Second Empire style, also known as the Napoleon III style, is a highly eclectic style of architecture and

decorative arts ] The decorative arts are arts or crafts whose aim is the design and manufacture of objects that are both beautiful and functional. This includes most of the objects for the interiors of buildings, as well as interior design, but typically excl ...

originating in the

Second French Empire The Second French Empire, officially the French Empire, was the government of France from 1852 to 1870. It was established on 2 December 1852 by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, president of France under the French Second Republic, who proclaimed hi ...

. It was characterized by elements of many different historical styles, and also made innovative use of modern materials, such as iron frameworks and glass skylights. It flourished during the reign of Emperor

Napoleon III Napoleon III (Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was President of France from 1848 to 1852 and then Emperor of the French from 1852 until his deposition in 1870. He was the first president, second emperor, and last ...

(1852–1870) and had an important influence on architecture and decoration in the rest of

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

and

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South Ameri ...

. Major examples of the style include the

Opéra Garnier The (, Garnier Palace), also known as (, Garnier Opera), is a historic 1,979-seatBeauvert 1996, p. 102. opera house at the Place de l'Opéra in the 9th arrondissement of Paris, France. It was built for the Paris Opera from 1861 to 1875 at ...

(1862–1871) in

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

by Charles Garnier, the Institut National d'Histoire de l'Art, the Church of Saint Augustine (1860–1871), and the

Philadelphia City Hall Philadelphia City Hall is the seat of the municipal government of the City of Philadelphia in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. Built in the ornate Second Empire style, City Hall houses the chambers of the Philadelphia City Council and the office ...

(1871–1901). The architectural style was closely connected with

Haussmann's renovation of Paris Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works programme commissioned by French Emperor Napoleon III and directed by his prefect of the Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval ...

carried out during the Second Empire; the new buildings, such as the Opéra, were intended as the focal points of the new boulevards.

Characteristics

The Napoleon III or Second Empire style took its inspiration from several different periods and styles, which were often combined in the same building or interior. The interior of the

by Charles Garnier combined architectural elements of the

French Renaissance The French Renaissance was the cultural and artistic movement in France between the 15th and early 17th centuries. The period is associated with the pan-European Renaissance, a word first used by the French historian Jules Michelet to define ...

Palladian architecture Palladian architecture is a European architectural style derived from the work of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). What is today recognised as Palladian architecture evolved from his concepts of symmetry, perspective and ...

, and French Baroque, and managed to give it coherence and harmony. The Lions Gate of the

Louvre Palace The Louvre Palace (, ), often referred to simply as the Louvre, is an iconic French palace located on the Right Bank of the Seine in Paris, occupying a vast expanse of land between the Tuileries Gardens and the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxe ...

by Hector Lefuel is a Louis-Napoléon version of French Renaissance architecture; few visitors to the Louvre realize it is a 19th-century addition to the building. Another characteristic of the Napoleon III style is the adaptation of the design of the building to its function and the characteristics of the material used. Examples include the

Gare du Nord The Gare du Nord (; ), officially Paris Nord, is one of the seven large mainline railway station termini in Paris, France. The station is served by trains that run between the capital and northern France via the Paris–Lille railway, as well ...

railway station by Jacques Ignace Hittorff, the Church of Saint Augustine by

Victor Baltard Victor Baltard (; 9 June 180513 January 1874) was a French architect famed for work in Paris including designing Les Halles market and the Saint-Augustin church. Life Victor was born in Paris, son of architect Louis-Pierre Baltard and attended ...

, and particularly the iron-framed structures of the market of

Les Halles Les Halles (; 'The Halls') was Paris' central fresh food market. It last operated on 12 January 1973 and was replaced by an underground shopping centre and a park. The unpopular modernist development was demolished yet again in 2010, and replac ...

and the reading room of the

Bibliothèque nationale A library is a collection of books, and possibly other materials and media, that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions. Libraries provide physical (hard copies) or digital (soft copies) materials, and may be a p ...

in Paris, both also by Victor Baltard. A basic principle of Napoleon III interior decoration was leave no space undecorated. Another principle was polychromy, an abundance of color obtained by using colored marble,

malachite Malachite () is a copper Carbonate mineral, carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the chemical formula, formula Basic copper carbonate, Cu2CO3(OH)2. This opaque, green-banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often for ...

onyx Onyx is a typically black-and-white banded variety of agate, a silicate mineral. The bands can also be monochromatic with alternating light and dark bands. ''Sardonyx'' is a variety with red to brown bands alternated with black or white bands. ...

, porphyry, mosaics, and silver or gold plated bronze. Wood panelling was often encrusted with rare and exotic woods, or darkened to resemble

ebony Ebony is a dense black/brown hardwood, coming from several species in the genus '' Diospyros'', which also includes the persimmon tree. A few ''Diospyros'' species, such as macassar and mun ebony, are dense enough to sink in water. Ebony is fin ...

. The façade of the Opéra Garnier employed seventeen different colored materials, including various marbles, stones, and bronze.

Architecture

File:Paris Opera full frontal architecture, May 2009.jpg, The

Palais Garnier The (, Garnier Palace), also known as (, Garnier Opera), is a historic 1,979-seatBeauvert 1996, p. 102. opera house at the Place de l'Opéra in the 9th arrondissement of Paris, France. It was built for the Paris Opera from 1861 to 1875 at the ...

in Paris File:GarnierOperaParis.jpg, The grand stairway of the

Paris Opera The Paris Opera ( ) is the primary opera and ballet company of France. It was founded in 1669 by Louis XIV as the , and shortly thereafter was placed under the leadership of Jean-Baptiste Lully and officially renamed the , but continued to be kn ...

, designed by Charles Garnier, in the style he called simply "Napoleon III" File:Central market, Paris, France. Interior.jpg, The interior of one of the giant glass and iron pavilions of

(1853–1870) File:France, Paris II Bibliothèque nationale de France, BnF, Site Richelieu, Salle Labrouste 1854-1875.jpg, The reading room of the Institut National d'Histoire de l'Art, Richelieu site (1854–1875), was designed by

Henri Labrouste Pierre-François-Henri Labrouste () (11 May 1801 – 24 June 1875) was a French architect from the famous school of architecture. After a six-year stay in Rome, Labrouste established an architectural training workshop, which soon became ...

