatment was also an issue under the system of control practised by the Manchu government over the Han Chinese majority. To counter these inadequacies and keep the population in line, the Qing government maintained a very harsh penal code towards the Han populace, but it was no more severe than previous Chinese dynasties.
Board of Works
: The Board of Works handled all governmental building projects, including palaces, temples and the repairs of waterways and flood canals. It was also in charge of minting coinage.

From the early Qing, the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule. While the Qing government was established as an
absolute monarchy like previous dynasties in China, by the early 20th century however the Qing court began to move towards a
constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy, also known as limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in making decisions. ...
, with government bodies like the
Advisory Council established and a
parliamentary election
A general election is an electoral process to choose most or all members of a governing body at the same time. They are distinct from by-elections, which fill individual seats that have become vacant between general elections. General elections ...
to
prepare for a constitutional government.
In addition to the six boards, there was a
Lifan Yuan
The Lifan Yuan (; ; Mongolian: Гадаад Монголын төрийг засах явдлын яам, ''γadaγadu mongγul un törü-yi jasaqu yabudal-un yamun'') was an agency in the government of the Qing dynasty of China which administered ...
unique to the Qing government. This institution was established to supervise the administration of Tibet and the Mongol lands. As the empire expanded, it took over administrative responsibility of all minority ethnic groups living in and around the empire, including early contacts with Russia – then seen as a tribute nation. The office had the status of a full ministry and was headed by officials of equal rank. However, appointees were at first restricted only to candidates of Manchu and Mongol ethnicity, until later open to Han Chinese as well.
Even though the Board of Rites and Lifan Yuan performed some duties of a foreign office, they fell short of developing into a professional foreign service. It was not until 1861 – a year after losing the
Second Opium War
The Second Opium War (), also known as the Second Anglo-Chinese War or ''Arrow'' War, was fought between the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and the United States against the Qing dynasty of China between 1856 and 1860. It was the second major ...
to the Anglo-French coalition – that the Qing government bowed to foreign pressure and created a proper foreign affairs office known as the
Zongli Yamen
The ''Zongli Yamen'' (), short for Office for the General Management of Affairs Concerning the Various Countries (), also known as Prime Minister's Office, Office of General Management, was the government body in charge of foreign policy in imp ...
. The office was originally intended to be temporary and was staffed by officials seconded from the Grand Council. However, as dealings with foreigners became increasingly complicated and frequent, the office grew in size and importance, aided by revenue from customs duties which came under its direct jurisdiction.
There was also another government institution called
Imperial Household Department
The Imperial Household Department ( zh, t=內務府, s=内务府, p=Nèiwùfǔ, first=t; mnc, , v=dorgi baita be uheri kadalara yamun) was an institution of the Qing dynasty of China. Its primary purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the ...
which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the
Shunzhi Emperor
The Shunzhi Emperor (15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizu of Qing, personal name Fulin, was the second Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China pro ...
and the accession of his son, the
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 165420 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, personal name Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign of 61 ...
. The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the
inner palace (in which tasks it largely replaced
eunuchs
A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
). Additionally, it also played an important role in managing the relations between the imperial court and the regions of
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
and
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast. It covers an area of , with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by po ...
, both of which were under Qing rule; engaged in trading activities (jade,
ginseng
Ginseng () is the root of plants in the genus ''Panax'', such as South China ginseng (''Panax notoginseng, P. notoginseng''), Korean ginseng (''Panax ginseng, P. ginseng''), and American ginseng (''American ginseng, P. quinquefol ...
, salt, furs, etc.); managed textile factories in the
Jiangnan
Jiangnan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of its delta. The region encompasses the city of Shanghai, the southern part of Jiangsu ...
region; and even published books.
Relations with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants, such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by ''
booi'', or "bondservants," from the Upper Three
Banners
A banner can be a flag or another piece of cloth bearing a symbol, logo, slogan or another message. A flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms (but usually in a square or rectangular shape) is called a banner of arms. Also, ...
. By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.
