''Psilocybe'' ( ) is a
genus
Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
of gilled
mushrooms
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. ''Toadstool'' generally refers to a poisonous mushroom.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is ...
, growing worldwide, in the family
Hymenogastraceae
The Hymenogastraceae is a family of fungi in the order Agaricales with both agaric and false-truffle shaped fruitbodies. Formerly, prior to molecular analyses, the family was restricted to the false-truffle genera. The mushroom genus '' Psilo ...
. Many species contain the
psychedelic
Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips") and a perceived "expansion of consciousness". Also referred to as classic halluci ...
compounds
psilocybin
Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), is a natural product, naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and Investigational New Drug, investigational drug found in more than List of psilocybin mushroom ...
and
psilocin
Psilocin, also known as 4-hydroxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (4-HO-DMT), is a substituted tryptamine alkaloid and a serotonergic psychedelic. It is present in most psychedelic mushrooms together with its phosphorylated counterpart psilocy ...
.
Taxonomy
Taxonomic history

A 2002 study of the
molecular phylogeny
Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...
of the agarics
indicated the genus ''Psilocybe'' as then defined was
polyphyletic
A polyphyletic group is an assemblage that includes organisms with mixed evolutionary origin but does not include their most recent common ancestor. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as Homoplasy, homoplasies ...
, falling into two distinct
clades
In biology, a clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. Clades are the fundamental unit of cladistics, a modern approach to taxonomy ...
that are not directly related to each other. The blue-staining
hallucinogenic
Hallucinogens, also known as psychedelics, entheogens, or historically as psychotomimetics, are a large and diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, moo ...
species constituted one clade and the non-bluing species the other. The previous
type species
In International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature, zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the spe ...
of the genus, ''Psilocybe '' (now ''
Deconica montana
''Deconica montana'', commonly known as the mountain moss Psilocybe, is a common species of mushroom. Its appearance is that of a typical " little brown mushroom" with a small, brown cap and a straight, thin stipe. It usually grows in mossy and ...
''), was in the non-bluing clade, but in 2010, the type species was changed to ''
P. semilanceata'', a member of the bluing clade. A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of the
Agaricales
The Agaricales are an order (biology), order of fungi in the division (mycology), division Basidiomycota. As originally conceived, the order contained all the agarics (gilled mushrooms), but subsequent research has shown that not all agarics are ...
by Matheny and colleagues, further demonstrated the separation of the bluing and non-bluing clades of ''Psilocybe'' in a larger, strongly supported phylogenetic tree of the Agaricales.
''Psilocybe'' had been placed
taxonomically in the agaric family
Strophariaceae
The Strophariaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Under an older classification, the family covered 18 genera and 1316 species. The species of Strophariaceae have red-brown to dark brown spore prints, while the spores themselves a ...
based upon its
spore
In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual reproduction, sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for biological dispersal, dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores fo ...
and
pileipellis
The pileipellis is the uppermost layer of hyphae in the pileus of a fungal fruit body. It covers the trama, the fleshy tissue of the fruit body. The pileipellis is more or less synonymous with the cuticle, but the cuticle generally describes ...
morphology. The phylogenetic study by Matheny ''et al.'', placed the non-bluing ''Psilocybe'' and its close relatives in a
basal position within the Strophariaceae, a
sister taxon
In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree.
Definition
The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram:
Taxon A and ...
to a clade containing the other genera within that family. The bluing ''Psilocybe'', however, form a clade that is sister to ''
Galerina
''Galerina'' is a genus of small brown-spore saprobic mushroom-bearing fungi, with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote Macquarie Island in the Southern Ocean. The genus is most noted for some extremely poison ...
'' in the newly revised family,
Hymenogastraceae
The Hymenogastraceae is a family of fungi in the order Agaricales with both agaric and false-truffle shaped fruitbodies. Formerly, prior to molecular analyses, the family was restricted to the false-truffle genera. The mushroom genus '' Psilo ...
which used to be restricted to secotioid, false-truffles.
