Naskh (tafsir)

''Naskh'' ( نسخ) is an Arabic word usually translated as " abrogation". In tafsir, or Islamic legal exegesis, ''naskh'' recognizes that one rule might not always be suitable for every situation. In the widely recognized Burton, "Those Are the High-Flying Cranes", ''JSS'', 15, 1970, p. 250. and "classic" form of ''naskh'',Hazimi, Abu Bakr. Al-I'tbar, 5-6. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990, p. 56. one '' ḥukm'' "ruling" is abrogated to introduce an exception to the general rule, but the text the ''ḥukm'' is based on is not repealed. Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985, p. 456.

Some examples of Islamic rulings based on ''naskh'' include a gradual ban on consumption of alcohol (originally alcohol was not banned, but Muslims were told that the bad outweighed the good in drinking) and a change in the direction of the qibla, the direction that should be faced when praying salat (originally Muslims faced Jerusalem, but this was changed to face the Kaaba in Mecca).

With few exceptions, Islamic revelations do not state ''which'' Quranic verses or hadith have been abrogated, and Muslim exegetes and jurists have disagreed over which and how many hadith and verses of the Quran are recognized as abrogated, with estimates varying from less than ten to over 500. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990, p. 184.

Other issues of disagreement include whether the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, can be abrogated by the Sunnah, the body of traditional social and legal custom and practice of the Islamic community, or vice versa — a disagreement in Sunni Islam between the Shafiʽi and Hanafi schools of fiqh; Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990, p. 37. and whether verses of the Quran may be abrogated at all, instead of reinterpreted and more narrowly defined — an approach favored by a minority of scholars.

Several ayat (Quranic verses) state that some revelations have been abrogated and superseded by later revelations, and narrations from Muhammad's companions mention abrogated verses or rulings of the religion. The principle of abrogation of an older verse by a new verse in the Quran, or within the hadiths is an accepted principle of all four Sunni madhāhib, or schools of fiqh, and was an established principle in Sharia by at least the 9th century. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990, pp. 43-44, 56-59, 122-124. Starting in the 19th century, modernist and Islamist scholars have argued against the concept of ''naskh'', defending the absolute validity of the Quran.

An abrogated text or ruling is called ''mansūkh'', and the text or ruling which abrogates it is called ''nāsikh''.

Definition and etymology

In the Arabic language, ''naskh'' () can be defined as abolition, abrogation, cancellation, invalidation, copying, or transcription, according to the ''Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic''.

As an Islamic term, there is a lack of agreement among scholars on what exactly ''al-Naskh'' is, (according to several sources).
*According to Louay Fatoohi, "the term ''naskh'' never appears in the Qur'an in the meaning it acquired in Islamic law". A detailed examination of the two Quranic verses "seen by scholars as providing support to the principle of abrogation", shows that neither actually refers to "the concept of abrogation".
*Israr Ahmad Khan states that those who have read "the works of Abu Ubayd, al-Nahhas, Makki, Ibn al-Arabi, Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Zarkashi, al-Suyuti, and al-Dehlawi on the issue of abrogation will be confused regarding its definition".
*John Burton complains that the "greatest imaginable confusion reigns as to the definition of the term ''naskh''", and that "an appalling degree of muddle" surrounds the meaning of verse Q.2:106 Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", 1985: p. 452 — "the Abrogation verse". And that "the constant confusion of 'suppression' with 'supersession'" causes the reader "endless difficulty". Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 468
*Ahmad Ali Al-Imam states "most scholars ... differ on many points", of naskh, "particularly on its meaning, modes, and examples".

Disputes over what defines ''naskh'' include
*whether the ''wording'' of the Quran can be abrogated while the ''ruling'' based on it is not (most scholars believe the ruling must be abrogated also),
*whether a verse in the ''Qur'an'' can abrogate a ruling in the ''Sunnah'', and
*whether any ''Islamic'' revelation may be abrogated at all, or whether when God talks about replacing revelation (in "the abrogation verses" of the Qur'an: Q.2:106 and Q.16:101, see below) He is referring ''only'' to revelation which came ''before'' the Quran Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1(1), 1965: p. 188

Another issue was how broadly naskh should be defined, with early Muslim scholars having including things that later scholars did not consider ''naskh'', such as: Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 185
#exceptions to earlier verses,Ibn Qayyim, ''I'lam al-Musaqq'in'', Delhi, 1313 A.H., I:12
#particularization of the meaning of a verse (known as ''taksees'', see below), and
#clarifications of earlier verses.

Definitions of ''naskh'' given by Islamic scholars include:
*"abrogation, revocation, repeal. Theoretical tool used to resolve contradictions in Quranic verses, hadith literature, ''tafsir'' (Quranic exegesis), and ''usul al-fiqh'' (roots of law), whereby later verses (or reports or decisions) abrogate earlier ones," (Oxford Dictionary of Islam);
*an exegetical (explaining) theory of the repeal or abolition of a law for divine commands in the Quran and the Hadith, wherein the contradictory verses, within or between these Islamic scriptures, are analyzed (David S. Powers); Through ''Naskh'', the superseding verse as well as the superseded verse(s) are determined for the purposes of formulating Sharia.SUIÇMEZ, Yusuf (2006), Abrogation in Hadith, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol. 23, No 4, pp. 33-35
*"obliteration, cancellation, transfer, suppression, suspension" depending on the context, (Badshah, Naeem, et al.); Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", 1985: pp. 452-469
*suspension or replacement of one Sharia ruling by another with the conditions that the ruling that suspends/replaces is of a subsequent origin, and that the two rulings are enacted separately from one another, (Recep Dogan);
*removal of an Islamic command by a legally valid argument (''raf al-hukm al-Shar'i bi dalil shar'i'') (Al-Zurqani).

Scriptural basis

Quran

According to non-Muslim scholar of Islam John Burton, "no single verse" in the Quran "unequivocally points to the naskh of any other verse", (nor does any "irreproachable" hadith identify "any one verse as having either undergone or effected naskh"). Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 19 Islamic Modernist mufti Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) also stated "the Quran nowhere announced that verse so-and-so is ''naskh'', or that verse such-and-such is ''mansukh''."Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 31

Many of the verses believed to indicate the principle of naskh do not contain any form of the word ''naskh'', i.e. any word with the triconsonantal root n-s-kh. Instead, they use "in place of" (''baddal''), "efface" (''yamhua''), "withdraw" (''nadhhabanna'' لَنَذْهَبَنَّ), or "forget" (''tansha'' تَنسَىٰٓ) which are all interpreted to refer to the process of ''naskh'':
*
*
*
*

Of the four verses within the Qur'an that ''do'' contain some form of the word ''naskh'' — verses Q.7:154, Q.45:29, Q.22:52, and Q.2:106 — in two cases the word has nothing to do with abrogation of divine revelation, but is used in the context of texts and scribal activity:
*—and
*
The two verse that do involve abrogation are
*, a verse allegedly referring to the Satanic Verse(s), (#Satanic verses and abrogation">see below) and
*, which is called a "Verse of abrogation".

Verses of abrogation

Q2:106 and Q16:101 are the two "verses of abrogation" contained in the Quran.Harald Motzki (2006), in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān'', Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 59-67.Wael B. Hallaq (2009), Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 96-97. Rippin, "Al-Zuhrī, ''Naskh al-Qur'ān''", ''BSOAS'', 47, 1984: pp. 22-43

They establish the principle in Islam that an older divine revelation may be abrogated and substituted with another one,
a principle that has been historically accepted and applied by vast majority of Islamic jurists of both the Quran and the Sunnah.