Napoleon III Apartments (44883695984).jpg, The Grand Salon of the apartments of the minister of state, currently known as the

Apartments, in the

, Paris (1859-1860), designed by Hector Lefuel and decorated with paintings by Charles-Raphaël Maréchal File:Saint Augustin Church Paris .jpg, The Church of Saint Augustine (1860–1871), designed by architect

, had a revolutionary iron frame, but an eclectic

Neo-Renaissance Renaissance Revival architecture (sometimes referred to as "Neo-Renaissance") is a group of 19th-century Revivalism (architecture), architectural revival styles which were neither Greek Revival architecture, Greek Revival nor Gothic Revival ar ...

exterior File:Gare du nord - façade.jpg, The

, designed to be one of the new gateways to Paris, with an iron framework combined with allegorical statues of French cities File:Saint Ignatius College Prep 13.JPG, The main building of St. Ignatius College Prep in Chicago, Illinois, designed by Canadian architect Toussaint Menard, is a classic example of the style. It is one of the five extant, public buildings in Chicago that predate the

Great Chicago Fire The Great Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned in the American city of Chicago, Illinois during October 8–10, 1871. The fire killed approximately 300 people, destroyed roughly of the city including over 17,000 structures, and left mor ...

of 1871 Second Empire is an

architectural style An architectural style is a classification of buildings (and nonbuilding structures) based on a set of characteristics and features, including overall appearance, arrangement of the components, method of construction, building materials used, for ...

most popular in the latter half of the 19th century and early years of the 20th century. It was so named for the architectural elements in vogue during the era of the

. As the Second Empire style evolved from its 17th-century Renaissance foundations, it acquired a mix of earlier European styles, most notably the Baroque, often combined with

mansard roof A mansard or mansard roof (also called French roof or curb roof) is a multi-sided gambrel-style hip roof characterised by two slopes on each of its sides, with the lower slope at a steeper angle than the upper, and often punctured by dormer wi ...

s and/or low, square-based domes. The style quickly spread and evolved as

Baroque Revival architecture The Baroque Revival, also known as Neo-Baroque (or Second Empire architecture in France and Wilhelminism in Germany), was an architectural style of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The term is used to describe architecture and architectu ...

throughout Europe and across the Atlantic. Its suitability for super-scaling allowed it to be widely used in the design of municipal and corporate buildings. In the United States, where one of the leading architects working in the style was Alfred B. Mullett, buildings in the style were often closer to their 17th-century roots than examples of the style found in Europe. The dominant architectural style of the Second Empire was

eclecticism Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories i ...

, drawing liberally from the

Gothic style Gothic architecture is an architectural style that was prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas. It evolved from Romanesque ar ...

Renaissance style Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of Ancient Greece, ancient Greek and ...

, and the styles dominant during the reigns of

Louis XV Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity (then defi ...

and

Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...

. The combination was derided by

Émile Zola Émile Édouard Charles Antoine Zola (, ; ; 2 April 184029 September 1902) was a French novelist, journalist, playwright, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of Naturalism (literature), naturalism, and an important contributor to ...

as "the opulent bastard child of all the styles". The best example was the

, begun in 1862 but not finished until 1875. The architect was Charles Garnier (1825–1898), who won the competition for the design when he was only thirty-seven. When asked by the Empress Eugénie what the style of the building was called, he replied simply, "Napoleon III". At the time, it was the largest opera house in the world, but much of the interior space was devoted to purely decorative spaces: grand stairways, huge foyers for promenading, and large private boxes. Another example was the

Mairie In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre (in the UK or Australia), guildhall, or municipal hall (in the Philippines) is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses the city o ...

, or city hall, of the

1st arrondissement of Paris The 1st arrondissement of Paris (''Ier arrondissement'') is one of the 20 Arrondissements of Paris, arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is colloquially referred to as ''le premier'' (the first). I ...

, built in 1855–1861 in a

neo-Gothic Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic) is an architectural movement that after a gradual build-up beginning in the second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half of the 19th century ...

style by the architect Jacques Ignace Hittorff (1792–1867).Renault, Christophe and Lazé, Christophe, ''Les Styles de l'architecture et du mobilier'', (2006), Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. () The

Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution, sometimes divided into the First Industrial Revolution and Second Industrial Revolution, was a transitional period of the global economy toward more widespread, efficient and stable manufacturing processes, succee ...

was beginning to demand a new kind of architecture: bigger, stronger and less expensive. The new age of railways and the enormous increase in travel that it caused required new train stations, large hotels, exposition halls and department stores in Paris. While the exteriors of most Second Empire monumental buildings usually remained eclectic, a revolution was taking place inside; based on the model of

The Crystal Palace The Crystal Palace was a cast iron and plate glass structure, originally built in Hyde Park, London, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. The exhibition took place from 1 May to 15 October 1851, and more than 14,000 exhibitors from around ...

in London (1851), Parisian architects began to use

cast iron Cast iron is a class of iron–carbon alloys with a carbon content of more than 2% and silicon content around 1–3%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloying elements determine the form in which its car ...

frames and walls of glass in their buildings. The most dramatic use of iron and glass was in the new central market of Paris,

(1853–1870), an ensemble of huge iron and glass pavilions designed by

(1805–1874) and Félix Callet (1792–1854). Jacques Ignace Hittorff also made extensive use of iron and glass in the interior of the new

train station (1842–1865), although the façade was perfectly neoclassical, decorated with classical statues representing the cities served by the railway. Baltard also used a steel frame in building the largest new church to be built in Paris during the Empire, the Church of Saint Augustine (1860–1871). While the structure was supported by cast iron columns, the façade was eclectic.

(1801–1875) also used iron and glass to create a dramatic cathedral-like reading room for the

National Library A national library is a library established by a government as a country's preeminent repository of information. Unlike public library, public libraries, these rarely allow citizens to borrow books. Often, they include numerous rare, valuable, ...

, Richelieu site (1854–1875). The Second Empire also saw the completion or restoration of several architecture treasures: the Nouveau Louvre project realized a longstanding ambition of rationalizing the

, the famed stained glass windows and structure of the

Sainte-Chapelle The Sainte-Chapelle (; ) is a royal chapel in the Gothic style, within the medieval Palais de la Cité, the residence of the Kings of France until the 14th century, on the Île de la Cité in the River Seine in Paris, France. Construction b ...

were restored by

Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (; 27 January 181417 September 1879) was a French architect and author, famous for his restoration of the most prominent medieval landmarks in France. His major restoration projects included Notre-Dame de Paris, ...

, and the Cathedral of Notre-Dame underwent extensive restoration. In the case of the Louvre in particular, the restorations were sometimes more imaginative than precisely historical.

Religious architecture

Église Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Belleville1.JPG, Church of Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Belleville in the neo-Gothic style by

Jean-Baptiste Lassus Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Lassus (19 March 1807 – 15 July 1857) was a French architect who became an expert in restoration or recreation of medieval architecture. He was a strong believer in the early Gothic architecture style, which he thought as a ...

(1854–59) Interior of église Saint-Augustin de Paris 22.JPG, Interior of Saint-Augustin; with the roof supported by slender iron columns (1860–71) Eglise Saint Pierre de Montrouge Paris.JPG, Church of Saint-Pierre-de-Montrouge (14th arrondissement) by Joseph Auguste Émile Vaudremer (1863–70) Eglise Saint-Ambroise, Square des Moines de Tibhirine, Paris 21 January 2017.jpg, Church of Saint-Ambroise (11th arrondissement) by Théodore Ballu (1863–68) Cathédrale de la Major (Marseille) frontal.jpg, Marseille Cathedral by

Léon Vaudoyer Léon Vaudoyer (; 7 June 1803 – 9 February 1872) was a French architect. Biography Vaudoyer was born in Paris, the son of architect Antoine Vaudoyer. With his contemporaries Félix Duban, Henri Labrouste, and Louis Duc he became a leadi ...

and Henri-Jacques Espérandieu (1852–96) Facade cathedrale clermont-ferrand.jpg, West façade of the Cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand by

(1866–84) During the Second Empire, under the influence particularly of the architect and historian

, French religious architecture broke away from the neoclassical style which had dominated Paris church architecture since the 18th century. Neo-Gothic and other historical styles began to be built, particularly in the eight new arrondissements farther from the center added by Napoleon III in 1860. The first neo-Gothic church was the Basilica of Sainte-Clothilde, begun by Franz Christian Gau in 1841 and finished by Théodore Ballu in 1857. During the Second Empire, architects began to use metal frames combined with the Gothic style: the Eglise Saint-Laurent, a 15th-century church rebuilt in neo-Gothic style by Simon-Claude-Constant Dufeux (1862–65), Saint-Eugene-Sainte-Cecile by Louis-Auguste Boileau and Louis-Adrien Lusson (1854–55), and Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Belleville by

(1854–59). The largest new church built in Paris during the Second Empire was Church of Saint Augustine (1860–71) by

, the designer of the metal pavilions of the market of

. While the façade was eclectic, the structure inside was modern, supported by slender cast iron columns. Not all churches under Napoleon III were built in the Gothic style. Marseille Cathedral, constructed from 1852 to 1896, was designed in a Byzantine Revival style from 1852 to 1896, principally by

and Henri-Jacques Espérandieu.

The Louvre

Le pavillon de Flore 3.jpg,

Pavillon de Flore The Pavillon de Flore, part of the Louvre Palace in Paris, France, stands at the southwest end of the Louvre, near the Pont Royal. It was originally constructed in 1607–1610, during the reign of Henry IV, as the corner pavilion between t ...

south façade by Hector Lefuel (1864–68) Paris - Palais du Louvre - Pavillon de l'Horloge 002.jpg, Western façade of Pavillon de l'Horloge of the Louvre by Hector Lefuel Guichets du Louvre, Paris 25 June 2011.jpg, Gates of the Louvre by Hector Lefuel (1861) Appartements Napoléon III 4.jpg, Grand Salon of Napoleon III apartments in the Louvre Room of the Louvre museum.jpg, Grand Salon of Napoleon III in the Louvre Apartamentos de Napoleão (3666688904).jpg, Louvre Salon from Napoleon III suite Decorative arts in the Louvre - Room 548 - 03.jpg, Dining room of Napoleon III apartments at Louvre Napoleon III's many projects included the completion of the

, which adjoined his own residence in the

Tuileries Palace The Tuileries Palace (, ) was a palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the Seine, directly in the west-front of the Louvre Palace. It was the Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henri IV to Napoleon III, until it was b ...

. The Nouveau Louvre project was led by architect Hector Lefuel between 1852 and 1857. Between 1864 and 1868, Napoleon III also commissioned Lefuel to rebuild the

; Lefuel added many of his own decorations and ideas to the pavilion, including a celebrated sculpture of Flore by

Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux (; 11 May 1827 – 12 October 1875) was a French sculptor and painter during the Second Empire under Napoleon III. Life Born in Valenciennes, Nord, son of a mason, his early studies were under François Rude. Carpe ...

. Lefuel's ''grands guichets'' of the Louvre originally featured an equestrian statue of Napoleon III by Antoine-Louis Barye over the central arch, which was removed during the Third Republic.

Interior decoration and furniture

Giuseppe Castiglione - Empress Eugenie in the Salon at the Tuileries.jpg, The salon of the Empress Eugénie at the Tuileries Palace Pietradura Compiègne.jpg, Chest in Napoleon III style, with polychrome floral decoration Cadira tipus confident, avantcambra del palau del marqués de Dosaigües.JPG, The chair for intimate conversations called ''le confident'' Compiègne Château de Compiègne Innen Salon de Réception Stuhl.jpg, The "Indiscreet", a chair for three persons Crapaud, Maison de Victor Hugo.jpg, A ''crapaud'' armchair with fringe hiding the legs, from the apartment of

Victor Hugo Victor-Marie Hugo, vicomte Hugo (; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romanticism, Romantic author, poet, essayist, playwright, journalist, human rights activist and politician. His most famous works are the novels ''The Hunchbac ...

Jardinière met putti en bloemtakken, gevat in een metalen montuur, BK-R-4943.jpg, Rococo Revival jardinière with putti and flower sprays, set in a metal frame Comfort was the first priority of Second Empire furniture. Chairs were elaborately upholstered with fringes, tassels, and expensive fabrics. Tapestry work on furniture was very much in style. The structure of chairs and sofas was usually entirely hidden by the upholstery or ornamented with copper, shell, or other decorative elements. Novel and exotic new materials, such as

bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of mostly evergreen perennial plant, perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily (biology), subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family, in th ...

papier-mâché file:JacmelMardiGras.jpg, upright=1.3, Mardi Gras papier-mâché masks, Haiti Papier-mâché ( , , - the French term "mâché" here means "crushed and ground") is a versatile craft technique with roots in ancient China, in which waste paper is s ...

, and

rattan Rattan, also spelled ratan (from Malay language, Malay: ''rotan''), is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the clos ...

, were used for the first time in European furniture, along with

polychrome Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery, or sculpture in multiple colors. When looking at artworks and ...

wood, and wood painted with black

lacquer Lacquer is a type of hard and usually shiny coating or finish applied to materials such as wood or metal. It is most often made from resin extracted from trees and waxes and has been in use since antiquity. Asian lacquerware, which may be c ...

. The upholstered pouffe, or footstool, appeared, along with the angle sofa and unusual chairs for intimate conversations between two persons (''Le confident'') or three people (''Le indiscret''). The ''crapaud'' (or toad) armchair was low, with a thickly padded back and arms, and a fringe that hid the legs of the chair. The French Renaissance and the Henry II style were popular influences on chests and cabinets, buffets and credences, which were massive and built like small cathedrals, decorated with columns, frontons,

cartouches file:Birth and Throne cartouches of pharaoh Seti I, from KV17 at the Valley of the Kings, Egypt. Neues Museum.jpg, upalt=A stone face carved with coloured hieroglyphics. Two cartouches - ovoid shapes with hieroglyphics inside - are visible at the ...

, mascarons, and carved angels and chimeras. They were usually constructed of walnut or oak, or sometimes of poirier stained to resemble

. Another popular influence was the

Louis XVI style Louis XVI style, also called ''Louis Seize'', is a style of architecture, furniture, decoration and art which developed in France during the 19-year reign of Louis XVI (1774–1792), just before the French Revolution. It saw the final phase of t ...

, or French neoclassicism, which was preferred by the Empress Eugénie. Her rooms at the

and other palaces were decorated in this style.

Urbanism – Haussmann's renovation of Paris

PISSARRO Camille L'Avenue de l'Opéra Huile sur toile.jpg, The

Avenue de l'Opéra The Avenue de l'Opéra () was created from 1864 to 1879 as part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris. It is situated in the center of the city, running northwest from the Louvre to the Palais Garnier, the primary opera house of Paris (until the ope ...

painted by

Camille Pissarro Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro ( ; ; 10 July 1830 – 13 November 1903) was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas (now in the US Virgin Islands, but then in the Danish West Indies). ...

(1898). Blv-haussmann-lafayette.jpg, Boulevard Haussmann, with the classic Haussmann-style apartment buildings (1870) Fontaine Saint-Michel Paris DSC 4355.JPG, The Fontaine Saint-Michel by Gabriel Davioud (1856–61) Mairie 19e arrondissement Paris 9.jpg, Mairie of the 19th arrondissement in Paris, by Gabriel Davioud Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois et mairie.jpg, New city hall of 1st Arrondissement (1855–60) (left) and new bell tower (1862) matching the Gothic Church of

Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois The Church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois () is a medieval Roman Catholic church in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, directly across from the Louvre Palace. It was named for Saint Germanus of Auxerre, a medieval bishop of Auxerre, who became a papal ...

The Napoleon III style is inseparable from renovation of Paris under Georges-Eugène Haussmann, the Emperor's Prefect of the Seine between 1852 and 1870. The buildings of the renovation show a singularity of purpose and design, a consistency of

urban planning Urban planning (also called city planning in some contexts) is the process of developing and designing land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportatio ...

that was unusual for the period. Numerous public edifices: railway stations, the tribunal de commerce de Paris, and the Palais Garnier were constructed in the style. The major buildings, including the Opera House and the Church of Saint Augustine, were designed to be the focal points of the new avenues, and to be visible at a great distance. Napoleon III also built monumental fountains to decorate the heart of the city; his Paris city architect, Gabriel Davioud, designed the polychrome Fontaine Saint-Michel (officially the Fontaine de la Paix) at the beginning of Haussmann's new

Boulevard Saint-Michel The Boulevard Saint-Michel () is one of the two major streets in the Latin Quarter of Paris, France, the other being the Boulevard Saint-Germain. It is a tree-lined boulevard which runs south from the Pont Saint-Michel on the Seine and Place ...

. Davioud's other major Napoleon III works included the two theatres at the Place du Châtelet, as well as the ornamental fence of Parc Monceau and the kiosks and temples of the

Bois de Boulogne The Bois de Boulogne (, "Boulogne woodland") is a large public park that is the western half of the 16th arrondissement of Paris, near the suburb of Boulogne-Billancourt and Neuilly-sur-Seine. The land was ceded to the city of Paris by the Em ...

Bois de Vincennes The Bois de Vincennes (), located on the eastern edge of Paris, France, is the largest public park in the city. It was created between 1855 and 1866 by Emperor Napoleon III. The park is next to the Château de Vincennes, a former residence of ...

, and other Paris parks. The expansion of the city limits by Napoleon III and Haussmann's new boulevards called for the construction of a variety of new public buildings, including the new tribunal de commerce (1861–67), influenced by the French Renaissance style, by Théodore Ballu; and the new city hall of the 1st arrondissement, by Jacques Ignace Hittorff (1855–60), in a combination of Renaissance and Gothic styles. The new city hall was located next to the Gothic church of

. Between the two structures, the architect Théodore Ballu constructed a Gothic

bell tower A bell tower is a tower that contains one or more bells, or that is designed to hold bells even if it has none. Such a tower commonly serves as part of a Christian church, and will contain church bells, but there are also many secular bell to ...

(1862), to link the two buildings. New types of architecture connected with the economic expansion: railroad stations, hotels, office buildings, department stores, and exposition halls, occupied the center of Paris, which previously had been largely residential. To improve traffic circulation and bring light and air to the center of the city, Napoleon's Prefect of the Seine destroyed the crumbling and overcrowded neighborhoods in the heart of the city and built a network of grand boulevards. The expanded use of new building materials, especially iron frames, allowed the construction of much larger buildings for commerce and industry.

Architectural restoration

Another aspect of the Napoleon III style was the restoration of historical monuments which had been badly damaged during the French Revolution, or were threatened with destruction by the growth of cities. This program was largely carried out by

, whose neo-Gothic design for a new Paris Opera later came in second to that of Garnier. The restoration of

Notre-Dame de Paris Notre-Dame de Paris ( ; meaning "Cathedral of Our Lady of Paris"), often referred to simply as Notre-Dame, is a Medieval architecture, medieval Catholic cathedral on the Île de la Cité (an island in the River Seine), in the 4th arrondissemen ...

, begun in 1845, continued for twenty-five years. Some of its additions varied from the originals. Viollet-le Duc restored the flèche, or spirelet, of the cathedral, which had been partially destroyed and desecrated during the French Revolution, in a slightly different style, and added

gargoyle In architecture, and specifically Gothic architecture, a gargoyle () is a carved or formed Grotesque (architecture), grotesque with a spout designed to convey water from a roof and away from the side of a building, thereby preventing it from ...

s which had not originally been present to the façade. In 1855, he completed the restoration, begun in 1845, of the stained glass windows of the

, and in 1862 he declared it a national historical monument. He also began restoration programs of the medieval walls of the Cité de Carcassonne and other sites. Viollet-le-Duc's restoration was criticized in the late 20th century for sometimes pursuing the spirit of the original work, rather than strict accuracy (for example, by using a type of Gothic tower cap from northern France for the walls of the Cité de Carcassonne, rather than a tower design from that region), but in Carcassonne and other cases the works would have been destroyed entirely without the intervention of Napoleon III and Viollet-le-Duc.

Landscape design

Bois de Boulogne.jpeg, The

, built between 1852 and 1858, was designed to give a place for relaxation and recreation to all the classes of Parisians. Parc Monceau Grille d'entrée 001.jpg, The monumental gates of the Parc Monceau designed by the city architect Gabriel Davioud Bois de Vincennes 20060816 16.jpg, The Temple of Love on Lac Daumesnil in the

(1865) Napoleon III named Georges-Eugène Haussmann his new Prefect of Seine in 1853, and commissioned him to build new parks on the edges of the city, on the model of Hyde Park in London, the parks he had frequented when he was in exile. Haussmann assembled a remarkable team: Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the city's first Director of the new Service of Promenades and Plantations; Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps, the city's first gardener-in-chief; Eugène Belgrand, a hydraulic engineer who rebuilt the city's sewers and water supply, and provided the water needed for the parks; and Gabriel Davioud, the city's chief architect, who designed chalets, temples, grottos, follies, fences, gates, lodges, lampposts, and other park architecture.De Moncan, Patrice, ''Les Jardins du Baron Haussmann'', pp. 21–29. Over the course of seventeen years, Napoleon III, Haussmann and Alphand created 1,835 hectares of new parks and gardens, and planted more than six hundred thousand trees, the greatest expansion of Paris green space before or since. They built four major parks in the north, south, east, and west of the city, replanted and renovated the historic parks, and added dozens of small squares and gardens, so that no one lived more than ten minutes from a park or square. In addition, they planted tens of thousands of trees along the new boulevards that Haussmann created, reaching out from the center to the outer neighborhoods. The parks of Paris, provided entertainment and relaxation for all classes of Parisians during the Second Empire. The Napoleon III style of landscape design for urban parks was very influential outside of France. The American landscape designer

Frederick Law Olmsted Frederick Law Olmsted (April 26, 1822 – August 28, 1903) was an American landscape architect, journalist, Social criticism, social critic, and public administrator. He is considered to be the father of landscape architecture in the U ...

had a map of the

on the wall of his office.

Central Park Central Park is an urban park between the Upper West Side and Upper East Side neighborhoods of Manhattan in New York City, and the first landscaped park in the United States. It is the List of parks in New York City, sixth-largest park in the ...

in New York City and

Golden Gate Park Golden Gate Park is an urban park between the Richmond District, San Francisco, Richmond and Sunset District, San Francisco, Sunset districts on the West Side (San Francisco), West Side of San Francisco, California, United States. It is the Lis ...

in San Francisco both show the influence of the Napoleon III parks.

Painting – the Paris Salon

Alexandre Cabanel - The Birth of Venus - Google Art Project 2.jpg, ''The Birth of Venus'', by

Alexandre Cabanel Alexandre Cabanel (; 28 September 1823 – 23 January 1889) was a French Painting, painter. He painted historical, classical and religious subjects in the Academic art, academic style. He was also well known as a portrait painter. He was Napoleon ...

, was purchased by Napoleon III at the Paris Salon of 1863, now in

Musée d'Orsay The Musée d'Orsay ( , , ) () is a museum in Paris, France, on the Rive Gauche, Left Bank of the Seine. It is housed in the former Gare d'Orsay, a Beaux-Arts architecture, Beaux-Arts railway station built from 1898 to 1900. The museum holds mai ...

. Le Bain Turc, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, from C2RMF retouched.jpg, ''The Turkish Bath'' by

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres ( ; ; 29 August 1780 – 14 January 1867) was a French Neoclassicism, Neoclassical Painting, painter. Ingres was profoundly influenced by past artistic traditions and aspired to become the guardian of academic ...

(1862), the Louvre Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier-Campagne de France.jpg, ''Campagne de France 1814'' by

Ernest Meissonier Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier (; 21 February 181531 January 1891) was a French academic painter and sculptor. He became famous for his depictions of Napoleon and his military sieges and manoeuvres in paintings acclaimed both for the artist's mas ...

(1864) Musée d'Orsay Napoleon III's taste in paintings was quite traditional, favoring the academic style cultivated in the

Académie des Beaux-Arts The (; ) is a French learned society based in Paris. It is one of the five academies of the . The current president of the academy (2021) is Alain-Charles Perrot, a French architect. Background The academy was created in 1816 in Paris as a me ...

. His favorite artists included

Jean-Léon Gérôme Jean-Léon Gérôme (; 11 May 1824 – 10 January 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style now known as Academic painting, academicism. His paintings were so widely reproduced that he was "arguably the world's most famous living art ...

, and

William-Adolphe Bouguereau William-Adolphe Bouguereau (; 30 November 1825 – 19 August 1905) was a French Academic art, academic painter. In his realistic genre paintings, he used mythological themes, making modern interpretations of Classicism, classical subjects, with a ...

who received important commissions.

Ingres Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres ( ; ; 29 August 1780 – 14 January 1867) was a French Neoclassicism, Neoclassical Painting, painter. Ingres was profoundly influenced by past artistic traditions and aspired to become the guardian of academic ...

near the end of his life, was also still an important figure in both portrait and history painting. During the Second Empire, the

Paris Salon The Salon (), or rarely Paris Salon (French: ''Salon de Paris'' ), beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of the in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world. At the ...

was the most important event of the year for painters, engravers and sculptors. It was held every two years until 1861, and every year thereafter, in the

Palais de l'Industrie The Palais de l'Industrie (; Palace of Industry) was an exhibition hall located in Paris between the Seine River and the Champs-Élysées, which was erected for the Paris World Fair in 1855. This was the last of several buildings with the sam ...

, a gigantic exhibit hall built for the Paris

Exposition Universelle (1855) The of 1855 (), better known in English as the 1855 Paris Exposition, was a world's fair held on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, France, from 15 May to 15 November 1855. Its full official title was the . It was the first of ten major expositions ...

. The Salon granted medals based around the traditional

hierarchy of genres A hierarchy of genres is any formalization which ranks different genres in an art form in terms of their prestige and cultural value. In literature, the Epic poetry, epic was considered the highest form, for the reason expressed by ...

, and a medal from the Salon assured an artist of commissions from wealthy patrons or from the French government. Painters devoted great effort and intrigue to win approval from the jury to present their paintings at the Salon and arrange for good placement in the exhibit halls. The Paris Salon was directed by the Count Émilien de Nieuwerkerke, the Superintendent of Fine Arts, who was known for his conservative tastes. He was scornful of the new school of Realist painters led by

Gustave Courbet Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet ( ; ; ; 10 June 1819 – 31 December 1877) was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and the ...

. In 1863, the jury of the Paris Salon refused all submissions by avant-garde artists, including those by

Édouard Manet Édouard Manet (, ; ; 23 January 1832 – 30 April 1883) was a French Modernism, modernist painter. He was one of the first 19th-century artists to paint modern life, as well as a pivotal figure in the transition from Realism (art movement), R ...

, and Johan Jongkind. The artists and their friends complained, and the complaints reached Napoleon III. His office issued a statement: "Numerous complaints have come to the Emperor on the subject of the works of art which were refused by the jury of the Exposition. His Majesty, wishing to let the public judge the legitimacy of these complaints, has decided that the works of art which were refused should be displayed in another part of the Palace of Industry." Following Napoleon's decree, an exhibit of the rejected paintings, called the

Salon des Refusés The Salon des Refusés, French for "exhibition of rejects" (), is generally known as an exhibition of works rejected by the jury of the official Paris Salon, but the term is most famously used to refer to the Salon des Refusés of 1863. Today, ...

, was held in another part of the Palace of Industry, where the Salon took place. More than a thousand visitors a day came to see now-famous paintings as

's '' Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe'' and

James McNeill Whistler James Abbott McNeill Whistler (; July 10, 1834July 17, 1903) was an American painter in oils and watercolor, and printmaker, active during the American Gilded Age and based primarily in the United Kingdom. He eschewed sentimentality and moral a ...

's '' Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl''. The journalist

reported that visitors pushed to get into the crowded galleries where the refused paintings were hung, and the rooms were full of the laughter and mocking comments of many of the spectators. While the paintings were ridiculed by many critics and visitors, the work of the avant-garde became known for the first time to the French public, and it took its place alongside the more traditional style of painting. The government of Napoleon III also commissioned artists to produce decorative works for public buildings. Ingres was commissioned to paint the ceiling of the main salon of the

Hôtel de Ville, Paris The (, ''City hall (administration), City Hall'') is the city hall of Paris, France, standing on the in the 4th arrondissement of Paris, 4th arrondissement. The south wing was originally constructed by Francis I of France, Francis I beginning ...

with ''the Apotheosis of Napoleon'', the Emperor's uncle. The painting was destroyed in 1871 when the building was set afire by the

Paris Commune The Paris Commune (, ) was a French revolutionary government that seized power in Paris on 18 March 1871 and controlled parts of the city until 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard (France), Nation ...

. Napoleon III named Ingres a Grand Officer of the Légion d'honneur. In 1862 he was awarded the title of Senator, and made a member of the Imperial Council on Public Instruction.

Eugène Delacroix Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix ( ; ; 26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French people, French Romanticism, Romantic artist who was regarded as the leader of the French Romantic school.Noon, Patrick, et al., ''Crossing the Channel: ...

also received important official commissions. From 1857 to 1861 he worked on frescoes for the Chapelle des Anges at the

Church of Saint-Sulpice, Paris The Church of Saint-Sulpice () is a Catholic church in Paris, France, on the east side of Place Saint-Sulpice, in the 6th arrondissement. Only slightly smaller than Notre-Dame and Saint-Eustache, it is the third largest church in the city. ...

. They included "The Battle of Jacob with the Angel", "Saint Michael Slaying the Dragon", and "The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple".

Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot ( , , ; 16 July 1796 – 22 February 1875), or simply Camille Corot, was a French Landscape art, landscape and Portraitist, portrait painter as well as a printmaking, printmaker in etching. A pivotal figure in ...

began his career with study at the

École des Beaux-Arts ; ) refers to a number of influential art schools in France. The term is associated with the Beaux-Arts architecture, Beaux-Arts style in architecture and city planning that thrived in France and other countries during the late nineteenth centu ...

as an academic painter, but gradually began painting more freely and expressing emotions and feelings through his landscapes. His motto was "never lose that first impression which we feel." He made sketches in the forests around Paris, then reworked them into final paintings in his studio. He was showing paintings in the Salon as early as 1827, but he did not achieve real fame and critical acclaim before 1855, during the Second Empire.

Birth of a new art movement

Gustave Courbet 027.jpg,

's '' Young Ladies Beside the Seine (Summer)'' (1856) caused a scandal at the Paris Salon, much to the delight of the artist Edouard Manet - Luncheon on the Grass - Google Art Project.jpg, '' Luncheon on the Grass'' by

also caused a scandal at the Paris Salon of 1863 and helped make Manet famous Claude Monet - Camille.JPG,

Claude Monet Oscar-Claude Monet (, ; ; 14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) was a French painter and founder of Impressionism painting who is seen as a key precursor to modernism, especially in his attempts to paint nature as he perceived it. During his ...

exhibited a portrait of his future wife

Camille Doncieux Camille-Léonie Doncieux (; 15 January 1847 – 5 September 1879) was the first wife of French painter Claude Monet, with whom she had two sons. She was the subject of a number of paintings by Monet, as well as Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Édoua ...

at the Paris Salon of 1866 under the title '' Woman in a Green Dress'' Renoir11.jpg, '' La Grenouillére'' by

Pierre-Auguste Renoir Pierre-Auguste Renoir (; ; 25 February 1841 – 3 December 1919) was a French people, French artist who was a leading painter in the development of the Impressionism, Impressionist style. As a celebrator of beauty and especially femininity, fe ...

. Renoir studied art in Paris in 1862 and showed this painting in the Paris Salon of 1869. Paul Alexis.JPG,

Paul Cézanne Paul Cézanne ( , , ; ; ; 19 January 1839 – 22 October 1906) was a French Post-Impressionism, Post-Impressionist painter whose work introduced new modes of representation, influenced avant-garde artistic movements of the early 20th century a ...

produced a portrait of

Paul Alexis Antoine Joseph Paul Alexis (16 June 1847 – 28 July 1901) was a French novelist, dramatist, and journalist. He is best remembered today as the friend and biographer of Émile Zola. Life Alexis was born at Aix-en-Provence. He attended the Co ...

reading to Cézanne's friend

in 1869–70 Degas - Das Ehepaar Manet.jpg, A portrait of

and his wife by

Edgar Degas Edgar Degas (, ; born Hilaire-Germain-Edgar De Gas, ; 19 July 183427 September 1917) was a French Impressionist artist famous for his pastel drawings and oil paintings. Degas also produced bronze sculptures, prints, and drawings. Degas is e ...

(1868–69) Pierre Puvis de Chavannes - The Wine Press - Google Art Project.jpg, The Wine Press, by Puvis de Chavannes While the academic painters dominated the Salon, new artists and new movements rose to prominent prominence under Napoleon III.

(1819–1872) was the leader of the school of realist painters during the Second Empire who depicted the lives of ordinary people and rural life, as well as landscapes. He delighted in scandal and condemned the art establishment, the Academy of Fine Arts, and Napoleon III. In 1855, when his submissions to the Salon were rejected, he put on his own exhibit of forty of his paintings in a nearby building. In 1870, Napoleon III proposed giving the

Legion of Honour The National Order of the Legion of Honour ( ), formerly the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honour (), is the highest and most prestigious French national order of merit, both military and Civil society, civil. Currently consisting of five cl ...

to Courbet, but Courbet disdainfully rejected the offer. The term

Impressionist Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement characterized by visible brush strokes, open Composition (visual arts), composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage ...

was not invented until 1874, but during the Second Empire, all the major impressionist painters were at work in Paris, inventing their own personal styles.

exhibited two of his paintings, a landscape and portrait of his future wife

, at the Paris Salon of 1866. A major decorative painter whose career was launched under Napoleon III was Puvis de Chavannes. He became known in the

Paris in the Belle Époque Paris in the ''Belle Époque'' was a period in the history of the city during the years 1871 to 1914, from the beginning of the Third French Republic until the World War I, First World War. It saw the construction of the Eiffel Tower, the Paris ...

for his murals in the Paris

Panthéon The Panthéon (, ), is a monument in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, France. It stands in the Latin Quarter, Paris, Latin Quarter (Quartier latin), atop the , in the centre of the , which was named after it. The edifice was built between 1758 ...

, the Sorbonne and the

(1834–1917), the son of a banker, studied academic art at the

and travelled to Italy to study the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...

painters. In 1868, he began to frequent the Café Guerbois, where he met Manet, Monet, Renoir, and the other artists of a new, more natural school, and began to develop his own style.

Sculpture

FontaineQuatrePartiesDuMonde04.jpg, ''The Seasons turning the celestial Sphere'' for the

Fontaine de l'Observatoire The Fontaine de l'Observatoire is a monumental fountain located in the Jardin Marco Polo, south of the Jardin du Luxembourg in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, 6th arrondissement of Paris, with sculpture by Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux. It was dedicate ...

, 1868,

National Museum, Warsaw The National Museum in Warsaw (, MNW) is a national museum in Warsaw, one of the largest museums in Poland and the largest in the capital. It comprises a rich collection of ancient art (Art of ancient Egypt, Egyptian, Art in ancient Greece, Greek, ...

File:Carpeaux Valenciennes 080810 26 Ville.jpg, ''Valenciennes defending the arts of peace with the arts of war'' Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, 1869, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Valenciennes Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux La Danse.jpg, '' La Danse'' (The Dance), for façade of the

(installed 1869) Ugolino and His Sons MET DP247545.jpg, '' Ugolino and His Sons'', Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux 1857–60

Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...

Triomphe de Flore Pavillon de Flore Louvre.jpg, ''Le Triomphe de Flore'' (The Triumph of Flora), by Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux. South façade of the

, Paris The most prominent sculptor of the reign of Napoleon III was

, who contributed to the decoration of several Napoleon III landmarks, including the façade of the ''Opéra Garnier'' and the new additions to the Louvre. His style perfectly complemented the historical styles, but was original and bold enough to stand on its own. Born in

Valenciennes Valenciennes (, also , , ; ; or ; ) is a communes of France, commune in the Nord (French department), Nord Departments of France, department, Hauts-de-France, France. It lies on the Scheldt () river. Although the city and region experienced ...

, Nord, son of a mason, his early studies were under

François Rude François Rude (; 4 January 1784 – 3 November 1855) was a French sculptor, best known for the ''Departure of the Volunteers'', also known as ''La Marseillaise'' on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. (1835–36). His work often expressed patriotic t ...

. Carpeaux entered the

in 1844 and won the

Prix de Rome The Prix de Rome () or Grand Prix de Rome was a French scholarship for arts students, initially for painters and sculptors, that was established in 1663 during the reign of Louis XIV of France. Winners were awarded a bursary that allowed them t ...

in 1854, and moving to Rome to find inspiration, he there studied the works of

Michelangelo Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (6March 147518February 1564), known mononymously as Michelangelo, was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was inspir ...

Donatello Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi ( – 13 December 1466), known mononymously as Donatello (; ), was an Italian Renaissance sculpture, Italian sculptor of the Renaissance period. Born in Republic of Florence, Florence, he studied classical sc ...

and

Verrocchio Andrea del Verrocchio ( , , ; born Andrea di Michele di Francesco de' Cioni; – 1488) was an Italian sculptor, painter and goldsmith who was a master of an important workshop in Florence. He apparently became known as ''Verrocchio'' after the ...

. Staying in Rome from 1854 to 1861, he obtained a taste for movement and spontaneity, which he joined with the great principles of

baroque The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western Style (visual arts), style of Baroque architecture, architecture, Baroque music, music, Baroque dance, dance, Baroque painting, painting, Baroque sculpture, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from ...

art. Carpeaux sought real life subjects in the streets and broke with the classical tradition. His sculpture '' La Danse'' for the façade of the Paris Opera (1869) caused a scandal when it was installed, because of the flamboyant pose of the nude figures. A young new sculptor,

Auguste Rodin François Auguste René Rodin (; ; 12 November 184017 November 1917) was a French sculptor generally considered the founder of modern sculpture. He was schooled traditionally and took a craftsman-like approach to his work. Rodin possessed a u ...

, attempted to break into the sculptural profession during the Second Empire, with no success; he applied three times to the École des Beaux-Arts, but was rejected each time.

Music

Jacques Offenbach by Nadar.jpg,

Jacques Offenbach Jacques Offenbach (; 20 June 18195 October 1880) was a German-born French composer, cellist and impresario. He is remembered for his nearly 100 operettas of the 1850s to the 1870s, and his uncompleted opera ''The Tales of Hoffmann''. He was a p ...

Nadar Gaspard-Félix Tournachon (; 5 April 1820 – 20 March 1910), known by the pseudonym Nadar () or Félix Nadar'','' was a French photographer, caricaturist, journalist, novelist, balloon (aircraft), balloonist, and proponent of History of avi ...

(1860s) La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein.jpg, Hortense Schneider as '' la Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein'' (1867) Théâtre de l'Académie royale de musique - Grande salle.jpg, The old Paris Opera on Rue Pelletier (1864) Charles Gounod 1859 - Huebner 1990 plate2.jpg,

Charles Gounod Charles-François Gounod (; ; 17 June 181818 October 1893), usually known as Charles Gounod, was a French composer. He wrote twelve operas, of which the most popular has always been ''Faust (opera), Faust'' (1859); his ''Roméo et Juliette'' (18 ...

(1859) Young Georges Bizet.png,

Georges Bizet Georges Bizet (; 25 October 18383 June 1875) was a French composer of the Romantic music, Romantic era. Best known for his operas in a career cut short by his early death, Bizet achieved few successes before his final work, ''Carmen'', w ...

(about 1860)

The operetta

Under Napoleon III, a new, lighter musical genre, the

operetta Operetta is a form of theatre and a genre of light opera. It includes spoken dialogue, songs and including dances. It is lighter than opera in terms of its music, orchestral size, and length of the work. Apart from its shorter length, the oper ...

, was born in Paris, and flourished especially in the work of

. It emerged not from the classical opera, but from the comic opera and

vaudeville Vaudeville (; ) is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment which began in France in the middle of the 19th century. A ''vaudeville'' was originally a comedy without psychological or moral intentions, based on a comical situation: a drama ...

, which were very popular at the time. Its characteristics were a light subject, an abundance of amusement and comedy, spoken dialogue mixed with songs, and instrumental music. The first works were staged in 1848 by August Florimond Ronger, better known as Hervé. The works of Hervé included ''Latrouillatt and Truffaldini, or the inconveniences of a vendetta infinitely prolonged too long'' and ''Agamemnon, or the Camel with Two Humps''. The early works were limited to two performers on the stage at a time, and usually were no longer than a single act. After 1858, they became longer and more elaborate, with larger casts and several acts, and took the name first of ''operas bouffes'', then ''operettas''. Hervé opened his own theater, the ''Folies Concertantes'' on the

Boulevard du Temple The Boulevard du Temple (), formerly nicknamed the "Boulevard du Crime", is a thoroughfare in Paris that separates the 3rd arrondissement of Paris, 3rd arrondissement from the 11th arrondissement of Paris, 11th. It runs from the Place de la Répu ...

, the main theater district of Paris, and they were also staged at other theatres around the city. A new composer,

, soon emerged to challenge Hervé. Born in Germany, Offenbach was first a cello player with the orchestra of the

Opéra-Comique The Opéra-Comique () is a Paris opera company which was founded around 1714 by some of the popular Théâtre de la foire, theatres of the Parisian fairs. In 1762 the company was merged with – and for a time took the name of – its chief riva ...

, then the conductor of the orchestra for the

Comédie-Française The Comédie-Française () or Théâtre-Français () is one of the few state theatres in France. Founded in 1680, it is the oldest active theatre company in the world. Established as a French state-controlled entity in 1995, it is the only state ...

, composing music performed between the acts. In 1853, he wrote a short musical scene performed between acts, then a more ambitious short comedy, ''Pepito'', for the

Théâtre des Variétés The Théâtre des Variétés () is a theatre and "salle de spectacles" at 7–8, boulevard Montmartre, 2nd arrondissement, in Paris. It was declared a monument historique in 1974. History The theatre owed its creation to Mademoiselle Montans ...

. He was unable to have his work performed in the major theaters, so he tried a different approach. In 1855, taking advantage of the first Paris Universal Exposition, which brought enormous crowds to the city, he rented a theater on the

Champs-Élysées The Avenue des Champs-Élysées (, ; ) is an Avenue (landscape), avenue in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France, long and wide, running between the Place de la Concorde in the east and the Place Charles de Gaulle in the west, where the Arc ...

and put on his musicals to full houses. He then opened up a new theater, the Bouffes-Parisiens, which opened in 1855 with a work called '' Ba-ta-clan, a Chinese-style Musical''. Offenbach's theater attracted not only the working and middle class audiences, the traditional audience of the music halls, but also the upper classes. The comic opera scenes alternated with musical interludes by

Rossini Gioachino Antonio Rossini (29 February 1792 – 13 November 1868) was an Italian composer of the late Classical and early Romantic eras. He gained fame for his 39 operas, although he also wrote many songs, some chamber music and piano p ...

Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period (music), Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition and proficiency from an early age ...

, and Pergolesi. In 1858 he took a step further with his first full-length operetta, with four acts and a chorus, ''

Orpheus in the Underworld ''Orpheus in the Underworld'' and ''Orpheus in Hell'' are English names for (), a comic opera with music by Jacques Offenbach and words by Hector-Jonathan Crémieux, Hector Crémieux and Ludovic Halévy. It was first performed as a two-act "op ...

''. It was a popular and critical triumph, playing for two hundred twenty-eight nights. After the final night, Napoleon III granted Offenbach French citizenship, and his name changed formally from Jacob to Jacques.

Verdi and Wagner

Grand opera and other musical genres also flourished under Napoleon III. The construction of the railroad stations in Paris brought thousands of tourists from around France and Europe to the city, and increased the demand for music and entertainment. Operas and musicals could play to larger houses, and play for much longer. The old theaters on the "Boulevard of Crime" were demolished to make way for a new boulevard, but larger new theaters were constructed in the center of the city. Verdi signed a contract in 1852 to create a new work for the Paris Opera, in collaboration with

Eugène Scribe Augustin Eugène Scribe (; 24 December 179120 February 1861) was a French dramatist and librettist. He is known for writing "well-made plays" ("pièces bien faites"), a mainstay of popular theatre for over 100 years, and as the librettist of man ...

. The result was '' Les vêpres siciliennes''. Verdi complained that the Paris orchestra and chorus were unruly and undisciplined, and rehearsed them an unheard-of one hundred and sixty-one times before he felt they were ready.Cited in Vila (2007), pages 187-190 His work was rewarded. The opera was a critical and popular success, performed 150 times, rather than the originally proposed forty performances. He was unhappy, however, that his operas were less successful in Paris than those of his chief rival, Meyerbeer; he returned to Italy and did not come back for several years. He was persuaded to return to stage '' Don Carlos'', commissioned especially for the Paris Opera. Once again he ran into troubles; one singer took him to court over the casting, and rivalries between other singers poisoned the production. He wrote afterwards, "I am not a composer for Paris I believe in inspiration; others only care about how the pieces are put together". Napoleon III intervened personally to have

Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, essayist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most o ...

come back to Paris; Wagner rehearsed the orchestra sixty-three times for the first French production of '' Tannhäuser'' on March 13, 1861. Unfortunately, Wagner was unpopular with both the French critics and with the members of the

Jockey Club The Jockey Club is the largest commercial horse racing organisation in the United Kingdom. It owns 15 of Britain's famous racecourses, including Aintree Racecourse, Aintree, Cheltenham Racecourse, Cheltenham, Epsom Downs Racecourse, Epsom ...

, an influential French social society. During the premiere, with Wagner in the audience, the Jockey Club members whistled and jeered from the first notes of the Overture. After just three performances, the Opera was pulled from the repertoire. Wagner got his revenge in 1870, when the Prussian Army captured Napoleon III and surrounded Paris; he wrote a special piece of music to celebrate the event, "Ode to the German Army at Paris". During the Second Empire, before the contraction of the

, Paris had three major opera houses: The Salle Le Pelletier, where the Emperor barely escaped a terrorist bomb in 1858; the

Théâtre Lyrique The Théâtre Lyrique () was one of four opera companies performing in Paris during the middle of the 19th century (the other three being the Paris Opera, Opéra, the Opéra-Comique, and the Théâtre-Italien (1801–1878), Théâtre-Italien). ...

; and Les Italiens, where only Italian works were presented, in Italian. The major French composers of the period included

Hector Berlioz Louis-Hector Berlioz (11 December 1803 – 8 March 1869) was a French Romantic music, Romantic composer and conductor. His output includes orchestral works such as the ''Symphonie fantastique'' and ''Harold en Italie, Harold in Italy'' ...

Félicien David Félicien-César David (13 April 1810 – 29 August 1876) was a French composer. Biography Félicien David was born in Cadenet, and began to study music at the age of five under his father, whose death when the boy was six left him an impoverish ...

, and

Gabriel Fauré Gabriel Urbain Fauré (12 May 1845 – 4 November 1924) was a French composer, organist, pianist and teacher. He was one of the foremost French composers of his generation, and his musical style influenced many 20th-century composers. ...

The new French opera: Gounod and Bizet

While Verdi and Wagner certainly attracted the most attention, young new French composers were also striving to win attention.

wrote his first opera, '' Sapho'', in 1851 at the urging of his friend, the singer

Pauline Viardot Pauline Viardot (; 18 July 1821 – 18 May 1910) was a French dramatic mezzo-soprano, composer and pedagogue of Spanish descent. Born Michelle Ferdinande Pauline García,FitzLyon, p. 15, referring to the baptismal name. Thbirth recorddigitized a ...

; it was a commercial failure. He had no great theatrical success until ''

Faust Faust ( , ) is the protagonist of a classic German folklore, German legend based on the historical Johann Georg Faust (). The erudite Faust is highly successful yet dissatisfied with his life, which leads him to make a deal with the Devil at a ...

'', derived from

Goethe Johann Wolfgang (von) Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German polymath who is widely regarded as the most influential writer in the German language. His work has had a wide-ranging influence on Western literature, literary, Polit ...

, which premiered at the

in 1859. This remains the composition for which he is best known; and although it took a while to achieve popularity, it became one of the most frequently staged operas of all time, with no fewer than 2,000 performances of the work having occurred by 1975 at the Paris Opéra alone.

wrote his first opera, ''

Les pêcheurs de perles ' (, ''The Pearl Fishers'') is an opera in three acts by the French composer Georges Bizet, to a libretto by Eugène Cormon and Michel Carré. It was premiered on 30 September 1863 at the Théâtre Lyrique in Paris, and was given 18 performan ...

'', for the Théâtre Lyrique company. It had its first performance on 30 September 1863. Critical opinion was generally hostile, though Berlioz praised the work, writing that it "does M. Bizet the greatest honour".Curtiss, pp. 140–41 Public reaction was lukewarm, and the opera's run ended after 18 performances. It was not performed again until 1886. Bizet did not have a major success until ''

Carmen ''Carmen'' () is an opera in four acts by the French composer Georges Bizet. The libretto was written by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy, based on the novella of the same title by Prosper Mérimée. The opera was first performed by the O ...

'' in 1875. He died after the thirty-third performance. ''Carmen'' went on to become one of the most performed operas of all time.Dean (1980), pp. 755–56

Popular music

The styles of popular music also evolved under Napoleon III. The ''café-concert'' or ''café-concert'' was a Paris institution, with at least one in every neighborhood. They ranged from a single singer with a piano to elegant cafes with orchestras. A city ordinance, designed to protect the traditional musical theaters, forbid the performers in cafés from wearing costumes, dancing, or

pantomime Pantomime (; informally panto) is a type of musical comedy stage production designed for family entertainment, generally combining gender-crossing actors and topical humour with a story more or less based on a well-known fairy tale, fable or ...

, or the use of sets or scenery; they were also forbidden to sing more than forty songs in an evening, and had to present the program in advance each day. This law was challenged by one ''café-concert'' owner, who hired a former actress from the Comédie-Française to perform scenes of classic plays in costume. The law was revised in 1867, which opened the way to an entirely new institution in Paris, the music hall, with comedy, sets, and costumed singers and dancers. For the first time, the profession of singer was given formal status and composers could seek royalties for the performance of their songs.

Citations

General and cited references

"Second Empire style" (2008). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 1 June 2008, from

Encyclopædia Britannica Online An encyclopedia is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge, either general or special, in a particular field or discipline. Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries that are arranged alphabetically by artic ...

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External links

* {{Revivals Architectural styles Architecture in France * French architectural styles House styles Modern history of France Neoclassical movements Revival architectural styles *Architecture Victorian architectural styles

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Landscape design

Painting – the Paris Salon

Birth of a new art movement

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The operetta

Verdi and Wagner

The new French opera: Gounod and Bizet

Popular music

See also

Citations

General and cited references

External links