The phylogenetic study by Moncalvo, ''et al.'' confirmed that the agaric genus ''Melanotus'' is simply a subgroup of the non-bluing ''Psilocybe'', all of which are placed in ''
Deconica
''Deconica'' is a genus of mushroom-forming fungi in the family Strophariaceae. It was formerly considered synonym (taxonomy), synonymous with ''Psilocybe'' until molecular phylogenetics, molecular studies showed that genus to be polyphyletic, ma ...
'', and also pointed to a close relationship between the latter genus and the genera ''
Kuehneromyces
''Kuehneromyces'' is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Strophariaceae. The genus was circumscribed by mycologists Rolf Singer and Alexander H. Smith in 1946.
The genus name of ''Kuehneromyces'' is in honour of Robert Kühner (1903-1996), wh ...
'' and ''
Phaeogalera
''Phaeogalera'' is a small genus of slender, fleshy bog and swamp-inhabiting mushrooms with large, brownish spores with a germ pore and a hymenium lacking chrysocystidia. ''Phaeogalera'' resemble ''Galerina'' in their habitat, macroscopic appear ...
''.
Modern classification
In 2007, a paper by Redhead ''et al.'' proposed
conserving the genus ''Psilocybe'' with ''Psilocybe semilanceata'' as its type species.
The suggestion was accepted by unanimous vote of the
Nomenclature Committee for Fungi
International Botanical Congress (IBC) is an international meeting of botanists in all scientific fields, authorized by the International Association of Botanical and Mycological Societies (IABMS) and held every six years, with the location rotati ...
of the International Botanical Congress in 2010, meaning that ''P. semilanceata'' (a member of the bluing clade) now serves as the type species of the genus.
Since ''P. semilanceata'' is now the type species of the genus, the bluing hallucinogenic clade remained in the genus ''Psilocybe'' (
Hymenogastraceae
The Hymenogastraceae is a family of fungi in the order Agaricales with both agaric and false-truffle shaped fruitbodies. Formerly, prior to molecular analyses, the family was restricted to the false-truffle genera. The mushroom genus '' Psilo ...
) while the non-bluing clade were transferred to the genus ''
Deconica
''Deconica'' is a genus of mushroom-forming fungi in the family Strophariaceae. It was formerly considered synonym (taxonomy), synonymous with ''Psilocybe'' until molecular phylogenetics, molecular studies showed that genus to be polyphyletic, ma ...
'' (
Strophariaceae
The Strophariaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Under an older classification, the family covered 18 genera and 1316 species. The species of Strophariaceae have red-brown to dark brown spore prints, while the spores themselves a ...
).
However, it has been demonstrated that ''
P. fuscofulva'', a species which used to be known as ''P. atrobrunnea'', belongs to the genus ''Psilocybe'' s.s., but does not contain psychotropic compounds. Negative results have also been published for ''
P. fimetaria''.
Etymology
The genus name ''Psilocybe'' is a compound of the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
elements ψιλός (''psilós'') "bare" / "naked" and κύβη (''kúbe'') "head" / "swelling",
giving the meaning "bare-headed" (i.e.
bald
Hair loss, also known as alopecia or baldness, refers to a loss of hair from part of the head or body. Typically at least the head is involved. The severity of hair loss can vary from a small area to the entire body. Inflammation or scarring ...
) referring to the mushroom's detachable pellicle (loose skin over the cap), which can resemble a bald pate.
Description

''Psilocybe''
fruit bodies
The sporocarp (also known as fruiting body, fruit body or fruitbody) of fungi is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruitbody is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cyc ...
are generally small, undistinguished mushrooms with a typical "
little brown mushroom"
morphology
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to:
Disciplines
*Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts
*Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, ...
. Macroscopically, they are characterized by their small to occasionally medium size, brown to yellow-brown coloration, with a
hygrophanous The adjective hygrophanous refers to the color change of mushroom tissue (especially the pileus surface) as it loses or absorbs water, which causes the pileipellis
The pileipellis is the uppermost layer of hyphae in the pileus of a fungal fr ...
cap
A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. The origin of the word "cap" comes from the Old French word "chapeau" which means "head co ...
, and a
spore print
300px, Making a spore print of the mushroom ''Volvariella volvacea'' shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing warm orange ("tussock") color spore print. ...