Only Q.2:106 uses a form of the word ''naskh'' (specifically "''nanskh''" meaning "we abrogate").
Although there "are no less than a dozen" readings/interpretations of verse Q.2:106 (according to Khaleel Mohammed citing John Burton),Burton, John. ''The Collection Of The Qur'an'', Cambridge: University Press, 1977, p. 48 the "majority of exegetes" (scholars of the interpretation of the Quran), find 2:106 indicative of two varieties of abrogation (see below):
*" supersession", i.e. the "suspension" and replacement of the old verse without its elimination (process known as ''naskh al-hukm duna al-tilawa'', or ''ibdāl'' in Arabic)" or
*"suppression", i.e. the nullification/elimination of the old verse from the '' Mus'haf'' (the written Quran compiled after Muhammad's death) (process known as ''naskh al-hukm wa-'l-tilawa'', or ''ibtāl'' in Arabic).

Two verse also suggest abrogation can refer to either these two meanings,
*—suggests naskh is supersession/substitution (''tabdīl'', related to ''ibdāl''). Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 453
*—refers "solely to eradication or nullification" according to scholar Al-Fakhr al-Razi. Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 455
In addition, traditional non-religious Arabic sayings, poetry, etc. used to determine the meaning of Quranic terms also suggest abrogation means either suppression or supersession.

The verse Q.16:101 was employed by the founder of the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence — Imam Shafi'i — as proof that a Qur'anic verse can only be abrogated by another Qur'anic verse. (see below)

;Dissenting views

Orthodox/pro-naskh scholars (like Ali b. Muhammad b. Ibrahim 'Ala al-Din, known as al-Khazin) argues that Abrogation Verse 2:106 was revealed in response to allegations by unbelievers in Mecca "that Muhammad decides a ruling, then abrogates it!". However, according to Mohammed al-Ghazali this explanation cannot be true because the verse was revealed in Mecca where at the time "no such laws" were being abrogated.al-Ghazli, Muhammad. "Kayfa Nata'amal Ma' Al-Qur'an." Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1992, pp. 80-84.
Another argument against the orthodox interpretation of the verse is that the word translated as "revelation" ('' ayah'') in the two Verses of Abrogation is ambiguous, and what is abrogated may be something other than a verse in the Quran. ''Ayah'' is more accurately translated (according to Khaleel Mohammed) as "sign" — as in a sign "sent down by God to guide humankind to Him" — revelation being only one kind of sign.

Satanic verses and abrogation

The one other Quranic verse using ''naskh'' in sense of abrogation is Q22:52.

*

This verse is cited by historian and exegete Tabarī in connection with the incident of the so-called " Satanic Verses". Tabarī's interpretation (''Tafsīr'') states that God removed some of the early verses that the devil had cast into the Quran (making worship of other deities permissible) and replaced them in later verses. Burton, "Those Are the High-Flying Cranes", ''JSS'', 15, 1970: p. 265
It supports an interpretation of ''naskh'' as eradication (''izāla'') so as not to be found in the written Quran ('' Mus'haf'') and thus made acceptable the idea of ''naskh'' as the nullification of a verse and ruling — '' naskh al-hukm wa-'l-tilāwa'' — without any (immediate) replacement.
Ibn Taymiyyah also identified "something that Satan has managed to insinuate into Revelation through Prophetic error" is naskh-ed by a divine verse, (which he calls ''al-naw' al-ikharmin al-naskh'').

But later exegetes such as Makkī insist that since the verse was insinuated by the Devil into the Prophet's recital, and not revealed by God, that verse Q.22:52 only provides for establishes the Islamic legitimacy of the concept of ''naskh'' for satanic not divine revelation. Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 454 (note 6) According to the current orthodox interpretation, the verses were actually a fabrication by Quraysh tribesmen and enemies of Muhammad. However "a number" of classical scholars like Musa b. 'Uqbah, Ibn Ishaq, Abu Ma'shar, al-Tabari, Ibn al-Mundhir, Ibn Abi Hatim, Ibn Mardawayh and Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalam have accepted the report about this episode as genuine" (according to Ahmad Hasan), based on the ''isnad'' (chain of transmitters of the report), other eminent classical scholars reject the report which if it were true would mean "that Satan could tamper with the Divine Revelation". Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 182

Sunnah/hadith

Hadith/commentary abrogating Quranic verses

Evidence for the abrogation (or not) of Quranic verses comes from collections of hadith, and tafsir.
Eight hadith in Sahih Bukhari mentions abrogation:
*the abrogation of the direction of prayer (the changing of the Qibla from Jerusalem to the Ka'ba—at Mecca)
*the abrogation is denied in #4505, but this is contradicted in #4506, and #4507.
*, which is supposed to have been abrogated by , is referred to in #4530, and in #4531. Yet other scholars say it wasn't abrogated since is mandatory mourning period without remarrying after her husband dies while is that inheritors don't force her out of her husband's house for a year unless she wanted to leave, which is why it says "then no blame on the guardians".
*that is abrogated is mentioned in #4545, and #4546.

Several hadith in Sahih Muslim mention abrogation of Quranic verses, including.
*the abrogation of by in #125.

Three verses in Sunan Abu Dawood, two verses in Malik's ''Muwatta'' and two verses in Tafsir ibn Kathir mention abrogation.

;Abrogation of Hadith
As for abrogation of sunnah/hadith, there is no equivalent to the Quranic "Verses of abrogation" in the sunnah. No "generally accepted statements can be adduced from the sunnah to vindicate the application of the theory to Sunnah texts", according to John Burton.
However scholars state that hadith were abrogated just as the Quran was. ''Kitab al-I'tibar'' states that early Muslim Urwah ibn Zubayr declared, "I testify that my father told me that the Prophet would make a statement, then subsequently replace in with another statement, just as the Quran, in certain places, supersedes other parts." Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 40 Abu al-'Ala' ibn al-Shikhkhir (d. 107/725),
a '' Tabi'i'', (i.e. one of the generation of Muslims who followed the ''Sahaba'' -- the companions of Muhammad) is reported to have said much the same thing according to a Sahih Muslim hadith.

History

In "general terms", the idea of a divine process whereby the decisions of a monotheist God can be superseded by His later decisions precedes "even the foundation of Islam itself," (according to John Burton), being found in ''Epistle to the Hebrews'' 8:13; 10:9 of the New Testament. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 18

While Muhammad is reported to have abrogated parts of the sunnah by "explicit abrogation" ( see below), there are no reports of him talking about abrogated verses in the Quran or explaining any theory of abrogation. Thus the classical theory of naskh "cannot go back to the Prophet". This is an argument against the theory according to its opponents — "it is inconceivable that the Prophet had left such an important problem to the discretion of the people ..."

;Reports of companions emphasizing its importance
There are, however, introductory stories in almost all classical ''naskh'' works about how (younger) companions of Muhammad — some of his "oldest and most determined supporters" revered by pious Muslims — emphasized the importance of belief in and knowledge of the theory of naskh.
Many recount an incident where a Kufan preacher is banned from expounding the Quran on account of his ignorance of the principles of ''naskh'' by an early '' 'ilmic'' authority figure (usually Rashidun Caliph 'Alī, but sometimes also Ibn 'Abbās, cousin of Muhammad and hadith narrator). Rippin, "Al-Zuhrī, ''Naskh al-Qur'ān''", ''BSOAS'', 47, 1984: pp. 26, 38

In one report Ali told a judge who had no knowledge of nasikh that he was "deluded and misleading others", in another he evicted a preacher from a mosque for being ignorant of the science of abrogation. Umar is reported to have told Muslims that despite the fact that Ubay ibn Ka'b was "the best Quranic expert among us ... we ignore some of what" he says because he disregarded abrogation and told others he refused to "abandon anything I heard from the Messenger of Allah".

Another set of Hadith emphasize how those who speak publicly on ''fiqh'' (Islamic law) without expert knowledge in naskh not only endanger their own immortal souls but also the souls of those who listening to them. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 39

Some (John Burton) have questioned the authenticity of these hadith, finding them suspiciously convenient for proponents of naskh and especially for experts in the field. (Not only do they provide validity for the theory from "the mouths of men believed to have known the Prophet's mind best", Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 38 but the reports specifically call for judicial or religious offices in the community to be occupied by those trained in "this indispensable knowledge".)