Administrative divisions

Qing China reached its largest territorial extent during the 18th century, when it ruled over
China proper
China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dyn ...
(Eighteen Provinces),
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...
(
Northeast China
Northeast China () is a geographical region of China, consisting officially of three provinces Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The heartland of the region is the Northeast China Plain, the largest plain in China with an area of over . The regi ...
and
Outer Manchuria
Outer Manchuria, sometimes called Russian Manchuria, refers to a region in Northeast Asia that is now part of the Russian Far East but historically formed part of Manchuria (until the mid-19th century). While Manchuria now more normatively refer ...
),
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast. It covers an area of , with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by po ...
(
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...
and
Outer Mongolia
Outer Mongolia was the name of a territory in the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China from 1691 to 1911. It corresponds to the modern-day independent state of Mongolia and the Russian republic of Tuva. The historical region gained ''de facto'' ...
),
Xinjiang
Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...
,
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
, and
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
, at approximately 13 million km
2 in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all of which in China proper, but later this number was increased to 22, with Manchuria and Xinjiang being divided or turned into regular provinces. Taiwan, originally part of
Fujian
Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...
province, became a province of its own in the 19th century, but was ceded to the
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From Japan–Kor ...
following the
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 189417 April 1895), or the First China–Japan War, was a conflict between the Qing dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan primarily over influence in Joseon, Korea. In Chinese it is commonly known as th ...
by the end of the century. In addition, many surrounding countries, such as the
Joseon dynasty
Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
, the
Later Lê dynasty, the
Tây Sơn dynasty
The Tây Sơn dynasty (; , (chữ Hán: 朝西山; Chữ Nôm: 茹西山), officially Đại Việt (Chữ Hán: 大越), was an imperial dynasty of Vietnam. It originated in a revolt led by three peasant brothers with the surname Nguyễn, r ...
, the
Nguyễn dynasty
The Nguyễn dynasty (, chữ Nôm: 茹阮, chữ Hán: 朝阮) was the last List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, preceded by the Nguyễn lords and ruling unified Vietnam independently from 1802 until French protectorate in 1883 ...
, the
Ryukyu Kingdom
The Ryukyu Kingdom was a kingdom in the Ryukyu Islands from 1429 to 1879. It was ruled as a Tributary system of China, tributary state of Ming dynasty, imperial Ming China by the King of Ryukyu, Ryukyuan monarchy, who unified Okinawa Island t ...
, and the
Katoor dynasty, among many others, were
tributary states of Qing China. During the Qing dynasty, the Chinese claimed suzerainty over the
Taghdumbash Pamir
Taghdumbash Pamir ( or historically ) or Taxkorgan Nature Reserve is a '' pamir'' or high valley in the south west of Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County, in Xinjiang, China. It lies to the west of the Karakoram Highway. It is inhabited by Wakhi, ...
in the south-west of
Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County
Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County (often shortened to Tashkurgan County and officially spelled Taxkorgan) is an autonomous county of Kashgar Prefecture, in western Xinjiang, China. The county seat is Tashkurgan. The county is the only Tajik ...
but permitted the
Mir of Hunza to administer the region in return for tribute. Until 1937 the inhabitants paid tribute to the Mir of Hunza, who exercised control over the pastures.
The
Khanate of Kokand
The Khanate of Kokand was a Central Asian polity in the Fergana Valley centred on the city of Kokand between 1709 and 1876. It was ruled by the Ming tribe of Uzbeks. Its territory is today divided between Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, a ...
were forced to submit as
protectorate
A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over ...
and pay tribute to the Qing China between 1774 and 1798.
# Northern and southern circuits of
Tian Shan
The Tian Shan, also known as the Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too, meaning the "Mountains of God/Heaven", is a large system of mountain ranges in Central Asia. The highest peak is Jengish Chokusu at high and located in Kyrgyzstan. Its lowest point is ...