-color that ranges from lilac-brown to dark purple-brown (though rusty-brown colored varieties are known in at least one species). Hallucinogenic species typically have a blue-staining reaction when the fruit body is bruised. Microscopically, they are characterized by
pileipellis
The pileipellis is the uppermost layer of hyphae in the pileus of a fungal fruit body. It covers the trama, the fleshy tissue of the fruit body. The pileipellis is more or less synonymous with the cuticle, but the cuticle generally describes ...
with hyphae that run parallel to the pileus surface, forming a ''cutis'', by their lack of
chrysocystidia
A cystidium (: cystidia) is a relatively large cell found on the sporocarp of a basidiomycete (for example, on the surface of a mushroom gill), often between clusters of basidia. Since cystidia have highly varied and distinct shapes that are oft ...
, and by
spores
In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plant ...
which are smooth, ellipsoid to rhomboid to subhexagonal in shape, with a distinct apical
germ pore
A germ pore is a small pore in the outer wall of a fungal spore through which the germ tube exits upon germination. It can be wikt:apical, apical or eccentric in its location, and, on light microscopy, may be visualized as a lighter coloured are ...
. Ecologically, all species of ''Psilocybe'' are
saprotrophs, growing on various kinds of decaying organic matter.
Distribution and habitat

Geographically, species in this genus are found throughout the world in most
biome
A biome () is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, and animal life. It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional climate. In 1935, Tansley added the ...
s. The greatest species diversity seems to be in the
neotropics
The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone.
Definition
In biogeog ...
, from
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area that begins in the southern part of North America and extends to the Pacific coast of Central America, thus comprising the lands of central and southern Mexico, all of Belize, Guatemala, El S ...
through
Brazil
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in South America. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, fifth-largest country by area and the List of countries and dependencies by population ...
and
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...
.
''Psilocybe'' are found in a variety of
habitat
In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...
s and
substrate
Substrate may refer to:
Physical layers
*Substrate (biology), the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the surface or medium on which an organism grows or is attached
** Substrate (aquatic environment), the earthy material that exi ...
s. Many of the species found in
temperate regions
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
, such as ''
Psilocybe cyanescens
''Psilocybe cyanescens'', commonly known as the wavy cap or potent psilocybe, is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. The main compounds responsible for its psychedelic effects are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the family Hymenogas ...
'', seem to have an affinity for
landscaped
Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic design and general engineering of various structures for constructi ...
areas
mulch
A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. Reasons for applying mulch include conservation of soil moisture, improving soil fertility, fertility and health of the soil, reducing Weed control, weed growth, and enhancing the v ...
ed with
woodchips
Woodchips are small- to medium-sized pieces of wood formed by cutting or chipping larger pieces of wood such as trees, branches, logging residues, Tree stump, stumps, roots, and wood waste.
Woodchips may be used as a biomass solid fuel and are r ...
and are actually rather rare in natural settings removed from human habitation. Contrary to popular belief, only a minority of ''Psilocybe'' species, such as ''
P. cubensis'' and ''
P. subcubensis'', grow directly on
feces
Feces (also known as faeces American and British English spelling differences#ae and oe, or fæces; : faex) are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the ...
. Many other species are found in habitats such as
moss
Mosses are small, non-vascular plant, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic phylum, division Bryophyta (, ) ''sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Wilhelm Philippe Schimper, Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryo ...
y,
grass
Poaceae ( ), also called Gramineae ( ), is a large and nearly ubiquitous family (biology), family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos, the grasses of natural grassland and spe ...
y, or
forest
A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense ecological community, community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, ...
humus
In classical soil science, humus is the dark organic matter in soil that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter. It is a kind of soil organic matter. It is rich in nutrients and retains moisture in the soil. Humus is the Lati ...
soil
Soil, also commonly referred to as earth, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, water, and organisms that together support the life of plants and soil organisms. Some scientific definitions distinguish dirt from ''soil'' by re ...
s. ''Psilocybe'' arose about 65 million years ago. In 2024, two new ''Psilocybe'' species (Hymenogastraceae), ''P. ingeli'' and ''P. maluti'', were described from southern Africa.