;Early reliable evidence
However even if these reports were later fabrications and the rules of naskh were not directly passed down from Muhammad to the Salaf Muslims, it is known that the ''idea'' that some Qur'anic verses were abrogated can be found towards the end of the first century of Islam, and the development of ''theories'' of naskh can be dated "with certainty" to the time of Imam Shafi'i (d. 204 AH).

The early schools of law that were in existence towards the end of the first century of Islam included the idea of abrogation in the Qur'anic verses. Ibrahim al-Nakha'i (d. 96 AH/714) is reported to have said that the part of verse Q.5:106 — which allows a non-Muslim to bear witness to the bequest of a Muslim during a journey if the Muslim is on their death bed — was abrogated to require the witness to be a Muslim.

The principle of abrogation (without its ''naskh'' terminology) makes an early appearance in the '' Muwatta''' of Mālik (d.179 AH/795 ) according to John Burton and Ahmad Hasan. At one point Malik notes that "his teacher Zuhrī had told him that the Muslims had adopted as standard the latest of all the Prophet's reported actions" when there is a conflict. In another chapter Mālik states that of the two conflicting Qur'an rulings, "one had replaced the other". Elsewhere, Mālik "rejects the notion that a ruling remains valid despite the withdrawal" of the (supposed) Qur'an verse the ruling is based on. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. viii

However, according to Abdul-Rahim, "the earliest extant materials ever written" on the ''tafsir'' genre, naskh al-Qur'an came earlier than Malik. The two works — ''Kitab al-Nasikh wa al-Mansukh fi Kitab Allah Ta'ala'' by Qatadah ibn Di'amah al-Sadusi (d. 117/735) and ''Kitab al-Nasikh wa al-Mansukh'' by Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (d. 124/742). Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 54 — begin "immediately to point to the abrogated in the Qur'an" feeling no need to elucidate what naskh is. According to Abdul-Rahim, the fact that these and other early works followed this practice indicates a "widespread understanding of naskh" in the Muslim world at that time.

;Meaning
''Naskh'' meaning evolved as early applications of the concept were abandoned (like other technical terms within Islamic exegesis — such as '' asbāb al-nuzūl'', the historical context in which Quranic verses were revealed). In early works of ''tafsīr'' (before about 150 AH), ''Naskh'' was used to refer to a ruling that narrowed rather than replaced an earlier one (''nasakha min l-āya' — "an exception is provided to he verse). Rippin, "Al-Zuhrī, ''Naskh al-Qur'ān''", ''BSOAS'', 47, 1984: p. 42 This usage was later reformulated by Shāfi'ī as '' takhsīs'' (specification/exception).

;Theory
The "elaboration of the theories" of naskh can be dated with certainty to the last half of the second century of Islam, when Imam Shafi'i (d.204 AH/820), in his work '' Risāla'', (and in the somewhat later ''Ikhtilāf al-Hadīth''") worked to resolve the "apparent discrepancies between certain Qur'ānic verses and others; between certain ''hadith'' and others; and, most serious of all, between certain Qur'ānic verses and certain ''hadīths''", according to John Burton. Ibrahim al-Nakha'i (d. 96/714) is reported to have said that verse Q.5:106 was abrogated ''Naskh'' as "a technical term meaning 'abrogation'" was used "early on in exegesis, for example, in Muqātil's . 149-150''Khams mi'a āya'' and his '' tafsīr''. Rippin, "Al-Zuhrī, ''Naskh al-Qur'ān''", ''BSOAS'', 47, 1984: p. 41 Ilm al-Nasikh wa'l-Mansukh" (Knowledge of the Abrogating and Abrogated) became one of the Islamic sciences.

John Burton argues, naskh become more important following the establishment of the principle of As-Shafi'i that hadith of Muhammad overruled all other reports from Companions or others on the same subject. This doctrine led to the growth in hadith attributed to the Prophet. Since "far too many" of these hadith "were mutually contradictory"—some contradicting the Quran -- "their use might court the risk" of failing to follow divine law (the view of some of the Mu'tazila of the era). For proponents of the As-Shafi'i doctrine a practical problem was the contradictions would lead to an abandonment of basing Islamic law on prophetic hadith. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 40-41

;Medieval times
At least by the eleventh century the classical concept of naskh of the Quran and Sunnah was widely accepted enough for one scholar — Ibn Hilal al-Nahwi — to assert that "whoever says" that there is no abrogation in Islam "is not a believer, but rather a ''kafir'', denying that with which Muhammad came. He must renounce his position or be killed".Mustafa, Muhammad Salih 'Ali. "''Al-Naskh fi al-Qur'an al-Karim: Mafhumuhu, Wa Tarikuhu, wa Da'awahu''". Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1988. p. 18

;Modernist dissent
A "celebrated icon" of deniers and rejecters of naskh was the fourth-century Hijri scholar, Abu Muslim al-Isfahani, who was very much in the minority and whose work on naskh ''Jami'al-Ta'wil'' (al-Amidi, al-Ihkam, v.3, 115), has been lost to history. But "concentrated criticism of the abrogation concept only started in the latter part" of the nineteenth century, according to Khaleel Mohammad. According to Karel Steenbrink, "most" of the modernist or reformist scholars of that era (Muhammad Abduh, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and Rashid Rida), considered the theory of abrogation of the Quran invalid. Muhammad al-Ghazali, writing in 1992, stated

"the position taken by all the modern scholars whom I have met, or listened to, or whose works I have read, is contrary to the understanding of naskh that became so widespread among the later exegetes, namely that there exists naskh (if accepted) as meaning the abrogation of verses of the Qur'an."

Two lesser known scholars who wrote work and spoke against naskh of Islamic revelation in more depth in the 20th century were Muhammad Amin (an Azhar graduate, active at the beginning of the 20th century),Mustafa, Muhammad Salih 'Ali. "Al-Naskh fi al-Qur'an al-Karim: Mafhumuhu, Wa Tarikuhu, wa Da'awahu." Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1988: 17 and 'Abd al-Muta'al al-Jabri (who wrote his Master's thesis—entitled ''Naskh As I Understand It In The Islamic Shari'ah''—at the University of Cairo in 1949).Mustafa, Muhammad Salih 'Ali. "Al-Naskh fi al-Qur'an al-Karim: Mafhumuhu, Wa Tarikuhu, wa Da'awahu." Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1988: 16

Need and scope

Dealing with apparent contradictions

Islam teaches that the Quran was revealed to Muhammad over 23 years (609–632 CE) until the year of his death. The customs and practices of Muhammad over this same period are known as the Sunnah, and reports of them are known as ahadith. From early in Islam's history, some scholars thought that contradictory commands existed in the Quran, Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 1-3 uote "The first stimulus was ..their exegesis. (They) thought they detected some contradictions ..

"Some thought that .. among hadith of the Sunnah, Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 3-4 as well as between verses of the Quran and the hadith. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 4-5

Since Islam calls on humanity to obey the Quran and imitate the behavior of the prophet, and also because "a defining claim of Sunni Islam" is that no two authentic hadith could contradict each other or the Quran, (and because some verses in the Quran at least seemed to contradict each other) scholars worked to resolve these apparent contradictions in the verses that give regulations to Muslims. Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 458 This became especially important, (as mentioned above), after the principle of fiqh was established that in forming Islamic law, hadith attributed to Muhammad overruled those attributed to all other early Muslims on the same issue. This led to the growth in the number of these hadith and contradictions between them, created a danger to their legitimacy as the basis of sharia law.