(later became
Xinjiang
Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...
province) – sometimes the small semi-autonomous
Kumul Khanate
The Kumul Khanate was a semi-autonomous feudal Turco-Mongol khanate (equivalent to a banner in Mongolia) within the Qing dynasty and then the Republic of China until it was abolished by Xinjiang governor Jin Shuren in 1930. The khanate was locat ...
and Turfan Khanate are placed into an "Eastern Circuit"
#
Outer Mongolia
Outer Mongolia was the name of a territory in the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China from 1691 to 1911. It corresponds to the modern-day independent state of Mongolia and the Russian republic of Tuva. The historical region gained ''de facto'' ...
–
Khalkha
The Khalkha (; ) have been the largest subgroup of the Mongols in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos Mongols, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin khans until the 20th century. In cont ...
,
Kobdo league,
Köbsgöl,
Tannu Urianha
#
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...
– 6 leagues (Jirim, Josotu, Juu Uda, Shilingol, Ulaan Chab, Ihe Juu)
# Other Mongolian leagues – Alshaa khoshuu (League-level khoshuu), Ejine khoshuu, Ili khoshuu (in
Xinjiang
Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...
),
Köke Nuur league; directly ruled areas:
Dariganga (Special region designated as emperor's pasture),
Guihua Tümed,
Chakhar,
Hulunbuir
Hulunbuir or Hulun Buir, ''Hūlúnbèi'ěr''; , ''Khulunbuir'' is a prefecture-level city in northeastern Inner Mongolia, China. Its administrative center is located at Hailar District, its largest urban area. Major scenic features are the high ...
#
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
(
Ü-Tsang
Ü-Tsang (དབུས་གཙང་། Wylie; dbus gtsang) is one of the three Tibetan regions, the others being Amdo to the northeast and Kham to the east. Geographically Ü-Tsang covers the Yarlung Tsanpo drainage basin, the western dist ...
and western
Kham
Kham (; ) is one of the three traditional Tibet, Tibetan regions, the others being Domey also known as Amdo in the northeast, and Ü-Tsang in central Tibet. The official name of this Tibetan region/province is Dotoe (). The original residents of ...
, approximately the area of present-day
Tibet Autonomous Region
The Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), often shortened to Tibet in English or Xizang in Pinyin, Hanyu Pinyin, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China. It was established in 1965 to replace the ...
)
#
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...
(Northeast China, later became provinces)
* Eighteen provinces (''
China proper
China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dyn ...
'' provinces)
#
Zhili
Zhili, alternately romanized as Chihli, was a northern administrative region of China since the 14th century that lasted through the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty until 1911, when the region was dissolved, converted to a province, and renamed ...
#
Henan
Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...
#
Shandong
Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...
#
Shanxi
Shanxi; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanised as Shansi is a Provinces of China, province in North China. Its capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level cities are Changzhi a ...
#
Shaanxi
Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...
#
Gansu
Gansu is a provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeastern part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibetan Plateau, Ti ...
#
Hubei
Hubei is a province of China, province in Central China. It has the List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP, seventh-largest economy among Chinese provinces, the second-largest within Central China, and the third-largest among inland ...
#
Hunan
Hunan is an inland Provinces of China, province in Central China. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the Administrative divisions of China, province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to the east, Gu ...
#
Guangdong
) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...
#
Guangxi
Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
#
Sichuan
Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...
#
Yunnan
Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
#
Guizhou
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption =
, image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province
, map_caption = Map s ...
#
Jiangsu
Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
#
Jiangxi
; Gan: )
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 =
, translit_lang1_type3 =
, translit_lang1_info3 =
, image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_caption = Location ...
#
Zhejiang
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
#
Fujian
Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...
(incl.
Taiwan Prefecture
Taiwan Prefecture or Taiwanfu was a prefecture of Taiwan during the Qing dynasty. The prefecture was established by the Qing government in 1684, after the island came under Qing dynasty rule in 1683 following its conquest of the Kingdom of Tun ...
until 1885)
#
Anhui
Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...
* Additional provinces in the late Qing dynasty
#
Gansu-Xinjiang
#
Fujian-Taiwan (until 1895)
#
Fengtian
#
Jilin
)
, image_skyline = Changbaishan Tianchi from western rim.jpg
, image_alt =
, image_caption = View of Heaven Lake
, image_map = Jilin in China (+all claims hatched).svg
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, map_al ...