Psychoactivity
Biochemistry and pharmacology

The
psilocybin
Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), is a natural product, naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and Investigational New Drug, investigational drug found in more than List of psilocybin mushroom ...
molecule is indirectly responsible for the hallucinogenic properties of the ''Psilocybe''. This compound, as well as all other
indole
Indole is an organic compound with the formula . Indole is classified as an aromatic heterocycle. It has a bicyclic structure, consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring. Indoles are derivatives of indole ...
alkaloids, are derived from the amino acid
tryptophan
Tryptophan (symbol Trp or W)
is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Tryptophan contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic acid group, and a side chain indole, making it a polar molecule with a non-polar aromat ...
, being the only amino acid with the indole-amine ring. Tryptophan is converted to
tryptamine
Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid tryptophan. The chemical structure is defined by an indole—a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with the firs ...
by
decarboxylation
Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide (CO2). Usually, decarboxylation refers to a reaction of carboxylic acids, removing a carbon atom from a carbon chain. The reverse process, which is ...
.
Two methylation steps occur producing
DMT
Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), also known as ''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (''N'',''N''-DMT), is a serotonergic hallucinogen and investigational drug of the tryptamine family that occurs naturally in many plants and animals, including humans. D ...
, another psychedelic compound.
Hydroxylation of this compound produces the more potent hallucinogen
psilocin
Psilocin, also known as 4-hydroxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (4-HO-DMT), is a substituted tryptamine alkaloid and a serotonergic psychedelic. It is present in most psychedelic mushrooms together with its phosphorylated counterpart psilocy ...
, followed by phosphorylation yielding
psilocybin
Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), is a natural product, naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and Investigational New Drug, investigational drug found in more than List of psilocybin mushroom ...
.
After ingestion of the psilocybin compound
alkaline phosphatase
The enzyme alkaline phosphatase (ALP, alkaline phenyl phosphatase, also abbreviated PhoA) is a phosphatase with the physiological role of dephosphorylating compounds. The enzyme is found across a multitude of organisms, prokaryotes and eukaryo ...
s present in the body's digestive system, kidneys, and possibly in the blood readily cleave the phosphoryl ester bond from psilocybin, yielding the hydroxyl compound, psilocin.
Psilocin is the chemical primarily responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of the ''Psilocybe''.
The blue-staining species of ''Psilocybe'' are characterized by the presence of psilocin and psilocybin. This blue-staining reaction occurs after the fruit body has been injured, particularly near the base of the stalk.
This reaction is thought to be due to the
oxidation
Redox ( , , reduction–oxidation or oxidation–reduction) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of the reactants change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is ...
of psilocybin after the outer surface of the fruit body has been breached. The degree of bluing in a ''Psilocybe'' fruit body roughly correlates with the concentration of psilocin in the mushroom. Psilocybin is chemically far more stable than psilocin, the latter compound being largely lost when the mushroom is heated or dried.
The chemical structure of
serotonin
Serotonin (), also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a monoamine neurotransmitter with a wide range of functions in both the central nervous system (CNS) and also peripheral tissues. It is involved in mood, cognition, reward, learning, ...
, a
neurotransmitter
A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a Chemical synapse, synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell.
Neurotra ...
, is similar to that of psilocin. The latter differs mainly by the location of one of the hydroxyls, and the addition of two methyl groups that make the molecule
lipophilic
Lipophilicity (from Greek language, Greek λίπος "fat" and :wikt:φίλος, φίλος "friendly") is the ability of a chemical compound to dissolve in fats, oils, lipids, and non-polar solvents such as hexane or toluene. Such compounds are c ...
(fat soluble), ergo capable of crossing the
lipid membrane
The lipid bilayer (or phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes form a continuous barrier around all cells. The cell membranes of almost all organisms and many viruses are made of a l ...
sheaths of the
central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity o ...
.