While hadith tell of rules of naskh being passed down directly from Muhammad's closest Companions ( sahabah) and future Muslim leaders — others believe it more likely ideas about naskh originated later. Ahman Hasan speculates that the idea of the abrogation of certain Qur'anic verses "emerged" early in the history of Islam when commentators and the jurisconsults seeking to reconcile the "apparently contradictory verses", looked to the Quranic verses such as Q.16:101 — "... We put a revelation in place of (another) revelation ..." — to develop a theory that some later verses replaced the commands of earlier ones. John Burton argues that naskh was first employed by Islamic scholars ("usulis") in the second century of Islam working to develop principles ('' usul al-fiqh'') for the Islamic law (fiqh) and seeking to explain why some fiqh rulings were not founded on Quranic/Sunnah revelation. By this time the Islamic empire spanned three continents and fiqh had been established in the different regions but usulis found rulings in certain verses of the Quran and parts of the Sunnah had been ignored in their formulation. To explain this, Burton argues, they developed the concept of naskh to declare that the verses/parts had been abrogated.

In theory, ''naskh'' formed part of a hierarchy of techniques used by scholars of Islamic law working with hadith. Scholars first strove to "harmonize" hadith, (i.e. to make them fit together by reinterpreting them). If that failed they would look for signs of abrogation (that one saying/doing/inaction by Muhammad was earlier than the other and had been replaced by the later saying/doing/inaction). If there was no opportunity for abrogation, they would check the ''isnad''—chains of transmission of the hadith—to see if the transmission of one hadith was superior to another. Finally, if they found no difference in the ''isnad'', they would approve the hadith they found "closest to the overall message of the Quran and Sunnah". J.A.C. Brown, ''Misquoting Muhammad'', 2014: pp. 104-5

;Problem
But according to scholars such as David S. Powers and John Burton, while the doctrine of abrogation may have cleared up contradictions, it "poses a difficult theological problem" because it seems to suggest God was changing His mind, or has realized something He was unaware of when revealing the original verse. For an eternally all-knowing deity this was theologically impossible and logically absurd — in fact an act of "unbelief" in Islam itself.Liaquat Ali Khan (2008), "Jurodynamics of Islamic Law", ''Rutgers Law Review'', Vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 240-242. Also foreclosing on the possibility of any improvisation of Quranic verses was the belief of Sunni scholars that the Quran was not written/spoken during the course of its revelation, in fact not even created/written by God, but is as ageless as God himself, ''uncreated'', an ''attribute'' of God (like being all-powerful, beneficent, merciful, etc.), its original copy being the "mother of the book" — ''umm al-kitab'' — kept in the presence of God (Q.13:39; Q.43:4), the earthly Quran being only a copy of it. (The Mu'tazila argued that the Qur'an could not be both eternal and subject to abrogation, with a new verse abrogating an earlier one.)

Skeptics such as Ali Dashti found the naskh process suspiciously similar to the human process of "revising ... past decisions or plans" after "learning from experience and recognising mistakes". When the Quran defends abrogation/naskh against those who scoffed at it ("Do not you know that Allah over every thing?" Q.2:106; "they say, "Thou art but a forger" ... Allah knows best what He reveals" Q.16:101), Dashti asks if the "scoffers" were suspicious "precisely because God is capable of everything", and so would have no need to abrogate a verse after revealing it.

Roslan Abdul-Rahim points out that after a verse was revealed criticizing Muslim slackers and urging Muslims to fight jihad, a blind Muslim ('Abd Allah ibn Umm Maktum) protested to Muhammad that his eyesight prevented him from fighting. "Almost instantaneously" another verse was sent down amending the first with the qualifier "except the disabled".

Rationale

At least in part in answer to these criticisms, some explanations and defenses have been offered for the theory of abrogation — principally that the revising of commands by God to his creatures is all done according to a plan.:
*aspects of the Quran's message and the Prophet's teachings had to change as circumstances changed in the Muslim community encountered over the course of Muhammad's more than two decade term as prophet
**"one rule might not always be suitable for every situation. Far from Allah changing his mind, abrogation demonstrates the wisdom of Allah in legislating rules for their appropriate time and context. For most rules in Islam, there exist circumstances that warrant an exception to the rule." (Abu Amina Elias)
**Rather than a way for scholars to deal with contradictions in scripture, preachers argued that ''naskh'' was God's way of dealing with different situations the Muslim community encountered over the course of Muhammad's more than two decade term as prophet. It "was quite possible for something to be beneficial for them in one situation, and detrimental in another", (such as fasting during Ramadan, where eating is allowed at night, but forbidden in the day), so that God might well abrogate something after it was no longer beneficial. (Ibn Qudamah)ibn Qudamah (al-Maqdis), Ahmad. "Ibn Qudamah Wa Atharuhu al-Usuliyah." (Edited by al-Sa'id, 'Abd Al-'Aziz). Riyadh: Imam Muhammad bin Saud University, 1983: 2.71
**"Islam abrogates all previous codes of which it is the perfection — If contemporary law is subject to constant alteration to meet changing conditions, why is it impossible that laws given to one people at one time should be abrogated elsewhere at another time?" (Al-Shahrastani)
**''Naskh'' an expression of "the notion that aspects of the Quran's message and the Prophet's teachings developed over time". (Or, since God is all knowing, ''naskh'' was said to be what happened when the expiration points were reached for of those rulings God intended as temporary all along.) (J.A.C. Brown)
**God "knows the temporariness or permanence of any ruling from the time He issues it." (Louay Fatoohi)
*Major changes in behavior called for by Islam (banning of consumption of alcohol) should be abolished gradually, meaning that the early lenient commands are abrogated by later stricter ones — demonstrating that this abrogation was pre-planned, not the correction of a mistake;
*Alternately naskh provides ''takhfīf'' (lightening), abrogation "was generally directed to making things easier", (al-Suyuti)Richard Bell, ''Introduction to the Quran'', Edinburgh, 1954, 99-100 Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. xAbu Jafar Muhammad b. Jarir, ''Jami' al-Bayan 'an ta'wil ay al-Qur'an'', ed. Shakir, 15 vols. (to date), Cairo, 1954-, II, 482-3; cited in Burton, "Exegis of Q.2:106 and the Islamic Theories of Naskh", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985 Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 462 either by introducing a more lenient rule—or if introducing a more onerous one, helping believers by giving them the opportunity to earn greater reward in the Hereafter by obeying the challenging rule. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 116
*Verses are abrogated to replace them with something that will improve human welfare. ( Al-Zamakhshari)
*The 'style' of Divine revelation is "direct and absolute", without "clauses, exceptions and qualification". This makes necessary the occasional modification of these broad commands with "more specific" meanings, which is "generally" what ''naskh'' does. (Cyril Glasse)
*It serves a way for God to test the obedience of believers, who may be troubled and confused that God changed divine law to declares something good that at one time was denounced as evil and vice versa. (Ibn Kathir)
*Finally, the question "why?" itself is out of line.
**"abrogation as a mechanism that perfectly reflects God's omnipotence. God can change any ruling with another at any point in time He sees fit" (Louay Fatoohi);
**"God orders men's actions as He pleases and must not be asked what He is doing" (Al-Shahrastani);Al-Shahrastani, ''Kitab Nihayat al-Iqdam fi 'Ilm al-Kalam'', ed. and trans, by Alfred Guillaume, Oxford, 1934, pp. 158-59, quoted in Donaldson, Dwight, M., ''Studies in Muslim Ethics'', London, 1953, p. 52. Hasan, A., "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 187
**"The sound mind does not deny that there could be a Naskh in Allah's commandments, for He decides what He wills, just as He does what He wills" (Ibn Kathir).

Alcohol

:see:'' Khamr#Scriptural basis''

The "classical" and oft cited example of how naskh was used in stages to guide a major change in the behavior of the faithful was the banning of alcohol, implemented in three verses. It has been described as an act of wisdom, needed because an abrupt total ban would have been too harsh and impractical. "Arab society in the beginning was not ready to abandon drinking alcohol. They needed to strengthen their faith in order to overcome their desire to drink."