#
Heilongjiang
Heilongjiang is a province in northeast China. It is the northernmost and easternmost province of the country and contains China's northernmost point (in Mohe City along the Amur) and easternmost point (at the confluence of the Amur and Us ...
Provincial administration
There were 18 provinces in the early Qing dynasty later joined by 3 in Manchuria, Taiwan and Xinjiang. Amongst the original 18 provinces there were 8 viceroys, 18 governors, 19 finance commissioners, 18 judicial commissioners, 92 circuit-intendants, 185 prefects, 41 first-class independent sub-prefects and 72 of the second class and 1,554 magistrates. These 2,000 officials formed the Zhengyin or principal officials, the other officials were known as the accessory officials (Zuo er) who were appointed to assist the principal such as an assistant prefect. The accessory officials could carry out all the functions of the principal they were seconded to except to hear a case and listen to litigants. There were 3,138 accessory officials in the provinces.
Viceroys, governors and financial/judicial commissioners were directly appointed by the emperor with lower ranks either recommended to the emperor, sent by the Board of Civil appointments or appointed direcrly by the provincial authorities above them. A viceroy would hold many ranks
ex-officio
An ''ex officio'' member is a member of a body (notably a board, committee, or council) who is part of it by virtue of holding another office. The term ''List of Latin phrases (E)#ex officio, ex officio'' is Latin, meaning literally 'from the off ...
such as junior censor-general and minister of war with a governor being a junior associate censor-general and vice-minister of war. The viceroys of Zhili and Liangjiang were also ministers of Beiyang and Nanyang, respectively. The reason for the consolidation of titles was to give the viceroys and governors the necessary powers to consolidate necessary authority in one man and to allow for general co-ordination to occur the appointment as minister allowed them to bypass official regulation and directly address the emperor, their status as a censor-general allowed them to report on conditions outside of their domain something they could not do without being a censor. Theoretically, a viceroy was half a rank above the governor but with many viceroys and governors residing within the same city struggles between them were common for influence and control and often one would be transferred elsewhere this system of joint residence was a part of the inherent checks and balances placed within the administration by the Qing dynasty as those residing within the same city needed to present joint signatures on documents and often where both resided within the same city one would be Manchu and the other Chinese. However, as the dynasty progressed many viceroys became concurrent governors of the city they resided within.
Viceroys and governors increasingly attempted to centralise their powers and reduce Central Government oversight towards the end of the dynasty though they still remained easily dismissable according to the Imperial will even Li Hongzhang the most powerful viceroy and viceroy of Zhili the region most immediate to the capital was dismissed following his failure in the First Sino-Japanese war. It was also common for officials to be rotated every three years as per the law of avoidance to avoid regional ties between officials and the regions they governed.
Territorial administration

The Qing organization of
provinces
A province is an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman , which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions outside Italy. The term ''provi ...
was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming dynasty, later made into eighteen provinces by splitting for example,
Huguang
Huguang was a province of China during the Yuan and Ming dynasties. It was founded by the Yuan dynasty in 1274. During the Yuan dynasty it included the areas of modern Hubei south of the Yangtze river, Hunan, Guizhou, and Guangxi. During the Min ...
into Hubei and Hunan provinces. The provincial bureaucracy continued the Yuan and Ming practice of three parallel lines, civil, military, and
censorate
The Censorate was a high-level supervisory agency in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China, first established during the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). It was a highly effective agency during the Mongols, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ( ...
, or surveillance. Each province was administered by a
governor
A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...
(, ''xunfu'') and a
provincial military commander (, ''Provincial commander in chief''). Below the province were
prefectures
A prefecture (from the Latin word, "''praefectura"'') is an administrative jurisdiction traditionally governed by an appointed prefect. This can be a regional or local government subdivision in various countries, or a subdivision in certain inter ...
(, ''fu'') operating under a prefect (, ''zhīfǔ''), followed by
subprefectures under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the
county
A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...
, overseen by a
county magistrate
The county magistrate or local magistrate, known by several Chinese names, was the official in charge of the '' xian'' ("county"), the lowest level of central government in Imperial and early Republican China. The magistrate was the official ...
. The eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of
viceroy
A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory.
The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the Anglo-Norman ''roy'' (Old Frenc ...
or governor-general (, ''zongdu'') was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The
viceroy of Zhili
The Viceroy of Zhili, officially in Chinese as the Governor-General of the Directly Subordinate Province and Other Local Areas, in Charge of Military Affairs, Food and Wages, Management of Rivers and Governor Affairs, was one of eight regional ...
, who was responsible for the area surrounding the capital
Beijing
Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
, is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight.
#
Viceroy of Zhili
The Viceroy of Zhili, officially in Chinese as the Governor-General of the Directly Subordinate Province and Other Local Areas, in Charge of Military Affairs, Food and Wages, Management of Rivers and Governor Affairs, was one of eight regional ...
in charge of
Zhili
Zhili, alternately romanized as Chihli, was a northern administrative region of China since the 14th century that lasted through the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty until 1911, when the region was dissolved, converted to a province, and renamed ...
#
Viceroy of Shaan-Ganin charge of
Shaanxi
Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...
and
Gansu
Gansu is a provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeastern part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibetan Plateau, Ti ...
#
Viceroy of Liangjiang
The Viceroy of Liangjiang, fully named in Chinese as the Governor-General of the Two River Provinces and Other Local Admirals, in Charge of Military Affairs, Food and Wages, Management of Rivers, and Administration on Nanhe Affairs, was one of e ...
in charge of
Jiangsu
Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
,
Jiangxi
; Gan: )
, translit_lang1_type2 =
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, translit_lang1_info3 =
, image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
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, and
Anhui
Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...
#
Viceroy of Huguang
The Viceroy of Huguang, fully in Chinese as the Governor-General of Hubei, Hunan and Other Local Areas, in Charge of Military Affairs, Food and Wages and Governor Affairs, was one of eight regional Viceroys in China#Qing dynasty, Viceroys during ...
in charge of
Hubei
Hubei is a province of China, province in Central China. It has the List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP, seventh-largest economy among Chinese provinces, the second-largest within Central China, and the third-largest among inland ...
and
Hunan
Hunan is an inland Provinces of China, province in Central China. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the Administrative divisions of China, province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to the east, Gu ...
#
Viceroy of Sichuan
The Viceroy of Sichuan, fully in Chinese as the Governor-General of Sichuan and Other Local Areas, in Charge of Military Affairs, Food and Wages and Governor Affairs, was one of eight regional Viceroys in China#Qing dynasty, Viceroys during the ...
in charge of
Sichuan
Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...
#
Viceroy of Min-Zhein charge of
Fujian
Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...
,
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
, and
Zhejiang
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
#
Viceroy of Liangguang
The Viceroy of Liangguang, fully in Chinese as the Governor-General of Two Guang Provinces and Other Local Areas, in Charge of Military Affairs, Food and Wages and Governor Affairs, was one of eight regional Viceroys during the Ming and Qing d ...
in charge of
Guangdong
) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...
and
Guangxi
Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
#
Viceroy of Yun-Gui
The Viceroy of Yun-Gui, fully in Chinese as the Governor-General of Yun-Gui Provinces and Other Local Areas, in Charge of Military Affairs, Food and Wages and Governor Affairs, was one of eight regional Viceroys in China#Qing dynasty, Viceroys d ...
in charge of
Yunnan
Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
and
Guizhou
)
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By the mid-18th century, the Qing had successfully put outer regions such as
Inner and
Outer Mongolia
Outer Mongolia was the name of a territory in the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China from 1691 to 1911. It corresponds to the modern-day independent state of Mongolia and the Russian republic of Tuva. The historical region gained ''de facto'' ...
,
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
and
Xinjiang
Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...
under its control.
Imperial commissioners and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs. These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called
Lifan Yuan
The Lifan Yuan (; ; Mongolian: Гадаад Монголын төрийг засах явдлын яам, ''γadaγadu mongγul un törü-yi jasaqu yabudal-un yamun'') was an agency in the government of the Qing dynasty of China which administered ...
.
Qinghai
Qinghai is an inland Provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. It is the largest provinces of China, province of China (excluding autonomous regions) by area and has the third smallest population. Its capital and largest city is Xin ...
was also put under direct control of the Qing court. Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the
Tian Shan
The Tian Shan, also known as the Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too, meaning the "Mountains of God/Heaven", is a large system of mountain ranges in Central Asia. The highest peak is Jengish Chokusu at high and located in Kyrgyzstan. Its lowest point is ...
mountains, also known today as
Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand'), also known as Northern Xinjiang or Beijiang, is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. Bound by the Altai Mountains to the n ...
and
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Xinjiang, Northwestern China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, Ch ...
respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions. Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning. Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by
Jahangir Khoja
Jahanghir Khoja, Jāhangīr Khwāja or Jihangir Khoja (, جهانگير خوجة; ; 1788 – 25 June 1828), was a member of the influential Afaqi khoja clan, who managed to wrest Kashgaria from the Qing Empire's power for a few years in t ...
in the 1820s. Likewise,
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...
was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces, though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
in the mid-19th century. Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner
Willow Palisade
Willow Palisade (; mnc, m=, v=Biregen Jase, ᠠ=Biregen Jase) was a system of ditches and embankments that was planted with willows, was intended to restrict movement into Manchuria (including Northeast China and Outer Manchuria), and was built ...
, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s.

With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
and protector of
Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. During
The Great Game
The Great Game was a rivalry between the 19th-century British and Russian empires over influence in Central Asia, primarily in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. The two colonial empires used military interventions and diplomatic negotiations t ...
era, taking advantage of the
Dungan Revolt in northwest China,
Yaqub Beg invaded Xinjiang from Central Asia and made himself the ruler of the kingdom of
Kashgar
Kashgar () or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is a city in the Tarim Basin region of southern Xinjiang, China. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, located near the country's border with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. For over 2,000 years, Kashgar ...
ia. The Qing court sent forces to defeat Yaqub Beg and Xinjiang was reconquered, and then the political system of China proper was formally applied onto Xinjiang. The
Kumul Khanate
The Kumul Khanate was a semi-autonomous feudal Turco-Mongol khanate (equivalent to a banner in Mongolia) within the Qing dynasty and then the Republic of China until it was abolished by Xinjiang governor Jin Shuren in 1930. The khanate was locat ...
, which was incorporated into the Qing empire as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the
Xinhai Revolution
The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, ended China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). The revolution was the culmination of a decade ...
up until 1930. In 1904, the
British expedition to Tibet
The British expedition to Tibet, also known as the Younghusband expedition, began in December 1903 and lasted until September 1904. The expedition was effectively a temporary invasion by British Indian Army, British Indian Armed Forces under th ...
resulted in the Tibetans signing the
Convention of Lhasa with Britain. The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet.
Furthermore, similar to Xinjiang which was converted into a province earlier, the Qing government also turned Manchuria into three provinces in the early 20th century, officially known as the "
Three Northeast Provinces", and established the post of
Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces to oversee these provinces, making the total number of regional viceroys to nine.
See also
*
Government of the Han dynasty
*
Government of the Ming dynasty
The government of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was modeled after the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Over time, the government system changed and adapted to circumstances. The Ming government was traditionally divided into three branches—civil, mili ...
*
Political systems of Imperial China
The political systems of Chinese Empire, Imperial China can be divided into a state administrative body, provincial administrations, and a system for official selection. The three notable tendencies in the history of Chinese politics includes, t ...
*
List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty
While the Qing dynasty of China tried to maintain the traditional tributary system of China, by the 19th century Qing China had become part of a European-style community of sovereign states and had established official diplomatic relations with mo ...
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
{{Chinese Imperial Government
Qing dynasty
Government of Imperial China