After psilocybin has been ingested and dephosphorylated, to psilocin, the mechanism it uses in the brain has a direct
agonist
An agonist is a chemical that activates a Receptor (biochemistry), receptor to produce a biological response. Receptors are Cell (biology), cellular proteins whose activation causes the cell to modify what it is currently doing. In contrast, an R ...
effect on the 5-HT
serotonin receptor
5-HT receptors, 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors, or serotonin receptors, are a group of G protein-coupled receptor and ligand-gated ion channels found in multiple tissues including the central and peripheral nervous systems. They mediate both ex ...
s.
To explain this effect, the psilocin molecule essentially mimics the serotonin molecule, binding to the 5-HT receptors and initiating the same response as the serotonin. This effect explains the euphoria experienced by ingestion of this "agonist." Initially, hallucinogens were thought to blockade these serotonin neurotransmitters, but persistent research led to this agonist effect conclusion.
Woolley and Campbell conducted research to determine whether the depletion of the hormone serotonin had a direct effect on mental disorders and that hallucinations might be due to an excess of serotonin.
Their results led them to study chemicals analogous to serotonin. They found that the psychoactive chemicals psilocybin and psilocin exhibited serotonin-like effects, however as dosage increased, these compounds acted as serotonin antagonists, psilocybin being comparable to the most potent antagonist yet discovered.
This is a plausible basis for the psychological effects of these hallucinogenic compounds.
Even though these chemicals are psychoactive and therefore the
basidiomycete
Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basid ...
deemed toxic, there have been no reports of fatalities or induced internal organ damage directly associated with ingestion of these chemicals.
Misidentification of the fruit body could lead to ingestion of a lethal fungus.
Some psychoactive species contain
baeocystin
Baeocystin, also known as norpsilocybin or 4-phosphoryloxy-''N''-methyltryptamine (4-PO-NMT), is a zwitterionic alkaloid and analogue of psilocybin. It is found as a minor compound in most psilocybin mushrooms together with psilocybin, norbaeo ...
,
norbaeocystin and
β‐carboline monoamine oxidase inhibitors in addition to psilocin and psilocybin.
Medical and psychiatric aspects
The medicinal uses of the ''Psilocybe'' was recorded by Native Americans of Central America. Shamans, or
curanderas would avidly ingest the "sacred mushrooms" for the extrasensory perceptual effects it gave them in order to better assess problems faced in their society.
The observed effects of the alkaloids found in these mushrooms has given rise to research into their possible uses for psychiatric medicine.
For details on contemporary research, see:
Psilocybin: Medical research.
History and ethnography

Hallucinogenic species of ''Psilocybe'' have a long history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from
pre-Columbian
In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era, also known as the pre-contact era, or as the pre-Cabraline era specifically in Brazil, spans from the initial peopling of the Americas in the Upper Paleolithic to the onset of European col ...
times up to the present day. Hallucinogenic ''Psilocybe'' were known to the aboriginal
Mexicans
Mexicans () are the citizens and nationals of the Mexico, United Mexican States. The Mexican people have varied origins with the most spoken language being Spanish language, Spanish, but many also speak languages from 68 different Languages o ...
as ''teonanácatl'' (literally "divine mushroom")
and were reportedly served at the coronation of
Moctezuma II
Moctezuma Xocoyotzin . ( – 29 June 1520), retroactively referred to in European sources as Moctezuma II, and often simply called Montezuma,Other variant spellings include Moctezuma, Motewksomah, Motecuhzomatzin, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma, Motē ...
in 1502. After the
Spanish conquest of the Americas
The Spanish colonization of the Americas began in 1493 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic) after the initial 1492 voyage of Genoa, Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus under license from Queen Isabella ...
, the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, like other pre-
Christian
A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
traditions, was forcibly suppressed and driven underground.
By the 20th century, hallucinogenic mushroom use was thought by non-
Native Americans to have disappeared entirely. However, in 1955,
Valentina Wasson and
R. Gordon Wasson became the first
Westerners to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in ''
Life
Life, also known as biota, refers to matter that has biological processes, such as Cell signaling, signaling and self-sustaining processes. It is defined descriptively by the capacity for homeostasis, Structure#Biological, organisation, met ...
'' in 1957.