The first verse gently discouraged Muslims from drinking alcohol:
*

The second prohibited Muslims from being drunk during one kind of activity—praying salat:
*

And finally, once Muslim were "ready for it", alcohol (along with gambling) was totally prohibited:
*

Ratio of enemy warriors to Muslims

Two verses Imam Al-Shafi'i cites as "the clearest evidence" for naskh concern the number of enemies each Muslim warrior is expected to vanquish. (Unlike with those concerning alcohol, the abrogating verse is more lenient not more strict.) Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 30

A verse calling for overcoming ten unbelievers
*
... is abrogated by one reducing the number of enemy Muslims are expected to fight to only two:
*

Another example of this ''takhfīf'' (lightening) is lifting the burden of lengthy nocturnal prayers in that had been required by .

The Sword verse(s)

A verse(s) of major importance in Muslim-non-Muslim relations is the "Sword verse" (as, to a lesser extent, are similar verses such as ).
Among "medieval exegetes and jurists" there was "a broad consensus that and abrogated "all the other statements" in the Quran "on the issue of waging war".

In modern times, the sword verse has been used by extremist groups and individuals to justify their killing of non-Muslims civilians, according to Lohay Fatoohi (although some dispute this), and Mahfuh Halimi argues extremist advocates of violence maintain the verse of the sword Q.9:5 abrogates "more than a hundred" verses of the Quran advising or advocating "peace, coexistence, patience, tolerance, and forgiveness as the basis for relations between Muslims and non-Muslims." Critics have called this a case of passages called for killing abrogating ones calling for tolerance. and a classic example of determining the validity of a verse by determining when it was revealed.Burton, ''Naskh'', '' Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI)²''

Verses counseling patience and forbearance that are said to be abrogated by 9:5 (according to Fatoohi) include:
*
*
*
Similarly verse Q.9:29 is considered by Nahhās "to have abrogated virtually all verses calling for patience or forgiveness toward the People of the Book" (according to Reuven Firestone). Firestone, ''Jihad'', 1999: p. 151 (The verse abrogates more early verses of the Quran than any other according to some Muslim Islamic scholars, while others have concluded it does not abrogate any verses. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 184-87

Length of the period (''` iddah'') widows must wait before remarrying

This abrogation has been called a classic' instance" of the classic' mode" of naskh Weiss, Review of ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1993: p. 305 by Usulis (i.e. students/scholars of the principles of fiqh) that 'proves' "''the fact'' of Naskh". It (is thought to have) shortened the ''` iddah'', i.e. the waiting period for widows (also divorcees, but these verses refer only to widows) before re-marriage, from one year ....

*
... to four months and ten days:
*

But Q.2:240 makes no mention of a waiting period before marriage, but only financial provisions ("maintenance and residence", aka ''matāʿ'') for widows. And other scholars say it wasn't abrogated since Q.2:234 is about the mandatory mourning period for a woman without remarrying after her husband dies while Q.2:240 is that inheritors don't force her out of her husband's house for a year unless she wanted to leave, which is why it says "then no blame on the guardians". This ''did'' conflict with "the details of the rules to govern inheritances laboriously worked out in the fiqh", (according to non-Muslim critic and scholar John Burton). Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 57 Burton argues that protecting established fiqh rulings from the contradiction of Quranic verses such as Q.2:240 (and not addressing conflicts between different lines of revelation) was what motivated the usulis who developed the theory of naskh. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 56-62

Questions raised

In reply to the rationale of gradual introduction of the ban on alcohol, some (Farooq Ibrahim) have noted that while hadith often explain events that the Quran refers to cryptically, there is no explanation or mention of a strategy of gradual banning of alcohol consumption found in any Sahih hadith. Nor was a gradual process used in other Islamic prohibitions. The worship of multiple gods, and of having intercessors before God were both banned with no evident concern over whether they were too harsh or impractical.

Burton suggests that the idea that naskh can be explained as ''takhfīf'' (lightening) is of limited usefulness because it is applied to both naskh that make things easier for Muslims in the temporal world — like no longer requiring lengthy nocturnal prayers or lowering the number of enemies each Muslim warrior is expected to vanquish; and abrogation that makes things more difficult — for example, the extension of the ritual fast from a few days () to the entire month of Ramadan (). Here the changes are claimed to be lightening because they will help Muslims attain a greater reward in the Hereafter. Still other abrogation — such as the switching of the ''qibla'' — would seem to have no effect on the difficulty or ease for Muslims of either temporal life or the afterlife.

The doctrine (expressed here by Louay Fatoohi) that God "knows the temporariness or permanence of any ruling from the time He issues it", seems hard to square with two verses mentioned above; Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: 27 where God promises that Muslim warriors will overcome ten times that number of unbelievers (Q.8:65), before revealing an abrogating verse — "Now God has alleviated your burden, knowing that there is weakness in you," and lowering the number of unbelievers promised to be overcome to only double the number of Muslims (Q.8:66), suggesting that God abrogates after learning of an area of Muslims' weakness.

A question raised over how aspects of the Quran's message and the Prophet's teachings needed to change over the course of Muhammad's mission as times/circumstances changed, was why the need for change stopped with the death of Muhammad. Muhammad Abduh (reputedly) asks why naskh was employed during the 23 years of the Quran's revelation, but could not be employed over the next 1400+ years when social & life changes were far greater.

Limits of application

Scholars have proposed some limits on the application of abrogation.

Naskh concerns itself with only revelations pertaining to positive laws — commandments (''amr'') or prohibitions (''nahy'').) Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 58 In Tabarī's words:

(However, according to John Burton, this was not true among "some of the oldest exegetes" who "included indiscriminately under ''naskh'' all and every verse where they noted a degree of contradiction, however slight ..." Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 2)

Naskh is applied almost exclusively to the Qur'an and the Sunnah. According to Mohammad Hashim Kamali, its application to '' Ijma`'' and ''Qiyas'' — secondary sources of Sunni Islamic law unlike the Qur'an and the Sunnah not divinely revealed — "has been generally overruled", as abrogation "is not relevant" to ''Ijma'' (the consensus or agreement of Muslim scholars on a religious issue), and the theory of naskh "has no place" in ''Qiyas'' (the process of deductive analogy in Islamic scripture in order to apply a known injunction ('' nass'') to a new circumstance and create a new injunction). Islamic jurists cannot abrogate, it is confined to the lifetime of the Prophet in the Qur'an and Sunnah.

In addition, subjects of Islam that Naskh does not apply to include:
* Attributes of God,
*Belief in the principles of the faith,
*the doctrine of Tawhid (monotheism/oneness of God)
*the doctrine of the hereafter.
*the Sharia of Islam itself
*the ulema (scholars of Islam) are also in agreement "that rational matters and moral truths such as the virtue of doing justice or being good to one's parents, are not changeable and are therefore not open to abrogation".Ahmad Hassan, 'The theory of Naskh' 9651(1) Dr Muhammad Hamidullah Library, IIU, Islamabad, p. 142

If these conditions are met, there are several more that must be satisfied concerning the text to be abrogated and the text abrogating:
*the two texts must be of "equal strength in regard to authenticity (''thubut'') and meaning (''dalalah'')" — otherwise the weaker test is over ruled;
*the two texts must be "genuinely in conflict" — otherwise they should be reconciled with one another;
*the two texts must be "separate and are not related to one another in the sense of one being the condition (''shart''), qualification (''wasf'') or exception (''istithna'') to the other".

According to scholar John Burton three "elements" are necessary "in any one alleged instance of naskh", namely:
:a) the divine origin of both injunctions;
:b) a conflict between two enactments such that it is `quite impossible to implement the two texts jointly`
:c) knowledge of the relative dates of both revelations. Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 18

Scholar Recep Dogan, gives "types of evidence" allowed for ''naskh''. (These are also three in number, but only one — chronology — is the same as Burton's "necessary elements"):
:a) report(s) from Muhammad or his companions,
:b) '' ijma'' (consensus of the mujtahids upon naskh), and
:c) knowledge of the chronology of the Qur'anic revelation.

Chronology

Since an abrogating verse must have been revealed after the verse it abrogates, the validity of abrogation requires a knowledge of the chronology of the primary sources.Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito (1997), Islam, Gender, & Social Change, Oxford University Press, , p. 41
This has historically been a difficult task because the verses in the Qur'an are not arranged by chronology but rather by size of chapters, and even within a chapter, the verses are non-chronologically arranged, so that the context of each revelation is not ascertainable from verses near a verse, or the sequential verse number.Richard Bell (1995), ''Introduction to the Qur'an'', Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 56-63, Ch. 6, 7,
Verses Q.2:190, Q.2:191 and Q.2:192, for example, were revealed to Muhammad six years after the verse Q.2:193.
Thus chronology depends on "the agreement of scholars" (''ijma'') and on ''Tafsir'' reports or the recollection of Hadith transmitters to explain which verse or prophetic statement was revealed before another.
(According to at least one non-Muslim scholar — Andrew Rippin — naskh texts in Islam have not demonstrated that verses rendered invalid by shariah law were revealed earlier, but simply assumed they must have been.) Rippin, "The function of ''asbāb al-nuzūl'' in Qur'ānic exegesis", ''BSOAS'', 51, 1988: p. 18

Types/varieties

Implicit and explicit naskh

Most cases of naskh are "implicit" (''dimni'') — i.e. as noted above they depend on "the agreement of scholars" (''ijma'') to determine if a verse was abrogated. However, a few revelations involve "explicit" (''sarih'') naskh, specifically mentioning some earlier command to be abrogated and replaced with another J.A.C. Brown, ''Misquoting Muhammad'', 2014: p. 99 — though none of them use any form of the word ''naskh''.

*Quranic verses 2:143-50 commands Muhammad and the Muslims to turn their faces away from 'the direction of prayer that you faced before' (Jerusalem) to a new one, one that 'pleases your heart,' (by which is meant the ''Kaaba'' in the Al-Haram Mosque of Mecca).
*In one hadith Muhammad is reported to have said: 'I had prohibited you from visiting graves, but visit them, for indeed in visiting them there is a reminder f death'

Total and partial naskh

Abrogation may be divided into two more types: total abrogation and partial abrogation:

;"Total abrogation"
In the case of "total abrogation" (or ''naskh kulli''), all of the specific statement within the Quran or hadith that the ruling is based on (the '' nass'') is abrogated by another, and a new ruling (''hukm'') is enacted to replace the entire old ruling. An example is found in two Qur'anic verses on the waiting period (''` iddah'') of widows before remarriage.

Al-Baqarah 240 has been interpreted to prescribe a waiting period of one year:
*
But another verse shortened the waiting period to four months and ten days:
*

;"Partial abrogation"
In the case of "partial abrogation" (''naskh juzi''), one verse is only partially abrogated by another. The part not abrogated remains operative. An example of this is the Qur'anic verse on slanderous accusations of adultery against women (known as ''qadhf'').
The "ayah of qadhf" — An-Nur 4 — establishes a general rule that anyone who accuses chaste women of adultery (''zina'') must produce four witnesses for proof:

*

The "ayah of imprecation" (''li'an'') — an-Nur 6 — replaces the four witnesses requirement, but only for one kind of person — the husband of the alleged adulteress. It allowing him to pursue charges of ''zina'' against his wife provided he takes four different oaths to tell the truth and invoked the curse of God upon himself if he is telling a lie. This partially repeals Ayah Q.24:4.
*

;''takhsees''
''Takhsees'' specification', also spelled ''takhsis''and ''istithnā'' (exception) resemble "partial naskh" described above. Like partial naskh, ''takhsees'' qualifies a general ruling 'aam'' so that it only applies in certain cases.

Examples include
#the qualification of the Quranic injunction in Q.5:38 to amputate the hand of the thief, the ''takhsees'' given by Muhammad requires that the thief must have stole something above a certain value.
#the qualification on entering uninhabited houses. verse Q.24:27 states: 'Do not enter houses other than your houses,' but verse Q.24:29 gives an exception: 'There is no blame upon you for entering houses not inhabited in which there is convenience for you.' (At-Tabari)

''Takhees'' is sometimes called another name for partial naskh. However (according to Deen Communication Limited), ''Takhsees'' differs from naskh in that
*it may involve revelations making observations, predictions, etc., rather than laws and rulings 'ahkaam''
*it need not be revealed ''after'' the verse/hadith it is qualifying; and
*need not be restricted to the Qur"an or Sunnah, but may apply to ''ijmaa`'', or ''qiyaas'' and
*may be based on common sense or ''ijtihaad''.

Naskh of ruling, Naskh of verse, or both

Another set of types of naskh are those divided by what is abrogated — ruling, text, or both. (John Burton calls these the three "modes" of the theory of ''naskh''.)
:1. ''naskh al-hukm dūna al-tilāwa'', also 'supersession' or ''ibdal''. The types of naskh mentioned above involve abrogation of an Islamic regulation/ruling (''hukm''), but not the text it is based on. If the regulation/ruling is based on a Qur'ānic verse, that verse is still found in the '' Mus'haf'' (the written Quran). This mode of ''naskh'' — known as — has received widespread recognition, and has been called the "classic" mode of naskh.

But there are two other less accepted (and much less common) varieties of naskh that ''do'' abrogate text, i.e. involve revealed verses that were omitted from the text of the '' Mus'haf''(and thus creates a distinction between the Qur'an as temporally contingent document-i.e. the '' mus'haf''- and the Qur'an as the unity of all revelation ever sent down to Muhammed).Rippin, ''BSOAS'' 47, p. 42
(These naskh do not involve Sunnah/hadith because if the wording of a hadith was deleted during the time of Muhammad, there is no way of knowing it ever existed.) Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 43

:2. ''naskh al-tilāwa dūna al-hukm'' (also ''naskh al-tilawah'' or ''naskh al-qira'ah''), is the abrogation of the wording but not the ruling. Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 181 In this mode of abrogation, Quranic text (this naskh does not apply to the Sunnah) is deleted, but the rule is a still-functional. Proof of the verse's existence is preserved within tradition (i.e through a hadith report) as well as in the ''Fiqh''; and
:3. ''naskh al-hukm wa al-tilawah'', (also known as ''ibtal'' or suppression), that is abrogation of both the verse and the ruling.

According to Ahmad Hassan, these last two types of abrogation of wording/scripture are "not supported by conclusive evidence". According to John Burton, one of the two types -- #2, abrogation of the wording but not the ruling—is acknowledged "only by a minority of scholars".

1. ''naskh al-hukm dūna al-tilāwa''

Examples of verses in the written Quran (''Mus'haf'') that no longer provide a basis for a regulation/ruling (hukm) include most cases of abrogation mentioned above (the two cases of explicit abrogation that involved hadith being the exceptions).

Some have asked why the verses were not edited out of the ''mus'haf'' when it was compiled. Doesn't retaining the verse run the risk of causing confusion to those inadvertently following the repealed rule? A number of rationales have been given for the practice. Tampering/doctoring with sacred texts has been rejected since medieval times — according to Liaquat Ali Khan. Al-Suyuti gives two reasons for their not being purged:

1) it was meritorious to recite the Word of Allah, whether or not the verses had been abrogated;

...the Qur'ān was revealed so that its rulings might be known and their implementation rewarded; but... the Qur'ān is also recited with reverence, since it is the word of God, for whose recitation the pious Muslim is likewise rewarded. Further, to leave the wording, following the abrogation of the ruling was to provide for men a constant reminder of the compassion and mercy shown by their gracious Lord 'ar-Rahman''Who had lightened the burden of some his previous requirements.

2) the verses were "a reminder of God's mercy", since abrogation "was generally directed to making things easier", Muslim could read them and see how their burden had been eased by God's abrogation.

Another question raised is whether abrogating rulings (''al-hukm'') but not Quranic wording (''al-tilawa'') contradicts the verse of abrogation Q.2:106 which states "any ''ayah'' We cause to be superseded or forgotten, We replace with something better or similar", and not "any ''hukm'' We cause to be superseded or forgotten ..." The Arabic word '' Ayah'', is the word used in the Quran for verses in that book, although it is also used for other of God's "signs". If God intended for sharia rulings and not wording to be abrogated why wouldn't verse Q.2:106 say so?
Tafsir scholar Tabarī ingeniously explains this problem away by noting that the faithful believe that no one part of the Quran can be "superior" to any other part (because the Qur'an was composed by the divine author and is ''Mu'jaz'', or so miraculous it is impossible to imitate). However 2:106 talks of God replacing ''ayah'' "with something better or similar". Since all verses of the Quran are all equally wondrous, ayah in this context cannot be referring to the words of the Quran. The principle of ''mu'jaz'', however, does not carry over to shari'a law whose ''wording'' is not divine (those its substance is) and whose quality may vary in excellence. Thus, by process of elimination, John Burton explains, "the only other thing it 'ayah'' in Q.2:106can refer to is the ruling derived from the verse," i.e. "the rulings of the shari'a", ''hukm''. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 89-90

Still another issue was how ayah could be forgotten ("cause to be forgotten") when a prophet like Muhammad was meant to be protected from flaws like forgetting. This was explained by modifying the definition of "cause to be forgotten" ('aw nasaha) to "defer" or "leave". Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 55

2. ''naskh al-tilāwa dūna al-hukm''

This form of naskh — abrogation of the wording (''al-tilāwa'') of some part of the Quran but not the ruling (''al-hukm'') based on that part — is acknowledged "only by a minority of scholars".

The traditional evidence offered for it is the lack of verses for ''rajm'' toning adulterers and ''rada'' inship from breastfeedingin the Quran, notwithstanding the fact that both are generally accepted parts of traditional Islamic law. Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 72 In the first case, a punishment of stoning to death (lapidation) for adultery is found in the Islamic law of the founders of all four surviving schools of Sunni fiqh ('' madhab'') and by the majority of scholars of fiqh, but the penalty prescribed for adultery in the ''mus'haf'' is flogging (in Q.24:2).

An explanation for this is that a " stoning verse" ('' āyat al-rajm'') was abrogated but not the ruling. (Another is that hadith calling for the stoning punishment abrogate the flogging punishment in the Quran, see below.) Muhammad's favorite wife Ā'isha, claims that there was a stoning verse in Quran that was lost, as do other hadith.
(John Burton quotes a commentary/gloss on Aisha's hadith describing how she might explain the abrogation of text.)

However, evidence for the existence of this verse has been criticized as weak, the hadith unreliable, and followers of Maliki and Hanafi fiqh believe evidence for stoning being the proper Islamic punishment comes not from an alleged Quranic verse but from reports of Muhammad calling for execution of adulterers by stoning found in collections of sound ('' sahih'') hadith — meaning that the hadith on stoning abrogate the flogging verse in the Quran. Ahmad Hasan agrees that the punishment of ''rajm'' is based on the Sunnah of the prophet and argues that the wording of the Verse of Rajm found in hadith "appears to be manifestly of a different style than that of the Quranic verses". He also believes that 'Umar's explanation for not including it in the ''mus'haf'' does not make sense. Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 191

Sahih al-Bukhari 6829, Book 86, Hadith 56, Hadith 816 states:

`Umar said, "I am afraid that after a long time has passed, people may say, "We do not find the Verses of the Rajam (stoning to death) in the Holy Book," and consequently they may go astray by leaving an obligation that Allah has revealed. Lo! I confirm that the penalty of Rajam be inflicted on him who commits illegal sexual intercourse, ...

Roslan Abdul-Rahim argues "the cases of ''rajm'' toning and ''rada'' inship from breastfeedingdo not support this form of abrogation:

The trouble with this understanding however is, Q.2:106, the report of Ubayy questioning the Prophet, and the exchange between 'Abd Allah ibn Zubayr with 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, all suggest that naskh is not synonymous with forgetfulness, disappearance of revelations or the exclusion of revelatory texts from the Qur'an.

('Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, once allegedly asked 'Uthman why Q.2:240 was still included in the Qur'an despite having been repealed. 'Uthman reportedly answered, "O my nephew, I will not change anything from it (Qur'an) from its place", suggesting abrogated verses were not deleted.) Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 64

This form of ''naskh'' also poses the question of why a verse important enough to be the basis of immutable ''hukm'' (ruling) dealing with life and death would disappear from the written Quran (''mus'haf''), and what scripture allows it.

Another report used to support ''naskh al-tilāwa dūna al-hukm'' — where Aisha states that a Quranic verse requiring only five suckling of a child to establish foster-parentship was abrogated but which later became the basis of a certain rule in Islamic law — is argued against by Ahmad Hasan on the grounds that rule was rejected by "the ancient schools of slamiclaw". Hasan also argues against the report that some surahs (''muawwadhatdn'') were not included in the ''mus'haf'' saying that "certain companions" heard Muhammad reciting a '' qunut'' or ''du'a'' prayer and thought it was part of the Qur'an.) Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: pp. 191-2

In support of this form of naskh was Al-Shafi'i, who disagreed with Maliki and Hanafi and maintained that the Sunnah cannot abrogate the Quran and the Quran cannot abrogate the Sunnah. (This left ''naskh al-tilāwa dūna al-hukm'' as the way to explain the punishment of stoning.) While Shāfi'ī never postulated the existence of a "stoning verse", he did acknowledge the probability of "abrogation of wording but not ruling", as well as acknowledging Aisha's claim that there was a stoning verse in Quran, which had been lost. Burton, "Those Are the High-Flying Cranes", ''JSS'', 15, 1970: p. 251

3. ''naskh al-hukm wa-'l-tilāwa''

Examples of abrogation of both ruling and wording — where a ruling is voided and its text omitted from the ''mus'haf'' so that the only evidence that it ever existed is in hadith — include the alleged "Satanic Verses" mentioned above, and a (much less controversial) report on how a wet nurse may become a foster parent, (specifically on how many times a wet nurse may breast-feed someone's child before that child is forbidden to marry any of the wet nurse's natural children. A hadith attributed to Aisha states that "among the things that were revealed of the Qur'an was that ten definite breastfeedings make a person a mahram".

Liaquat Ali Khan states that "very few Muslim jurists concede that any portion of the Quran has been removed" through this mode of abrogation. And John Burton writes that this mode is generally acknowledged, in part due to the many alleged instances of revelation being erased:

As to how both ruling and wording were abrogated, supporters point to divine intervention into the memories of Muhammad and his companions causing them to forget a revelation. Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 57 Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 47, 49-50

"Qur'ān-forgetting is clearly adumbrated in the Qur'ān", according to Burton, Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 457 and couple of verses of the Quran talk of God taking away a revelation or causing it to be forgotten:
* Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 47
* Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 46 Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 89
A number of hadith also attest to the phenomenon of forgetting revelation — some describing the forgetting as "a natural failure" of Muhammad's or companions memory, and others as a "miraculous intervention" by God. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 45 One claims that entire suras which the Muslims had previously recited, would be discovered one morning to have been completely erased from memory. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 45, 49-52

The question of whether not just some but ''all'' abrogated verses (''mansukh'') were deleted from the ''mushaf'', (meaning that contrary to scholarly consensus, there is no "classic" mode of naskh, no #1. ''naskh al-hukm dūna al-tilāwa'', because nothing included in the ''mushaf'' has been abrogated, no ''mansukh'' is found there) has been raised by Roslan Abdul-Rahim. Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: pp. 58-9

According to Roslan Abdul-Rahim, one Bukhari hadith reports that the compiler of the ''mushaf'' himself — the third calif '' Uthman ibn Affan'' — declared that he would not "shift ny versefrom its place", indicating no verses would have been excluded from the ''Mushaf'', even if abrogated.
*Hadith. Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 6: Volume 60: Hadith 53 Ibn Az-Zubair 'said to ' Uthman bin 'Affan (while he was collecting the Qur'an) regarding the Verse: "Those of you who die and leave wives ..." (2.240) "This Verse was abrogated by another Verse. So why should you write it? (Or leave it in the Qur'an)?" 'Uthman said. "O son of my brother! I will not shift anything of it from its place.

In addition, according to Abdul-Rahim, verse Q.2:106 and the report of Ubai questioning the Prophet, also suggest that naskh is not synonymous with forgetfulness of revelation. ('Abd al-Rahman b. Abza reports that on one occasion, the scribe Ubayy—noticing that Muhammad had skipped a previously recited verse -- "asked if the Prophet had forgotten a verse or that it had been abrogated ...") Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 61

Abrogation of Quran and Sunnah by one another

Yet another way of classifying naskh is by what ''kind of revelation'' is abrogated and what kind is abrogating.
Some scholars (a minority) believe that different types of revelation cannot abrogate each other — a part of the Sunnah can never abrogate a verse of the Quran and vice versa.
Distinguishing between which of the two kinds of revelations are involved in abrogating and in being abrogated creates four variations of ''naskh'' in this classification:
#a ruling from a verse of the Quran is abrogated by another conflicting ruling from another verse in the Quran (almost all the examples of naskh mentioned above are this form);
#a ruling in the Sunnah is abrogated by another conflicting ruling from the hadith (the two examples of Explicit Abrogation mentioned above — visiting graves and storing sacrificial meat — are examples of this form of ''naskh'');
#a ruling from a verse of the Quran is abrogated by a conflicting hadith (an example being the abrogation of the ayah of bequest in al-Baqarah 2:180 explained below):
#when a ruling from the Sunnah is abrogated by a conflicting ruling from a verse in the Qur'an (an example being the change in the qiblah from Jerusalem to Mecca, a Sunnah practice abrogated by Q.2:144, also explained below).

Regarding variety #3, (Sunnah abrogating the Quran), a consensus of scholars believe that Quranic verse 2:180 — the "ayah of bequest" in al-Baqarah:
*
...has been abrogated by a hadith included in Sunan Abu Dawood collection.
* Abu Dawud, Sunan Abi Dawud 2870. "... no bequest must be made to an heir."

An example of variety #4, (abrogation of part of the Sunnah by a Qur'anic verse) is found above as an example of Explicit Naskh above — namely what the '' qiblah'' (direction facing during salah prayer) should be. This direction was originally Jerusalem/Quds according to hadith included in the collection Sahih al-Bukhari (41)
*... when the Prophet first came to Madinah ... he prayed facing towards Bayt al-Maqdis for sixteen or seventeen months." (John Burton notes that there is no reference in the Quran to praying in the direction of Jerusalem.)

... was abrogated by Ayah 144 of Surah al-Baqarah:
*

Arguments on abrogation between sources

While abrogation by the same type of revelation — i.e. varieties #1 and #2 — are accepted by all scholars (i.e. all who support the orthodox theory of abrogation), abrogation between types of revelation — #3 and #4 — are not.

The scope of Naskh doctrine between sources has been one of the major differences between the Shafi'i and Hanafi fiqhs, with Shafi'i sect of jurisprudence forbidding abrogation by the Sunnah of the Qur'ān, while Hanafi sect allowing abrogation by the Sunnah of the Qur'ān.

The Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools of Sunni Islam maintained that a Sunnah practice from a Hadith can never abrogate a Quranic verse, (according to Yusuf Suiçmez). In contrast, the Hanafi fiqh of Sunni Islam, from the days of Abu Hanifa, along with his disciples such as Abu Yusuf, believe that Sunnah can abrogate a Quranic verse.SUIÇMEZ, Yusuf (2006), Abrogation in Hadith, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol. 23, No 4, pp. 51-53.

*
*
(Q.10:15 specifically refers to the Quran and both verses uses the word ''ayah'', which is the term used to refer to Quranic verses — although as mentioned earlier ''ayah'' is also used to refer to other "signs" of God.)

For Al-Shāfi'ī "I merely follow what is being revealed to me" in meant to that "the sunnah cannot abrogate the Book" but only "follow what it laid down in" it, (according to Yusuf Suiçmez).SUIÇMEZ, Yusuf (2006)
Abrogation in Hadith
p. 51

Al-Shafi'i adduces Q.2:106 as "categorically" allowing abrogation of the Quran only by the Quran, according to Ahmad Hasan, Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 193 and argues that the Quran cannot abrogate the Sunnah because if this were allowed a "host of rules framed by the Prophet would be cancelled". (Stoning of adulterers would be replaced by flogging, etc.) According to another scholar, (John Burton), Al-Shafi'i argues that it is not possible for the Quran to abrogate the Sunnah because "were a Sunnah to be replaced, for example by a Quran revelation, a fresh Sunnah would accompany this revelation, in order to demonstrate that the Prophet's later Sunnah had superseded his earlier Sunnah ...", Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 33-34 Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 466 i.e. having spoken a revelation contradicting what he said or did to his companions, God's messenger would correct what he spoke or did.

"Shāfi'ī set his face decidedly against any acceptance of the idea then current that in all such cases the Qur'ān had abrogated the Sunnah, or the Sunnah the Qur'ān," Burton writes. Shafi'i insisted that "... any verbal discrepancies between the Qur'ān and the reported sayings or reports of the practices of Muhammed — the Sunnah of the Prophet" were illusions that "could always be removed on the basis of a satisfactory understanding of the mechanism of revelation and the function of the prophet-figure".

Shafi'i's stance was a reaction to larger developments within Islamic jurisprudence, particularly the reformulation of the ''fiqh'' away from early foreign or regional influences and toward more eminently Islamic bases such as the Quran. This assertion of Qur'anic primacy was accompanied by calls for an abandonment of the Sunnah. Shāfi'ī's insistence upon the impossibility of contradiction between Sunnah and Qur'an can thus be seen as one component in this larger effort of rescuing the Sunnah:

According to Burton, another argument against this "crossover" of types of revelation in abrogation revolved around concern that unbelievers would use it to argue against the validity of Islam.
If the Sunnah "naskhed" the Quran, unbelievers would be able to say that "Muhammad was saying or doing the opposite of what he alleged was being revealed to him by God"; while if the Quran abrogated the Sunnah they could claim that "God was belying the man who claimed to be His Prophet".

;Replies
One reply to these arguments against crossover of kinds of revelation in abrogation was that the Sunnah — like the Quran — "had also been revealed to Muhammad", and if the Sunnah abrogated the Quran or vice versa, it was "merely" a matter of "one element of revelation" replacing "another". The argument that the Sunnah/Muhammad's actions were of divine origin/revelation was based on Quranic verse
*
(The opposite point of view — that the Sunnah could not naskh the Quran was based on:)
*

While for Al-Shāfi'ī, "I merely follow what is being revealed to me" in meant to that "the sunnah cannot abrogate the Book" but only "follow what it laid down in" it, the Hanafi jurists used that verse to justify their opinion that abrogation of the Qur'an by the life actions of Muhammad (Sunnah) was based solely on his Divine inspiration, that when he acted or said anything, any abrogation implicit through his action, of the earlier Qur'anic ruling was from Allah alone. Hanafi school stated, adds Suicmez, that to accept that "a Sunnah can abrogate the Qur'an entails honoring of Muhammad".

Another argument for allowing abrogation between the Quran and the Sunnah and against the Al-Shafi'i position that Burton believes had no effective counter-argument was the issue of the penalty for adultery in Islamic law. As mentioned above this was stoning death (something widely supported by the Sunni schools of fiqh including the school of Al-Shafi'i, but this punishment was found only in the Sunnah; in the Quran, verse Q.24:2 clearly called for 100 strokes of the lash — not execution — as a penalty for adultery. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 4 The only explanation for this was that this point of Islamic law was based on abrogation of the Quran by the Sunnah. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 7

Abrogation of Jewish and Christian texts

One type of abrogation over which there is little dispute among Muslims is "external naskh", the abrogation of earlier Jewish and Christian religious laws handed down in the Tanakh

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