In 1956,
Roger Heim
Roger Heim (February 12, 1900 – September 17, 1979) was a French botanist specialising in mycology and tropical phytopathology. He was known for his studies describing the anatomy of the mushroom hymenium, the systematics and phylogeny of highe ...
identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as ''Psilocybe'' and in 1958,
Albert Hofmann
Albert Hofmann (11 January 1906 – 29 April 2008) was a Swiss chemist known for being the first to synthesize, ingest, and learn of the psychedelic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hofmann's team also isolated, named and synthesi ...
first reported psilocin and psilocybin as the active compound in these mushrooms.
There is some skepticism as to whether or not these "sacred mushrooms" were actually in the genus ''Psilocybe''. However, according to Heim's research in Mexico, he identified three species of ''Psilocybe'' that he believed were used in these native ceremonies. The species identified by Heim were; ''P. mexicana, P. caerulescens'', and ''P. zapotecorum''.
are a variety of ''Psilocybe'' mushrooms that make up the ''teonanácatl'' group of hallucinogenic mushrooms, including ''P. cubensis''.
Isauro Nava Garcia, a Mazatec man, provided guidance to Heim while Heim conducted his field and culture work.
Garcia was an avid observer of the fungi in his environment while identifying specific characteristics about the fruit body of the ''Psilocybe'' his ancestors utilized, as well as knowing where they could be found.
At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of
Nahua
The Nahuas ( ) are a Uto-Nahuan ethnicity and one of the Indigenous people of Mexico, with Nahua minorities also in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. They comprise the largest Indigenous group in Mexico, as well as ...
,
Mixtecs
The Mixtecs (), or Mixtecos, are Indigenous Mesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as La Mixteca of Oaxaca and Puebla as well as La Montaña Region and Costa Chica Regions of the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec culture w ...
,
Mixe,
Mazatec
The Mazatec are an Indigenous people of Mexico who inhabit the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca and some communities in the adjacent states of Puebla and Veracruz.
Some researchers have theorized that the Mazatec, along with Popoloca spea ...
s,
Zapotecs, and others.
The popularization of
entheogens
Entheogens are psychoactive substances used in spiritual and religious contexts to induce altered states of consciousness. Hallucinogens such as the psilocybin found in so-called "magic" mushrooms have been used in sacred contexts since ancien ...
by Wasson,
Timothy Leary
Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 – May 31, 1996) was an American psychologist and author known for his strong advocacy of psychedelic drugs. Evaluations of Leary are polarized, ranging from "bold oracle" to "publicity hound". Accordin ...
, and others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic ''Psilocybe'' throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a number of psychoactive ''Psilocybe'' species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating ''P. cubensis'' in large quantities were also published. The relatively easy availability of hallucinogenic ''Psilocybe'' from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the
hallucinogenic drugs
Hallucinogens, also known as psychedelics, entheogens, or historically as psychotomimetics, are a large and diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, moo ...
.
Legal status

The purified chemicals psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule'' ''II drugs under the United Nations 1971
Convention on Psychotropic Substances
The Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 is a United Nations treaty designed to control psychoactive drugs such as amphetamine-type stimulants, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and psychedelics signed in Vienna, Austria on 21 February ...
. However, the UN drug treaties do not apply to cultivation, preparation, or international transport of psilocybin mushrooms.
Internationally, the two chemicals are generally considered controlled substances. However, there is much ambiguity about what is considered a "container" of these compounds. In several countries (e.g. Brazil), the chemicals themselves are listed as controlled substances, but the mushrooms that contain the chemicals are not, therefore deemed legal.
In the United States, possession of ''Psilocybe'' mushroom fruiting bodies is illegal in every state except for Florida. This is because the Supreme Court of Florida does not believe that these mushrooms could "reasonably be found to be containers of the schedule I substance, psilocybin".
In the United States, there is no federal law mentioning the possession of ''Psilocybe'' spores. This is because only the psilocybin and psilocin compounds are considered Schedule I drugs and there is no presence of these compounds in the spores themselves, only in the fruiting body of the cultivated spores. However, there are several US states that have actually prohibited possession of these spores because they can be cultivated to produce these hallucinogenic, Schedule'' ''I drugs. These states includes California, Georgia, and Idaho.
However, possession of the spores by a qualified mycologist in California is legal if being put to use for research purposes, which must be approved by Research Advisory Panel.
If not authorized by law, possession of spores or cultivation of fruiting bodies of the ''Psilocybe'' is punishable to no more than one year in county jail or state prison.
Psilocybin mushrooms, as well as other "soft drugs" which are stronger than cannabis but not synthetic, are legally available through
smart shop
A smart shop (or smartshop) is a retail establishment that specializes in the sale of psychoactive substances, usually including psychedelics, as well as related literature and paraphernalia. The name derives from the name " smart drugs", a cl ...
s in the Netherlands. Only the
truffle
A truffle is the Sporocarp (fungi), fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, one of the species of the genus ''Tuber (fungus), Tuber''. More than one hundred other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including ''Geopora'', ''P ...
form of magic mushrooms (such as ''
P. tampanensis'') are currently legal, but these still contain the active ingredients and produce similar effect as the caps and stalks.
Notable species

* ''
Psilocybe cubensis
''Psilocybe cubensis'', commonly known as the magic mushroom, shroom, golden halo, golden teacher, cube, or gold cap, is a species of psilocybin mushroom of moderate potency whose principal Psychoactive compound, active compounds are psilocybin ...
'' (''Stropharia cubensis''); the most commonly cultivated and consumed ''Psilocybe'',
due to ease of cultivation and large size of fruit bodies; also commonly collected throughout the
tropics
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's ax ...
and
subtropics
The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones immediately to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately ...
, nicknamed the commercial psilocybe.
* ''
Psilocybe cyanescens
''Psilocybe cyanescens'', commonly known as the wavy cap or potent psilocybe, is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. The main compounds responsible for its psychedelic effects are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the family Hymenogas ...
''; Native to the
Pacific Northwest
The Pacific Northwest (PNW; ) is a geographic region in Western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though no official boundary exists, the most common ...
of North America, but also found in
western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean ...
; nicknamed the ''wavy-cap'' or ''wavies''.
* ''
Psilocybe natalensis;'' is found in
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
and closely related to Psilocybe cubensis.
* ''
Psilocybe semilanceata
''Psilocybe semilanceata'', commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, ...
''; The most common psilocybin-containing mushroom.
Found in northern temperate climates; nicknamed the ''liberty cap''.
* ''
Psilocybe azurescens
''Psilocybe azurescens'' is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose main active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It is among the most potent of the tryptamine-bearing mushrooms, containing up to 1.8% psilocybin, 0.5% psilocin, and 0.4% bae ...
'', a highly potent species native to the U.S. states of
Washington
Washington most commonly refers to:
* George Washington (1732–1799), the first president of the United States
* Washington (state), a state in the Pacific Northwest of the United States
* Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States
** A ...
and
Oregon
Oregon ( , ) is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is a part of the Western U.S., with the Columbia River delineating much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while t ...
, but popular in outdoor cultivation, and expanding its range as a result; nicknamed '.
See also
*
María Sabina
References
Cited books
*
*
Further reading
*
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External links
Taxonomy
MushroomExpert.com Taxonomy in Transition: The Strophariaceae- Taxonomic issues of ''Psilocybe'' and other stropharioid fungi.
- taxonomy and characteristics of non-bluing ''Psilocybe''.
History and ethnography
Timeline of mushroom useat Erowid.org
Legal aspects
Psilocybin Mushrooms: Legal Status– Erowid
EMCDDA Thematic Paper: Hallucinogenic mushrooms - an emerging trend case study June 26, 2006
Other
The ShroomeryDetailed information about psilocybe mushrooms including identification, cultivation and spores, psychedelic images, trip reports, a dosage calculator and an active community.
from The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances
– Toxicology of psilocybin mushrooms.
A Worldwide Geographical Distribution of the Neurotropic FungiPsilocybe Mushrooms – Studies in Ethnomycology
{{Authority control
Entheogens
Agaricales genera
Psychoactive fungi
Psychedelic tryptamine carriers
Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries