Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān al-Tamīmī (1703–1792) was a Sunni Muslim
scholar
A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a termina ...
,
theologian
Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of ...
,
preacher
A preacher is a person who delivers sermons or homilies on religious topics to an assembly of people. Less common are preachers who Open-air preaching, preach on the street, or those whose message is not necessarily religious, but who preach com ...
,
activist
Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct or intervene in social, political, economic or environmental reform with the desire to make changes in society toward a perceived common good. Forms of activism range from mandate build ...
, religious leader,
jurist
A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyzes and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal education in law (a law degree) and often a Lawyer, legal prac ...
, and reformer, who was from
Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
in
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
and is considered as the eponymous founder of the
Wahhabi movement
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other p ...
. His prominent students included his sons Ḥusayn,
Abdullāh, ʿAlī, and Ibrāhīm, his grandson ʿAbdur-Raḥman ibn Ḥasan, his son-in-law
ʿAbdul-ʿAzīz ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿūd, Ḥamād ibn Nāṣir ibn Muʿammar, and Ḥusayn āl-Ghannām.
The label "Wahhabi" is not claimed by his followers but rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics. Born to a family of
jurists
A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyzes and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal education in law (a law degree) and often a legal practition ...
,
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's early education consisted of learning a fairly standard curriculum of
orthodox jurisprudence according to the
Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
school of Islamic law, which was the school most prevalent in his area of birth.
He promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law, proclaiming the necessity of returning directly to the
Quran
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
and
''ḥadīth'' literature rather than relying on medieval interpretations, and insisted that every Muslim male and female personally read and study the Quran. He opposed ''
taqlid
''Taqlid'' (, " imitation") is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on context and age. Cla ...
'' (blind following) and called for the use of ''
ijtihad
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
'' (independent legal reasoning through research of scripture).
Being given religious training under various
Sunni Muslim
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Musli ...
scholars during his travels to
Hejaz
Hejaz is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes the majority of the western region of Saudi Arabia, covering the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif and Al Bahah, Al-B ...
and
Basra
Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab gradually became opposed to certain rituals and practices such as the
visitation to and
veneration
Veneration (; ), or veneration of saints, is the act of honoring a saint, a person who has been identified as having a high degree of sanctity or holiness. Angels are shown similar veneration in many religions. Veneration of saints is practiced, ...
of the
shrines and tombs of Muslim saints,
which he condemned as
heretical religious innovation or even
idolatry
Idolatry is the worship of an idol as though it were a deity. In Abrahamic religions (namely Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith) idolatry connotes the worship of something or someone other than the Abrahamic ...
.
While being known as a
Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
jurist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab minimized reliance on medieval legal manuals, instead engaging in direct interpretation of religious scriptures, based on the
principles of Hanbali jurisprudence. His call for
social reform
Reformism is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements which reject t ...
s was based on the key doctrine of ''
tawhid
''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...
'' (oneness of God), and was greatly inspired by the treatises of classical scholars
Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim schola ...
(d. 728 A.H/ 1328 C.E) and
Ibn Qayyim
Shams ad-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb az-Zurʿī d-Dimashqī l-Ḥanbalī (29 January 1292–15 September 1350 CE / 691 AH–751 AH), commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ("The son of the principal of he scho ...
(d. 751 A.H/ 1350 C.E).
Despite being opposed or rejected by some of his contemporary critics amongst the religious clergy,
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab charted a religio-political pact with
Muhammad bin Saud
Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin Al Saud (; 1687–1765), also known as Ibn Saud, was the emir of Diriyah and is considered the founder of the First Saudi State and the House of Saud, Saud dynasty, named after his father, Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin. ...
to help him to establish the
Emirate of Diriyah
The first Saudi state (), officially the Emirate of Diriyah (), was established in 1744, when the emir of a Najdi town called Diriyah, Muhammad I, and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab signed a pact to found a socio-religious ...
, the first Saudi state, and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
.
The
Al ash-Sheikh, Saudi Arabia's leading religious family, are the descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,
and have historically led the ''
ulama
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
'' in the Saudi state,
[ Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7.] dominating the state's clerical institutions.
[ Metz 1992]
Ancestry and early life
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged to have been born in 1703
[ Philby 1930: 8.] into the sedentary and impoverished
Arab clan of
Banu Tamim
The Banū Tamīm () are an Arab tribe that originated in Najd and Hejaz in the Arabian Peninsula. It is mainly present in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Iraq, Oman, Jordan and Lebanon, and has a strong presence in Algeria, and Morocco, Palestine, ...
in
'Uyayna
Uyayna () is a village in central Saudi Arabia, located some northwest of the Saudi capital Riyadh. Uyayna was the birthplace of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Today, Uyayna is a small village and forms together with its neighbor al-Jubayla the Subg ...
, a village in the
Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
region of central Arabia.
Before the emergence of the movement, there was a very limited history of
Islamic education Islamic education may refer to:
*Islamic studies, the academic study of Islam and Islamic culture
*Madrasah, the Arabic word for any type of educational institution
* Islamic Education Society, an Islamic organization in India
*Education in Islam
...
in the area.
[ For this reason, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had modest access to Islamic education during his youth.][ Despite this,][ ibn Ghannam: 75–76.][ EI2: 677–78.] the area had nevertheless produced several notable jurists
A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyzes and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal education in law (a law degree) and often a legal practition ...
of the Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, which was the school of law most prominently practiced in the area. In fact, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's own family "had produced several doctors of the school," with his father, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, having been the Hanbali jurisconsult
A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyzes and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal education in law (a law degree) and often a legal practitione ...
of the Najd and his grandfather, Sulaymān, having been a judge
A judge is a person who wiktionary:preside, presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a judicial panel. In an adversarial system, the judge hears all the witnesses and any other Evidence (law), evidence presented by the barris ...
of Hanbali law.
Early studies
Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's early education was taught by his father, and consisted of learning the Quran
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
by heart and studying a rudimentary level of Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
jurisprudence
Jurisprudence, also known as theory of law or philosophy of law, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values ...
and Islamic theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding creed. The main schools of Islamic theology include the extant Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools; the extinct ones ...
as outlined in the works of Ibn Qudamah
Ibn Qudama (January/February 11477 July 1223) was an ulama, Islamic scholar and aqidah, theologian of the Hanbali, Hanbali school of Sunni Islam. Born in the Palestine (region), Palestine region, Ibn Qudama authored many important treatises on fi ...
(d. 1223), one of the most influential medieval representatives of the Hanbali school, whose works were regarded "as having great authority" in the Najd. The affirmation of Islamic sainthood and the ability of saints to perform miracles (''karamat
In Sufism, ''karamat'' (, singular ) refers to supernatural wonders performed by Muslim saints. In the technical vocabulary of Islamic religious sciences, the singular form ''karamat'' has a sense similar to ''charism'', a favor or spiritual g ...
'') by the grace of God had become a major aspect of Sunni Muslim
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Musli ...
belief throughout the Islamic world
The terms Islamic world and Muslim world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is ...
, being agreed-upon by majority of the classical Islamic scholars. Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab had encountered various excessive beliefs and practices associated with saint-veneration and saint-cults which were prevalent in his area. During that era, various supernatural rituals and beliefs associated with magic
Magic or magick most commonly refers to:
* Magic (supernatural), beliefs and actions employed to influence supernatural beings and forces
** ''Magick'' (with ''-ck'') can specifically refer to ceremonial magic
* Magic (illusion), also known as sta ...
, superstition
A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic (supernatural), magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly app ...
s, occultism
The occult () is a category of esoteric or supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of organized religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving a 'hidden' or 'secret' agency, such as magic and mystic ...
, numerology
Numerology (known before the 20th century as arithmancy) is the belief in an occult, divine or mystical relationship between a number and one or more coinciding events. It is also the study of the numerical value, via an alphanumeric system, ...
, etc. had become predominant across numerous towns and villages of Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
. He probably chose to leave Najd and look elsewhere for studies to see if such beliefs and rituals were as popular in the neighboring places of the Muslim world or the possibility that his home town offered inadequate educational resources. Even today, the reasoning for why he left Najd is unclear.
Travels
Pilgrimage to Mecca
After leaving 'Uyayna around the age of twenty, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the Greater Pilgrimage in Mecca
Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
, where the scholars appear to have held opinions and espoused teachings that were unpalatable to him. After this, he went to Medina
Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
, the stay at which seems to have been "decisive in shaping the later direction of his thought." In Medina, he met a Hanbali theologian from Najd named ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ibrāhīm al-Najdī, who had been a supporter of the works of Ibn Taymiyyah
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim ulama, ...
(d. 1328), who holds an exceptionally high position in Islamic history. Many Sunni Muslim scholars who adhere to a scripture-focused orthodox methodology praise Ibn Taymiyyah to be a mujadid
A ''mujaddid'' () is an Islamic term for one who brings "renewal" () to the religion. According to the popular Muslim tradition, it refers to a person who appears at the turn of every century of the Islamic calendar to revitalize Islam, clean ...
of the authentic Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
, taking pride in the proliferation of his strict adherence to the Qur'an, Sunnah and way of the companions of Muhammad, though his teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided by some Sunni Muslim scholars who ascribed to the Sufis
Sufism ( or ) is a mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic purification, spirituality, ritualism, and asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as "Sufis" (from , ), and ...
of their time.
Tutelage under Al-Sindhi
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teacher, 'Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi in Medina
Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
, who belonged to the Naqshbandi
Naqshbandi (Persian: نقشبندیه) is a major Sufi order within Sunni Islam, named after its 14th-century founder, Baha' al-Din Naqshband. Practitioners, known as Naqshbandis, trace their spiritual lineage (silsila) directly to the Prophet ...
order (''tariqa
A ''tariqa'' () is a religious order of Sufism, or specifically a concept for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking , which translates as "ultimate truth".
A tariqa has a (guide) who plays the ...
'') of Sufism
Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
, and recommended him as a student. Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi became very close, and Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time.[ Voll 1975: 32–39 "Scholars have described Muhammad Hayya as having an important influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihad). Muhammad Hayya also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab a rejection of popular religious practices associated with 'saints' and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhdbi teachings".] Muhammad Hayya taught Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with wali
The term ''wali'' is most commonly used by Muslims to refer to a saint, or literally a "friend of God".John Renard, ''Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); John ...
s and their tombs. He also encouraged him to reject rigid imitation (''Taqlid
''Taqlid'' (, " imitation") is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on context and age. Cla ...
'') of medieval legal commentaries and develop individual research of scriptures (''Ijtihad
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
''). Influenced by Al-Sindi's teachings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab became critical of the established ''Madh'hab
A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni Islam, Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi school, Hanafi, Maliki school, Maliki, Shafi'i school, Shafi'i and Hanbali school, Hanbali.
They ...
'' system, prompting him to disregard the instruments of ''Usul al-Fiqh
Principles of Islamic jurisprudence () are traditional methodological principles used in Islamic jurisprudence (''fiqh'') for deriving the rulings of Islamic law (''sharia'').
Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how the scri ...
'' in his intellectual approach. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rarely made use of ''Fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.[Fiqh](_blank)
Encyclopædia Britannica ''Fiqh'' is of ...
'' (Islamic jurisprudence) and various legal opinions in his writings, by and large forming views based on his direct understanding of Scriptures.
Apart from his emphasis on hadith studies
Hadith studies is the academic study of hadith, a literature typically thought in Islamic religion to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Muhammad as transmitted through chains of narrators.
A major area of inter ...
, aversion for the ''madhhab'' system and disregard for technical juristic discussions involving legal principles, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb's views on '' ziyārah'' (visitations to the shrines of '' Awliyaa'') were also shaped by Al-Sindhi. Sindi encouraged his student to reject folk practices associated with graves and saints. Various themes in Al-Sindi's writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would be revived later by the Wahhabi
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other ...
movement. Sindi instilled in Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab the belief that practices like beseeching the dead saints constituted apostasy
Apostasy (; ) is the formal religious disaffiliation, disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that is contrary to one's previous re ...
and resembled the customs of the people of ''Jahiliyya
In Islamic salvation history, the ''Jāhiliyyah'' (Age of Ignorance) is an era of pre-Islamic Arabia as a whole or only of the Hejaz leading up to the lifetime of Muhammad.
The Arabic expression (meaning literally “the age or condition of ig ...
'' (pre-Islamic era). In a significant encounter between a young Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Al-Sindhi reported by the Najdi historian 'Uthman Ibn Bishr (d. 1288 A.H./ 1871/2 C.E.):"... one day Shaykh Muḥammad bn 'Abdi'l-Wahhābstood by the chamber of the Prophet where people were calling pon him or supplicatingand seeking help by the Prophet's chamber, blessings and peace be upon him. He then saw Muḥammad Ḥayāt l Sindīand came to him. The shaykh bn 'Abdi'l-Wahhābasked, "What do you say about them?" He l-Sindīsaid, "Verily that in which they are engaged shall be destroyed and their acts are invalid.""
Journey to Basra
Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
, venturing first to Basra
Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
which was still an active center of Islamic culture. During his stay in Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab studied Hadith and Fiqh under the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Majmu'i. In Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with Shi'is
Shia Islam is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political Succession to Muhammad, successor (caliph) and as the spiritual le ...
and would write a treatise repudiating the theological doctrines of ''Rafidah
() refers to those Shia Muslims who reject the legitimacy of the caliphates of Abu Bakr (), Umar (), and Uthman (), in favor of Ali ibn Abi Talib (), the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
In particular, the term appears in ...
'', an extreme sect of Shiism. He also became influenced by the writings of Hanbali theologian Ibn Rajab
Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Rajab (736-795 AH / 1335–1393 CE), commonly known as Ibn Rajab, (which was a nickname he inherited from his grandfather who was born in the month of Rajab), was a muhaddith, scholar, and jurist. Notable for his comme ...
(d. 1393 C.E/ 795 A.H) such as "''Kalimat al-Ikhlas''" which inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's seminal treatise "''Kitab al-Tawhid''".
Return to 'Uyaynah
Early preaching
His leave from Basra
Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
marked the end of his education and by the time of his return to 'Uyayna
Uyayna () is a village in central Saudi Arabia, located some northwest of the Saudi capital Riyadh. Uyayna was the birthplace of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Today, Uyayna is a small village and forms together with its neighbor al-Jubayla the Subg ...
, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had mastered various religious disciplines such as Islamic ''Fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.[Fiqh](_blank)
Encyclopædia Britannica ''Fiqh'' is of ...
'' (jurisprudence), theology
Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...
, hadith sciences
Hadith sciences ( ''ʻilm al-ḥadīth'' "science of hadith")
consists of several religious scholarly disciplines used by Muslim scholars in the study and evaluation of the hadith. ("Science" is used in the sense of a field of study, not to be ...
and ''Tasawwuf
Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
''. His exposure to various practices centered around the cult of saints and grave veneration would eventually propel Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab to grow critical of Sufi superstitious accretions and practices. Rather than targeting "Sufism" as a phenomenon or a group, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced particular practices which he considered sinful. He fashioned his reformist campaign in a manner that appealed to the socio-cultural dynamics of 18th century Arabia. Many of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's scholarly treatises, pamphlets and speeches appropriated idioms of local Arab dialects, monologues of vernacular poetry and catchphrases of folk culture into his religious discourse.
As a gifted communicator with a talent for breaking down his ideas into shorter units, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab entitled his treatises with terms such as ''qawāʿid'' ("principles"), ''masāʾil'' ("matters"), ''kalimāt'' ("phrases"), or ''uṣūl'' ("foundations"), simplifying his texts point by point for mass reading. Calling upon the people to follow his call for religious revival (''tajdid
Islamic revival ('' '', lit., "regeneration, renewal"; also ', "Islamic awakening") refers to a revival of the Islamic religion, usually centered around enforcing sharia. A leader of a revival is known in Islam as a ''mujaddid''.
Within the Isl ...
'' ) based on following the founding texts and the authoritative practices of the first generations of Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared: "I do not - God be blessed - conform to any particular sufi order
Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to:
* A socio-political or established or existing order, e.g. World order, Ancien Regime, Pax Britannica
* Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood
...
or '' faqih'', nor follow the course of any speculative theologian (''mutakalim'') or any other Imam for that matter, not even such dignitaries as ibn al-Qayyim
Shams ad-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb az-Zurʿī d-Dimashqī l-Ḥanbalī (29 January 1292–15 September 1350 CE / 691 AH–751 AH), commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ("The son of the principal of he scho ...
, al-Dhahabi
Shams ad-Dīn adh-Dhahabī (), also known as Shams ad-Dīn Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn ʿUthmān ibn Qāymāẓ ibn ʿAbdillāh at-Turkumānī al-Fāriqī ad-Dimashqī (5 October 1274 – 3 February 1348) was an Atharism, Athari ...
, or ibn Kathir
Abu al-Fida Isma'il ibn Umar ibn Kathir al-Dimashqi (; ), known simply as Ibn Kathir, was an Arab Islamic Exegesis, exegete, historian and scholar. An expert on (Quranic exegesis), (history) and (Islamic jurisprudence), he is considered a lea ...
, I summon you only to God, and Only Him as well as observe the path laid by His Prophet
In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divinity, divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings ...
, God's messenger."
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's call gradually began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. Upon returning to Huraymila
Huraymila is one of the governorates in Riyadh Region, Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsu ...
, where his father had settled, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab wrote his first work on the Unity of God. With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab agreed to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule "over Najd and possibly beyond", in exchange for the ruler's support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. During the early years of preaching, he criticised various folk practices and superstitions peacefully through sermons. Starting from 1742, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would shift towards an activist stance; and began to implement his reformist ideas. First, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the tomb of Zayd ibn al-Khattab
Zayd ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (; – 632) was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad and a brother of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Islamic caliph.
Biography
He was the son of al-Khattab ibn Nufayl, a member of the Adi clan of the Qura ...
, a companion of Muhammad
The Companions of the Prophet () were the Muslim disciples and followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who saw or met him during his lifetime. The companions played a major role in Muslim battles, society, hadith narration, and governance ...
, whose shrine was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down "the most glorified of all of the trees" himself. Third, he organized the stoning
Stoning, or lapidation, is a method of capital punishment where a group throws stones at a person until the subject dies from blunt trauma. It has been attested as a form of punishment for grave misdeeds since ancient times.
Stoning appears t ...
of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.[ Lacey 1983: 56.]
These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid
Bani Khalid () is an Arab tribal confederation mainly inhabiting the Arabian Peninsula. The tribe ruled southern Iraq, Kuwait, and Eastern Arabia ( al-Hasa and al-Qatif) from the 15th century to the 18th century, and again under the protectio ...
, the chief of Al-Hasa Al-Ahsa or Al-Hasa may refer to:
* Al-Ahsa Eyalet, or Lahsa Eyalet, a subdivision of the Ottoman Empire, now part of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Qatar
* Al-Ahsa Oasis, an oasis and historical region in eastern Saudi Arabia.
** Al-Ahsa Governorate, a ...
and Qatif
Qatif Governorate ( ''Al-Qaṭīf'') is a list of governorates of Saudi Arabia, governorate and urban area located in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. It extends from Ras Tanura and Jubail in the north to Damma ...
, who held substantial influence in Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar by denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away from Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.
The early Wahhabis had been protected by Ibn Mu'ammar in 'Uyayna, despite being persecuted in other settlements. As soon as Ibn Mu'ammar disowned them, Wahhabis were subject to excommunication (''Takfir
''Takfir'' () is an Arabic language, Arabic and Glossary of Islam, Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim of being an Apostasy in Islam, apostate. The word is found neither ...
''); exposing themselves to loss of lives and property. This experience of suffering reminded them of the ''Mihna
The Mihna () was a period of religious persecution instituted by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun in 833 in which Sunni scholars were punished, imprisoned, or even killed unless they conformed to Mu'tazilite doctrine. The policy lasted for eighteen y ...
'' against Ahmad Ibn Hanbal
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (; (164-241 AH; 780 – 855 CE) was an Arab Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, traditionist, ascetic and eponym of the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence—one of the four major orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam.
T ...
and his followers, and shaped the collective Wahhabi memory. As late as 1749, the sharif of Mecca
The Sharif of Mecca () was the title of the leader of the Sharifate of Mecca, traditional steward of the Holiest sites in Islam, Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The term ''sharif'' is Arabic for "noble", "highborn", and is used to desc ...
imprisoned those Wahhabis who went to Mecca to perform the ''Hajj
Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
'' (annual pilgrimage).
Pact with Muhammad bin Saud
Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna
Uyayna () is a village in central Saudi Arabia, located some northwest of the Saudi Capital (political), capital Riyadh. Uyayna was the birthplace of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Today, Uyayna is a small village and forms together with its neighbor ...
, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah
Diriyah (; formerly romanization of Arabic, romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya) is a towns in Saudi Arabia, town and governorate in Saudi Arabia. Located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh, Diriyah was the original home of t ...
by its ruler Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin. After some time in Diriyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs
Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of yea ...
of the peninsula
A peninsula is a landform that extends from a mainland and is only connected to land on one side. Peninsulas exist on each continent. The largest peninsula in the world is the Arabian Peninsula.
Etymology
The word ''peninsula'' derives , . T ...
back to the "true" principles of Islam
Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
as they saw it. According to the anonymous author of ''Lam al-Shihab'' (Brilliance of the Meteor), when they first met, Ibn Saud declared:"This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you."
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:"You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad against the unbelievers. In return, you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters."
The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (''bay'ah
''Bayʿah'' (, "Pledge of allegiance"), in Islamic terminology, is an oath of allegiance to a leader. It is known to have been practiced by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In Bedouin culture it was a procedure for choosing the leader of the trib ...
'') in 1744. Once Al-Sa'ud made Dir'iyya a safe haven, Wahhabis from other towns took refuge. These included dissenters from Ibn Mu'ammar clan who had sworn allegiance to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. The nucleus of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's supporters all across Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
retreated to Dir'iyyah and formed the vanguard of the insurgency launched by Al-Saud against other towns.
From a person who started his career as a lone activist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would become the spiritual guide of the nascent Emirate of Muhammad ibn Saud Al-Muqrin. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would be responsible for religious matters and Ibn Saud in charge of political and military issues. This agreement became a "mutual support pact" and power-sharing arrangement between the Aal Saud family, and the '' Aal ash-Sheikh'' and followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, which had remained in place for nearly 300 years, providing the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion. Reviving the teachings of Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim schola ...
, the ''Muwaḥḥidūn'' (Unitarian) movement emphasized strict adherence to ''Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
'' and ''Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
''; while simultaneously championing the conception of an Islamic state
The Islamic State (IS), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Daesh, is a transnational Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist organization and unrecognized quasi-state. IS ...
based on the model of early Muslim community in Medina
Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
. Meanwhile, it's Muslim and Western opponents derogatorily labelled the movement as the "''Wahhābiyyah''" (anglicised as "Wahhabism").
Rise of Emirate of Dir'iyyah
The 1745 pact between Muhammad ibn Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the rise of the First Saudi state
The first Saudi state (), officially the Emirate of Diriyah (), was established in 1744, when the emir of a Najdi town called Diriyah, Muhammad I, and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab signed a pact to found a socio-religious r ...
, the Emirate of Diriyah, which was established in 1727. By offering the Al-Saud a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion. Deducing from his bitter experiences in 'Uyaynah, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had understood the necessity of political backing from a strong Islamic political entity to transform the local socio-religious status quo and also safeguard Wahhabism's territorial base from external pressure. After consolidating his position in Diriyah, he wrote to the rulers and clerics of other towns; appealing them to embrace his doctrines. While some heeded his calls, others rejected it; accusing him of ignorance or sorcery.
War with Riyadh (1746–1773)
Realising the significance of efficient religious preaching (''da'wa
' (, , "invitation", also spelt , , , or ) is the act of inviting people to Islam. The plural is () or (). Preachers who engage in dawah are known as da'i.
Etymology
literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". Gramma ...
''), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab called upon his students to master the path of reasoning and proselytising over warfare to convince other Muslims of their reformist
Reformism is a political tendency advocating the reform of an existing system or institution – often a political or religious establishment – as opposed to its abolition and replacement via revolution.
Within the socialist movement, ref ...
endeavour. Between 1744 and 1746, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's preaching continued in the same non-violent manner as before and spread widely across the people of Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
. Rulers of various towns across Najd pledged their allegiance to Ibn Suʿūd. This situation changed drastically around 1158/1746; when the powerful anti-Wahhabi chieftain of Riyadh
Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyadh Province and the centre of the Riyadh Governorate. Located on the eastern bank of Wadi Hanifa, the current form of the metropolis largely emerged in th ...
, Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), attacked the town of Manfuha
Manfuha () is an ancient village and a historic neighborhood in southern Riyadh, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, located north of Al Masaniʽ (Riyadh), al-Masani and south of Skirina in the sub-municipality of Al Batha, Riyadh, al-Batʼha. Established on ...
which had pledged allegiance to Diriyah
Diriyah (; formerly romanization of Arabic, romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya) is a towns in Saudi Arabia, town and governorate in Saudi Arabia. Located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh, Diriyah was the original home of t ...
. This would spark a nearly 30-year long between Diriyah
Diriyah (; formerly romanization of Arabic, romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya) is a towns in Saudi Arabia, town and governorate in Saudi Arabia. Located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh, Diriyah was the original home of t ...
and Riyadh, which lasted until 1187/1773, barring some interruptions. First conquering Najd, Muhammad ibn Saud's forces expanded the Wahhabi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
, eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb maintained that the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive and rebuked his opponents as being the first to initiate ''Takfir
''Takfir'' () is an Arabic language, Arabic and Glossary of Islam, Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim of being an Apostasy in Islam, apostate. The word is found neither ...
'' (excommunication). Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had defined jihad
''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...
as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an ''Imam
Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
'' whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature. Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as defensive operations against their enemies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, he recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof(42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"
Rebellion in Huraymila (1752–1755)
In 1753–4, the Wahhabis were confronted by an alarming number of towns renouncing allegiance and aligning with their opponents. Most prominent amongst these was the town of Huraymila
Huraymila is one of the governorates in Riyadh Region, Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsu ...
, which had pledged allegiance to Dir'iyah in 1747. However, by 1752, a group of rebels encouraged by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's brother, Sulaymān, had initiated a coup in Huraymila and installed a new ruler that threatened to topple the Wahhābī order. A fierce war between Diriyah and Huraymila began in a magnitude that was unprecedented. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab held a convocation of Wahhabis from all the settlements across Najd. Reviewing the recent desertions and defeats, he encouraged them to hold fast to their faith and recommit to the struggle.
The ensuing battles and the re-capture of Huraymila in 1168/1755, constituted a significant development in Wahhabi expansionist stage. Abd al-Azeez, the son of Muhammad ibn Saud, had emerged as the principal leader of the Wahhabi military operations. Alongside a force of 800 men, accompanied by an additional 200 under the command of the deposed ruler of Huraymila, Abd al Azeez was able to subdue the rebels. More significantly, the rationale behind the campaign was based on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's newly written epistle ''Mufīd al-mustafīd'', which marked a shift from the earlier posture of defensive Jihad
''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...
to justify a more aggressive one. In the treatise, compiled to justify Jihad pursued by Dir'iyyah
Diriyah (; formerly romanization of Arabic, romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya) is a towns in Saudi Arabia, town and governorate in Saudi Arabia. Located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh, Diriyah was the original home of t ...
and its allies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab excommunicated the inhabitants of Huraymila and declared it as a duty of Wahhabi soldiers to fight them as apostates. He also quoted several ''Qur'anic
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
'' verses indicative of offensive forms of jihād.
Capture of Riyadh and Retirement (1773)
The last point of serious threat to the Saudi state was in 1764-1765. During this period, the Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa of Najrān
Najran ( '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia. It is the capital of Najran Province. Today, the city of Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. As of the 2022 census, the city population was 381,431, wit ...
alongside their allied tribe of 'Ujman, combined forces to inflict a major defeat on the Saudis at the Battle of Hair in October 1764, killing around 500 men. The anti-Wahhabi forces allied with the invaders and participated in the combined siege of Dirʿiyya. However, the defenders were able to hold onto their town due to the unexpected departure of the Najranis after a truce concluded with the Saudis. A decade later in 1773-'4, 'Abd al-Azeez had conquered Riyadh
Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyadh Province and the centre of the Riyadh Governorate. Located on the eastern bank of Wadi Hanifa, the current form of the metropolis largely emerged in th ...
and secured the entirety of al-ʿĀriḍ, after its chieftain Dahham ibn Dawwas fled. By 1776/7, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab had surrendered. The capture of Riyadh marked the point at which Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab delegated all affairs of governing to 'Abd al-Azeez, withdrew from public life and devoted himself to teaching, preaching and worshipping. Meanwhile, 'Abd al-Azeez would proceed with his military campaigns, conquering towns like Sudayr (1196/1781), al-Kharj
Kharj () is a List of governorates of Saudi Arabia, governorate in central Saudi Arabia. It is one of the important governorates in Saudi Arabia. Located southeast of the capital, Riyadh, it covers an area of 7640 mi2 (19,790 km2) and has a popu ...
(1199/1784), etc. Opposition in towns to the North like al-Qaṣīm was stamped out by 1196/1781, and the rebels in ʿUnayza were subdued by 1202/1787. Further north, the town of Ḥāʾil, was captured in 1201/1786 and by the 1780s; Wahhābīs were able to establish their jurisdiction over most of Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
.
Death
After his departure from public affairs, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would remain a consultant to 'Abd al-Azeez, who followed his recommendations. However, he withdrew from any active military and political activities of the Emirate of Diriyah and devoted himself to educational endeavours, preaching, and worship. His last major activity in state affairs was in 1202/1787; when he called on the people to give ''bay'ah
''Bayʿah'' (, "Pledge of allegiance"), in Islamic terminology, is an oath of allegiance to a leader. It is known to have been practiced by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In Bedouin culture it was a procedure for choosing the leader of the trib ...
'' (allegiance) to Suʿūd, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's son, as heir apparent.
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fell ill and died in June 1792 C.E or 1206 A.H in the lunar month of Dhul-Qa'dah, at the age of eighty-nine. He was buried in an unmarked grave at al-Turayf in al- Dir'iyya. He left behind four daughters and six sons. Many of his sons became clerics of greater or lesser distinction. The descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are known as the Aal Ash-Shaykhs and they continued to hold a special position in the Saudi state throughout its history, which still continues.
A clear separation of roles between the Saudi family and the Wahhabi clerics had begun to emerge during the interval between Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's retirement from front-line politics in 1773 and his death in 1792. Although the Aal Ash-Shaykhs did not engage in politics, they comprised a significant part of the designating group of notables who gave allegiance (''bay'ah'') to a new ruler and acclaimed his accession. After Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, his son 'Abd Allah, recognised by his critics as moderate and fair-minded, would succeed him as the dominant Wahhabi cleric. The Wahhabi cause would flourish for more than two decades after Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's death; until the defeat of the First Saudi State in the Ottoman-Saudi war. 'Abd Allah would spend his last days as an exile in Cairo
Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
, having witnessed the destruction of Dirʿiyya and the execution of his talented son Sulayman ibn 'Abd Allah in 1818.
Family
According to academic publications such as the ''Encyclopædia Britannica
The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...
'', Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab married an affluent
Wealth is the abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating Old English word , which is from an ...
woman during his studies in Baghdad
Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
. When she died, he inherited her property and wealth.[ EBO ''Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb'' 2011] Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had six sons; Hussain (died 1809), 'Abdallah (1751–1829), Hassan, Ali (died 1829), Ibrahim and 'Abdulazeez who died in his youth. Four of his sons, Hussain, Abdullah, Ali and Ibrahim, established religious schools close to their home in Dir'iyah and taught the young students from Yemen
Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
, Oman
Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
, Najd and other parts of Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
at their ''majlis
(, pl. ') is an Arabic term meaning 'sitting room', used to describe various types of special gatherings among common interest groups of administrative, social or religious nature in countries with linguistic or cultural connections to the Mus ...
'' (study circle).[ One of their pupils was Husayn Ibn Abu Bakr Ibn Ghannam, a well-known ]Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
scholar and chronicler.[ (Although Islamic scholar ibn 'Uthaymin writes about Ibn Ghannam that he was a ]Maliki
The Maliki school or Malikism is one of the four major madhhab, schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas () in the 8th century. In contrast to the Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra'y schools of thought, the ...
scholar from al-Ahsa.)
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also had a daughter named Fatimah, who was a revered Islamic scholar
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
known for her piety, valour and beauty. She was a committed adherent to her father's reformist
Reformism is a political tendency advocating the reform of an existing system or institution – often a political or religious establishment – as opposed to its abolition and replacement via revolution.
Within the socialist movement, ref ...
ideals and taught numerous men and women. Fatimah travelled a lot and remained unmarried throughout her life in order to research hadith sciences and concentrate on her scholarly endeavours. She witnessed the Fall of Dir'iyah and fled to Ras al-Khaimah
Ras Al Khaimah (; ), often referred to its initials RAK, is the largest city and capital of the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah in the U.A.E. The city had a population of 191,753 in 2025, and is the sixth-most populous city in UAE after Dubai, Abu ...
in 1818; which was captured by the British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
the following year. As a result, she was again forced to emigrate along with her nephew; this time to Oman
Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
, wherein she became a major proponent of reformist teachings of the ''Muwahhidun'' and campaigned against various superstitions. Fatimah returned to Riyadh
Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyadh Province and the centre of the Riyadh Governorate. Located on the eastern bank of Wadi Hanifa, the current form of the metropolis largely emerged in th ...
after the establishment of Emirate of Nejd
The second Saudi state (), officially known as the Emirate of Najd, was a state that existed between 1824 and 1891 in the Najd region of what is now Saudi Arabia. Saudi rule was restored to central (Najd) and Eastern Arabia after the first Sau ...
in 1824. Due to her travels, she was often referred to by her appellation "Lady of the Two Migrations". As the daughter of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Fatimah became a role model for Arabian women active in educational efforts and various social undertakings.
The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the Al ash-Sheikh, have historically led the ''ulama
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
'' (clerical establishment) of the Saudi state, dominating the state's religious institutions. Within Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
, the family is held in prestige similar to the Saudi royal family
The House of Saud ( ) is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia. It is composed of the descendants of Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the Emirate of Diriyah, known as the First Saudi State, (1727–1818), and his brothers, though the ruling fa ...
, with whom they share power, and has included several religious scholars and officials.[ Ottaway 2008: 176.] The arrangement between the two families is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating the Salafi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority thereby using its religious-moral authority
Moral authority is authority premised on principles, or fundamental truths, which are independent of written, or positive laws. As such, moral authority necessitates the existence of and adherence to truth. Because truth does not change the princip ...
to legitimize the royal family's rule.
Views
On ''Tawhid''
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to revive and purify Islam
Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the fundamental principles of the Islamic religion. His works were generally short, full of quotations from the ''Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
'' and ''Hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
'', such as his main and foremost theological treatise, ''Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'' (; "The Book of Oneness"). He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (''tawhid
''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...
''), and denounced those religious beliefs and practices widespread amongst the people of Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
. Following Ibn Taymiyya's teachings on ''Tawhid
''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...
'', Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed that much of Najd had descended into superstitious folk religion akin to the period of ''Jahiliyya
In Islamic salvation history, the ''Jāhiliyyah'' (Age of Ignorance) is an era of pre-Islamic Arabia as a whole or only of the Hejaz leading up to the lifetime of Muhammad.
The Arabic expression (meaning literally “the age or condition of ig ...
'' (pre-Islamic era) and denounced much of their beliefs as polytheism
Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one god. According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese folk religions, is really so, or whet ...
(''shirk''). He associated such practices with the culture of ''Taqlid
''Taqlid'' (, " imitation") is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on context and age. Cla ...
'' (imitation to established customs) adored by pagan-cults of ''Jahiliyya'' era. Based on the doctrine of ''Tawhid
''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...
'' espoused in ''Kitab al-Tawhid'', the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred themselves by the designation "''Al-Muwahhidun''" (Unitarians).
The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in ''Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'', a theological treatise which draws from material in the ''Qur'an'' and the recorded doings and sayings of the Islamic prophet
Prophets in Islam () are individuals in Islam who are believed to spread God's message on Earth and serve as models of ideal human behaviour. Some prophets are categorized as messengers (; sing. , ), those who transmit divine revelation, mos ...
Muhammad
Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
in the Hadith literature. It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (''Salat
''Salah'' (, also spelled ''salat'') is the practice of formal ibadah, worship in Islam, consisting of a series of ritual prayers performed at prescribed times daily. These prayers, which consist of units known as rak'a, ''rak'ah'', include ...
''); fasting (''Sawm
In Islam, fasting (known as , ; or , ; ) is the practice of abstaining, usually from food, drink, sexual activity and anything that substitutes food and drink. During the holy month of Ramadan, is observed between dawn and sunset when the of th ...
''); supplication (''Dua
In Islam, ( , plural: ' ) is a prayer of invocation, supplication or request, asking help or assistance from God. Duʿāʾ is an integral aspect of Islamic worship and spirituality, serving as a direct line of communication betwe ...
''); seeking protection or refuge (''Istia'dha''); seeking help (''Ist'ana'' and ''Istigatha'') of Allah.[Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, ''Kitab al-Tawhid'']
According to David Commins
David Commins (born 1954) is an American scholar and Professor of History and Benjamin Rush Chair in the Liberal Arts and Sciences (1987) at Dickinson College. He is known for his works on Wahhabism.
See also
* Namira Nahouza
Namira Nahouza (b ...
, various Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
throughout history had held the view that declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He asserted that an individual who believed in the existence of intercessors or intermediaries alongside God was guilty of ''shirk
Shirk may refer to:
* Shirk (surname)
* Shirk (Islam), in Islam, the sin of idolatry or worshiping beings or things other than God ('attributing an associate (to God)')
* Shirk, Iran, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran
* Shirk-e Sorjeh ...
'' (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents, and led him to label his adversaries who engaged in folk rituals associated with such beliefs to be apostates
Apostasy (; ) is the formal disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that is contrary to one's previous religious beliefs. One who ...
(a practice known in Islamic jurisprudence as ''takfir
''Takfir'' () is an Arabic language, Arabic and Glossary of Islam, Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim of being an Apostasy in Islam, apostate. The word is found neither ...
'') and idolaters (''mushrikin'').
Another major doctrine of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was the concept known as ''Al-'Udhr bil Jahl'' (excuse of ignorance), wherein any ignorant person unaware of core Islamic teachings is excused by default until clarification. As per this doctrine, those who fell into beliefs of ''shirk'' (polytheism) or ''kufr
''Kāfir'' (; , , or ; ; or ) is an Arabic-language term used by Muslims to refer to a non-Muslim, more specifically referring to someone who disbelieves in the Islamic God, denies his authority, and rejects the message of Islam a ...
'' (disbelief) cannot be excommunicated until they have direct access to Scriptural evidences and get the opportunity to understand their mistakes and retract. If not, their affairs are to be delegated only to God. Hence, he believed that education and dialogue was the only effective path for the successful implementation of reforms. Explaining this concept in various pamphlets addressed to the masses and other scholars, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:"What has been mentioned to you about me, that I make generalised ''takfīr
''Takfir'' () is an Arabic and Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim of being an apostate. The word is found neither in the Quran nor in the ''ḥadīth'' literature; ins ...
'', this is from the slanders of the enemies.. ather
Ather Energy is an Indian electric two-wheeler manufacturer headquartered in Bengaluru. It was founded by Tarun Mehta and Swapnil Jain in 2013. It manufactures electric scooters including the Ather 450 series and Ather Rizta. It has EV man ...
we make ''takfīr'' of the one who affirms the religion of Allāh
Allah ( ; , ) is an Arabic term for God, specifically the God of Abraham. Outside of the Middle East, it is principally associated with Islam (in which it is also considered the proper name), although the term was used in pre-Islamic Arabia ...
and His Messenger
Messenger, Messengers, The Messenger or The Messengers may refer to:
People
* Courier, a person or company that delivers messages, packages, or mail
* Messenger (surname)
* Bicycle messenger, a bicyclist who transports packages through cities
* M ...
but then showed enmity towards it and hindered people from it; as well as the one who worshipped idols after he came to know that this is the religion of the polytheists and beautified it for the people nviting them to it. n factevery scholar
A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a termina ...
on the face of the Earth makes ''takfīr'' of them, save an obstinate or ignorant... But we nlymake ''takfīr'' of the one who associates partners with Allāh in His sole right of worship (ilāhiyyah), after we have made clear to him the proof for the futility of ''shirk
Shirk may refer to:
* Shirk (surname)
* Shirk (Islam), in Islam, the sin of idolatry or worshiping beings or things other than God ('attributing an associate (to God)')
* Shirk, Iran, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran
* Shirk-e Sorjeh ...
''."
Rejecting the allegations of his detractors who accused him of ex-communicating whoever didn't follow his doctrines, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab maintained that he only advocated orthodox Sunni doctrines. In a letter addressed to the Iraq
Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
i scholar Abdul Rahman Al-Suwaidi who had sought clarification over the rumours spread against his mission, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab explains:"I am a man of social standing in my village and the people respect my word. This led some chieftains to reject my call, because I called them to what contradicts the traditions they were raised to uphold.... the chieftains directed their criticism and enmity towards our enjoining ''Tawheed'' and forbidding ''Shirk''... Among the false accusations they propagated, ... is the claim that I accuse all Muslims, except my followers, of being Kuffar (Unbelievers)... This is truly incredible. How can any sane person accept such accusations? Would a Muslim say these things? I declare that I renounce, before Allah, these statements that only a mad person would utter. In short, what I was accused of calling to, other than enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk, is all false."
On ''Taqlid''
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of ''Taqlid
''Taqlid'' (, " imitation") is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on context and age. Cla ...
'' ( blind-following), which in his view, deviated people away from ''Qur'an'' and ''Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
''. He also advocated for ''Ijtihad
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
'' of qualified scholars
A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a terminal ...
in accordance with the teachings of ''Qur'an'' and ''Hadith''. In his legal writings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred to a number of sources- ''Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
'', ''hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
'', opinions of companions, ''Salaf
Salaf (, "ancestors" or "predecessors"), also often referred to with the honorific expression of al-salaf al-ṣāliḥ (, "the pious predecessors"), are often taken to be the first three generations of Muslims. This comprises companions of the ...
'' as well as the treatises of the 4 schools of thought. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab argued that Qur'an condemned blind emulation of forefathers and nowhere did it stipulate scholarly credentials for a person to refer to it directly. His advocacy of ''Ijtihad'' and harsh denunciation of ''Taqlid'' arose widespread condemnation from Sufi orthodoxy in Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
and beyond, compelling him to express many of his legal verdicts (''fatwa
A fatwa (; ; ; ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (sharia) given by a qualified Islamic jurist ('' faqih'') in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a ''mufti'', ...
s'') discreetly, using convincing juristic terms. He differed from Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
school in various points of law and in some cases, also departed from the positions of the 4 schools. In his treatise ''Usul al-Sittah'' (Six Foundations), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab vehemently rebuked his detractors for raising the description of ''Mujtahid
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' (i ...
s'' to what he viewed as humanely unattainable levels. He condemned the establishment clergy as a class of oppressors who ran a "tyranny of wordly possessions" by exploiting the masses to make money out of their religious activities. The teachings of Medina
Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
n hadith scholar
Hadith studies is the academic study of hadith, a literature typically thought in Islam, Islamic religion to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Muhammad as transmitted through chains of narrators.
A major area of ...
Muhammad Hayat as Sindi highly influenced the anti-taqlid views of Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab.
Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed partisanship to ''madhabs
A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali.
They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all ...
'' (legal schools) and didn't consider it obligatory to follow a particular madhab. Rather, in his view, the obligation is to follow ''Qur'an'' and the ''Sunnah''. Referring to the classical scholars Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim schola ...
and Ibn Qayyim
Shams ad-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb az-Zurʿī d-Dimashqī l-Ḥanbalī (29 January 1292–15 September 1350 CE / 691 AH–751 AH), commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ("The son of the principal of he scho ...
, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the popular practice prevalent amongst his contemporary scholars to blindfollow latter-day legal works and urged Muslims to take directly from Qur'an and Sunnah. He viewed it as a duty upon every Muslim, laymen and scholar, male & female, to seek knowledge directly from the sources. Radically departing from both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab viewed the entirety of the prevalent ''mad'hab'' system of jurisprudence (''Fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.[Fiqh](_blank)
Encyclopædia Britannica ''Fiqh'' is of ...
'') as a fundamentally corrupt institution, seeking a radical reform of scholarly institutions and preached the obligation of all Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
to directly refer to the foundational texts of revelation. He advocated a form of scholarly authority based upon the revival of the practice of ''ittiba'', i.e., laymen following the scholars only after seeking evidences. The prevalent legal system was, in his view, a "factory for the production of slavish emulators" symbolic of Muslim decline.
On the nature of ''Nubuwwah'' (Prophethood)
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab elucidated his concept on the nature of Prophethood in his book ''Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-Rasūl'' ("Abridgement of the life of the Prophet"), an extensive biographical work on the Islamic prophet Muhammad
Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
. ''Mukhtaṣar'' was written with the purpose of explaining Muhammad's role in universal history by undermining certain prophetologic conceptions that had come to prominence among Sunnī
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Musli ...
religious circles during the twelfth Islamic century. These included negating those concepts and beliefs that bestowed the Prophet with mystical attributes that elevated Muhammad beyond the status of ordinary humans. In his introduction to ''Mukhtasar'', Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts that every Prophet came with the mission of upholding ''Tawhid
''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...
'' and prohibiting ''shirk
Shirk may refer to:
* Shirk (surname)
* Shirk (Islam), in Islam, the sin of idolatry or worshiping beings or things other than God ('attributing an associate (to God)')
* Shirk, Iran, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran
* Shirk-e Sorjeh ...
''. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab further tries to undermine the belief in the pre-existence of Muḥammad as a divine light preceding all other creation, a salient concept that served as an aspect of Prophetic devotion during the eleventh Islamic century. Additionally, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb omitted mentioning other episodes narrated in various '' sirah'' (Prophetic biography) works such as trees and stones allegedly expressing veneration for Muḥammad, purification of Muhammad's heart by angels, etc. which suggested that Muḥammad possessed characteristics that transcend those of ordinary humans.
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab adhered to Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim schola ...
's understanding of the concept of ''Isma Isma is a genus of butterflies.
ISMA may refer to:
* The Ikatan Muslimin Malaysia (ISMA), a Malaysian NGO
* The International Securities Market Association
* The International Supermodified Association, a sanctioning body in modified racing
* The I ...
'' (infallibility) which insisted that ''ʿiṣma'' does not prevent prophets from committing minor sins or speaking false things. This differed from the alternative understanding of Sunni theologians like Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzi, Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ, etc. who had emphasised the complete independence of the Prophet from any form of error or sin. Following Ibn Taymiyya, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab affirmed the incident of '' qiṣṣat al-gharānīq'' (the "story of cranes" or "Satanic Verses") which demonstrated that Muhammad
Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
was afflicted by "Satan
Satan, also known as the Devil, is a devilish entity in Abrahamic religions who seduces humans into sin (or falsehood). In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the '' yetzer hara'', or ' ...
ic interference". This idea of Ibn Taymiyya had been recently revived in the circles of Kurdish
Kurdish may refer to:
*Kurds or Kurdish people
*Kurdish language
** Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji)
**Central Kurdish (Sorani)
**Southern Kurdish
** Laki Kurdish
*Kurdish alphabets
*Kurdistan, the land of the Kurdish people which includes:
**Southern ...
hadith scholar
Hadith studies is the academic study of hadith, a literature typically thought in Islam, Islamic religion to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Muhammad as transmitted through chains of narrators.
A major area of ...
Ibrāhīm al-Kūrānī (1025/1616–1101/1686); whose son Abūl-Ṭāhir al-Kūrānī was the teacher of Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindi, the master of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Using this concept to explain ''Tawhid al-ulūhiyya'' (Oneness of Worship), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the idea that anybody could act as intercessor between God and man by employing the Qurʾānic verses related to the event. He also used these and other similar incidents to undermine the belief regarding prophets being completely free from sin, error, or Satanic afflictions.
Furthermore, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had given little importance to Prophetic miracles in his ''Mukhtaṣar''. Although he hadn't denied miracles as an expression of Divine Omnipotence so long as they are attested by ''Qur'an'' or authentic ''hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
'', ''Al-Mukhtasar'' represented an open protest against the exuberance of miracles that characterised later biographies of Muḥammad
Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
. In Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's view, miracles are of little significance in the life of Muḥammad in comparison to that of the previous prophets, since central to his prophethood were the institutionalisation of '' Jihād'' and the '' ḥudud'' punishments. Contrary to prevalent religious beliefs, Muḥammad was not portrayed as the central purpose of creation in the historical conception of ''Mukhtaṣar''. Instead, he has a function within creation and for the created beings. Rather than being viewed as an extraordinary performer of miracles, Muhammad should instead be upheld as a model of emulation. By depriving the person of Muḥammad of all supernatural aspects not related to '' Wahy'' (revelation) and Divine intervention, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also re-inforced his rejection of beliefs and practices related to cult of saints
In Christian belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness, likeness, or closeness to God. However, the use of the term ''saint'' depends on the context and denomination. In Anglican, Oriental Ortho ...
and veneration of graves. Thus, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's conception of history emphasised the necessity to follow the role-model of Muḥammad and re-establish the Islamic order.
Influence on Salafism
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement is known today as Wahhabism
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to oth ...
(). The designation of his doctrine as ''Wahhābiyyah'' actually derives from his father's name, ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Many adherents consider the label "Wahhabism" as a derogatory term coined by his opponents, and prefer it to be known as the Salafi movement
The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a fundamentalist revival movement within Sunni Islam, originating in the late 19th century and influential in the Islamic world to this day. The name "''Salafiyya''" is a self-designation, claiming a retu ...
. Modern scholars of Islamic studies
Islamic studies is the academic study of Islam, which is analogous to related fields such as Jewish studies and Quranic studies. Islamic studies seeks to understand the past and the potential future of the Islamic world. In this multidiscipli ...
point out that "Salafism" is a term applied to several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. However, modern scholars remark that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's followers adopted the term "Salafi" as a self-designation much later. His early followers denominated themselves as ''Ahl al-Tawhid'' and ''al-Muwahhidun'' ("Unitarians" or "those who affirm/defend the unity of God"), and were labeled "Wahhabis" by their opponents.
The ''Salafiyya
The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a fundamentalist revival movement within Sunni Islam, originating in the late 19th century and influential in the Islamic world to this day. The name "''Salafiyya''" is a self-designation, claiming a retur ...
'' movement was not directly connected to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement in Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
. According to professor Abdullah Saeed
Abdullah Saeed (born May 18, 1984) is a Pakistani-American writer, producer, composer, and journalist. He produced and hosted several TV shows and documentaries for Vice.
Career
Saeed began his career as a music journalist specializing in hip ho ...
, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should rather be considered as one of the "precursors" of the modern ''Salafiyya'' movement since he called for a return to the pristine purity of the early eras of Islam by adhering to the ''Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
'' and the ''Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
'', rejection of the blind following (''Taqlid
''Taqlid'' (, " imitation") is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on context and age. Cla ...
'') of earlier scholars and advocating for ''Ijtihad
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
''. Scholars like Adam J. Silverstein consider Wahhabi movement as "the most influential expression of Salafism of the Islamist sort, both for its role in shaping (some might say: 'creating') modern Islamism, and for disseminating ''salafi'' ideas widely across the Muslim world."
On ''Fiqh''
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's approach to ''Fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.[Fiqh](_blank)
Encyclopædia Britannica ''Fiqh'' is of ...
'' (Islamic jurisprudence) was based on four major principles:
* Prohibition on speaking about God without '' 'Ilm'' (knowledge)
* Ambiguous issues in Scriptures are a mercy to the community and is neither forbidden nor obligatory
* Obligation to abide by the clear evidences from Scriptures
* Rulings of ''halal
''Halal'' (; ) is an Arabic word that translates to in English. Although the term ''halal'' is often associated with Islamic dietary laws, particularly meat that is slaughtered according to Islamic guidelines, it also governs ethical practices ...
'' (allowance) and ''haram
''Haram'' (; ) is an Arabic term meaning 'taboo'. This may refer to either something sacred to which access is not allowed to the people who are not in a state of purity or who are not initiated into the sacred knowledge; or, in direct cont ...
'' (prohibition) are clear in the Scriptures and those issues which are unclear should be left as ambiguous
According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the clear meaning of authentic ''hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
s'' takes precedence over the opinions of any other scholar, even if it went against the agreement of the eponyms of the four ''madhabs
A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali.
They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all ...
''. In line with these principles, he encouraged all believers to engage directly with the Scriptures while respecting ''Ikhtilaf
Ikhtilāf () is an Islamic scholarly religious disagreement, and is hence the opposite of ijma.
Direction in Quran
According to Verse of Obedience, disagreements about any religious matter are to be arbitrated by referring to the Quran and Su ...
'' (scholarly differences), writing:"The companions of the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, differed on various issues without denunciation, so long as the text was not clear. It is upon the believer to place his concern and intent to know the command of God and His Messenger in those matters of disagreement, and to act accordingly whilst respecting the people of knowledge, and respect them, even if they erred, but he does not take them as lords besides God; This is the way of those who are blessed. As for those who throw away their speech and do not respect, then this is the path of those who have incurred God's wrath."
Throughout his epistles like ''Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā'' (Four rules on which rulings revolve), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fiercely attacked the prevalent Hanbali Fiqh opinions; with a broader view of re-orienting the Fiqh tradition. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab challenged the ''madhhab
A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni Islam, Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi school, Hanafi, Maliki school, Maliki, Shafi'i school, Shafi'i and Hanbali school, Hanbali.
They ...
'' system, by advocating for a direct understanding of the Scriptures. Rather than rejecting ''madhabs'' outright, he sought a reformation of the system by condemning prevalent trends within the ''madhabs''. He criticised the ''madhhab'' partisans for adhering solely to medieval ''Fiqh'' manuals of later scholars and ignoring ''Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
'', ''Hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
'' and opinions of early Imams. He rebuked the contemporary Shafi'i
The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Madhhab () or Shafi'i is one of the four major schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionis ...
scholars for being partisans of Ibn Hajar al Haytami (d. 1566) and relying solely on his 16th-century manual ''Tuhfat al Muhtaj''. Similarly, he critiqued the Maliki
The Maliki school or Malikism is one of the four major madhhab, schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas () in the 8th century. In contrast to the Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra'y schools of thought, the ...
s for being dependent on the ''Mukhtasar
Mukhtaṣar (), in Islamic law, refers to a concise handbook of legal treatises, characterized by neatness and clarity. ''Mukhtasar''s originated during the Abbasid caliphate and were created as a method to facilitate the quick training of lawyer ...
'' of the Egyptian jurist Khalil ibn Ishaq (d. 1365) rather than acting upon authentic traditions (''hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
''). In addition to criticising the Madhab partisans, he berated the advocates of ''Taqlid'' for discouraging the practice of ''Ijtihad
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
'' and called on the laity to follow scholars only after asking for Scriptural evidences. Most noticeably, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the authority of ''Al-Iqna'' and ''Al-Muntaha'' - two of the most important medieval Hanbali works for the regional clerics of Arabia - asserting:"The Hanbalis are the least prone of all people to innovation. etmost of the ''Iqna'' and the ''Muntahā'' wo late Hanbali authoritative worksconflicts with the view of Ahmad
Ahmad () is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other English spellings of the name include Ahmed. It is also used as a surname.
Etymology
The word derives from the root ( ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from ...
and his explicit statements, not to mention the hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
of the Messenger of God"
In calling for a direct return to the Scriptures, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was not a literalist and often strongly objected to literalist approaches and ritualism of religion that came with it. He believed that pure intentions (''Niyyah
Niyyah (Arabic: نِيَّةٌ, variously transliterated niyyah, niyya , "intention") is an Islamic concept: the intention in one's heart to do an act for the sake of God (Allah).
The general Islamic principle of ''niyyah'' is laid out in Chapter ...
'') constituted the essence of all virtous actions and upheld its superiority over dull ritualism. As a deferential and accomplished jurist with the experience of religious training under numerous masters in his travels, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab opposed the rigid, hardline views of the tradition-bound ''ulema
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
'' who had excommunicated sinful, unrepenting Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
; thereby making their blood forfeit based on their reading of the reports of Muhammad and Companions. On the other hand, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab contextualised those reports; arguing that they must be understood in recognition of historical circumstances. According to his view, sincerity and purity of intent (''Ikhlas'') could expiate the evil of sins committed in mistakes. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's legal approach began with ''hadith'' authentication, followed by contextualised intrapolation in consideration of Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
legal principles such as ''Maslaha
''Maslaha'' or ''maslahah'' (, ) is a concept in Sharia (Islamic divine law) regarded as a basis of law.I. Doi, Abdul Rahman. (1995). "Mașlahah". In John L. Esposito. ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World''. Oxford: Oxford Univer ...
'' (common good). Other legal criteria involved upholding the spirit of the law, '' Maqasid al-Sharia'', and intent behind pronouncing legal verdicts which addressed various themes such as societal justice and safeguarding women. He also believed in a holistic legal understanding of ''Qur'anic'' verses and ''hadith'', distinguishing between general rules applicable for all Muslims and rulings unique to various life-time situations.
On Islamic revival
As a young scholar in Medina
Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was profoundly influenced by the revivalist doctrines taught by his teachers Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi
Muhammad Hayyat al-Sindhi () (died 3 February 1750) was an Islamic scholar who lived during the period of the Ottoman Empire.
He belonged to the Naqshbandi order of Sufism.
Education and scholarship
Al-Sindhi was born in the Sindh region of mod ...
and Abdullah Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Sayf. Much of the Wahhabi teachings such as opposition to saint-cults, radical denunciation of blind-following medieval commentaries, adherence to Scriptures and other revivalist thoughts came from Muhammad Hayyat. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist efforts were based on a strong belief in ''Tawhid
''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...
'' (Oneness of Allah) and a firm adherence to the Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
. His reformative efforts left exemplary marks on contemporary Islamic scholarship. Viewing Blind adherence ( ''Taqlid'' ) as an obstacle to the progress of Muslims, he dedicated himself to educating the masses for them to be vanguards of Islam. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the degradation and lagging behind of Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
was due to their neglect of the teachings of Islam
Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
, emphasizing that progress could be achieved only by firmly adhering to Islam. He also campaigned against popular Sufi practices associated with ''istigatha'', myths and superstitions.
On Sufism
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab praised Tasawwuf
Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
. He stated the popular saying: "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a '' faqih'' and a scholar who is an ascetic
Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their pra ...
(''zahid'')". He described Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of ''Suluk''", and considered it as an important branch of Islamic religious sciences.
At the end of his treatise, ''Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah'', Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son 'Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of ''tazkiah
() is an Arabic-Islamic term alluding to , meaning 'sanctification' or 'purification of the self'. This refers to the process of transforming the (carnal self or desires) from its state of self-centrality through various spiritual stages ...
'' (purification of the inner self). 'Abd Allah Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:
We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari'ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (''ta'wil'') his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best ''mawla'' and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.
On social reforms
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab concerned himself with the social reformation of his people. As an 18th-century reformer, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al Wahhab called for the re-opening of ''Ijtihad
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
'' by qualified persons through strict adherence to Scriptures in reforming society. His thoughts reflected the major trends apparent in the 18th-century Islamic reform movements. Unlike other reform movements which were restricted to ''da'wa'', Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was also able to transform his movement into a successful Islamic state
The Islamic State (IS), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Daesh, is a transnational Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist organization and unrecognized quasi-state. IS ...
. Thus, his teachings had a profound influence on majority of Islamic reform
Reform refers to the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The modern usage of the word emerged in the late 18th century and is believed to have originated from Christopher Wyvill's Association movement, which ...
- revivalist movements since the 18th century. Numerous significant socio-economic reforms would be advocated by the ''Imam'' during his lifetime. His reforms touched over various fields such as '' aqeeda'', '' ibaadat'' (ritual acts of worship), '' muamalaat'' (social interactions), etc. In the affairs of ''mu'amalat'', he harshly rebuked the practice of leaving endowments to prevent the rightful heirs (particularly the females) from receiving their deserved inheritance. He also objected to various forms of ''riba
''Riba'' (, or , ) is an Arabic word used in Islamic law and roughly translated as " usury": unjust, exploitative gains made in trade or business. ''Riba'' is mentioned and condemned in several different verses in the Qur'an3:130
'' (usury) as well as the practice of presenting judges with gifts, which according to him, was nothing more than bribing. He also opposed and brought an end to numerous un-Islamic taxes that were forced upon the people.
On women
The legal writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab reflected a general concern of female welfare and justice. In line with this approach, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced the practice of instant ''triple talaq
Divorce according to Islamic law can occur in a variety of forms, some initiated by a husband and some by a wife. The main categories of Islamic customary law are ''talaq'' ( repudiation), ''khulʿ'' (mutual divorce) and ''faskh'' (dissolution o ...
'', counting it as only a single ''talaq'' (regardless of the number of pronouncements). The outlawing of ''triple talaq'' is considered to be one of the most significant reforms across the Islamic World
The terms Islamic world and Muslim world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is ...
in the 20th and 21st centuries. Following a balanced approach in issues of gender, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab advocated moderation between men and women in social interactions as well as spirituality. According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, women has a place in society with both rights and responsibility, with the society being obliged to respect her status and protect her. He also condemned forced marriages and declared any marriage contracted without the consent of a woman (be it minor, virgin or non-virgin) to be "invalid". This too was a significant reform as well as a break from the four Sunni schools which allowed the ''wali
The term ''wali'' is most commonly used by Muslims to refer to a saint, or literally a "friend of God".John Renard, ''Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); John ...
'' (ward/guardian) to compel minor daughters into marriage without consent. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also stipulated the permission of the guardian as a condition in marriage (in line with traditional Hanbali, Shafi'i
The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Madhhab () or Shafi'i is one of the four major schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionis ...
and Maliki
The Maliki school or Malikism is one of the four major madhhab, schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas () in the 8th century. In contrast to the Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra'y schools of thought, the ...
schools). Nevertheless, as a practical jurist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab allowed guardians to delegate the right to contract marriages to women herself, after which his permission cannot be denied. He also allowed women the right to stipulate favourable conditions for her in the marriage contract. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also defended the woman's right to divorce through ''Khul'
( ), also called khula, is a procedure based on traditional jurisprudence, that allows a Muslim woman to initiate a divorce by returning the ''mahr'' and everything she received from him during their life together, or without returning anything, ...
'' for various reasons, including in cases wherein she despised her husband. He also prohibited the killing of women, children and various non-combatants such as monks, elderly, blind, ''shaykhs'', slaves and peasants in warfare.
In addition to these, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also defended married women's right to maintenance from her husband; as well as bride's right to receive ''mahr
In Islam, a mahr (in ; ; Bengali: দেনমোহর; ; ; ; also transliterated ''mehr'', ''meher'', ''denmohor, mehrieh'', or ''mahriyeh'') is the bride wealth obligation, in the form of money, possessions or teaching of verses from the Qur ...
'' from her groom. He also strongly campaigned against domestic abuses against women, enjoining men to treat their wives with kindness.
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed in social participation of women for communal solidarity; as per Islamic codes of modesty ('' Haya'') that was inclusive to all sections of society, especially the poor. He also campaigned for improving female literacy and asserted women's education as part of their religious rights and duties. Educated elite women played an important role in the Wahhabi movement through social activism and in various instances also weld significant political influence. Many women were trained in various religious disciplines, memorising ''Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
'' and being proficient in hadith sciences; which gained them civic respect as well as a source of income by teaching. As a result, the townsfolk of 19th-century Central Arabia had noticeably higher rates of literacy as observed by foreign travellers. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also encouraged educated women to be active in various communal activities so as to bolster the reformist
Reformism is a political tendency advocating the reform of an existing system or institution – often a political or religious establishment – as opposed to its abolition and replacement via revolution.
Within the socialist movement, ref ...
campaigns of the ''Muwahhidun'', educating other women, generating awareness of superstitions as well as other cultural activities such as reciting poetry
Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ...
, playing tambourine
The tambourine is a musical instrument in the percussion family consisting of a frame, often of wood or plastic, with pairs of small metal jingles, called "zills". Classically the term tambourine denotes an instrument with a drumhead, thoug ...
during feasts, weddings and various social gatherings. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's own daughter, Fatima was an influential Islamic scholar
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
active in social and communal affairs and would influence subsequent generations of Arabian women.
On Jihad
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb defined jihad
''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...
as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an ''Imam
Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
'' whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature. He viewed the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dirʿiyya as strictly defensive operations against aggressive opponents who initiated ''Takfir
''Takfir'' () is an Arabic language, Arabic and Glossary of Islam, Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim of being an Apostasy in Islam, apostate. The word is found neither ...
'' against his followers. Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as primarily defensive operations, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, 'The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof''(42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"
On Muslim saints
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab strongly condemned the veneration of Muslim saints
The term ''wali'' is most commonly used by Muslims to refer to a saint, or literally a "friend of God".John Renard, ''Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); John ...
(Which he described as worship) or associating divinity to beings other than God, labeling it as ''shirk
Shirk may refer to:
* Shirk (surname)
* Shirk (Islam), in Islam, the sin of idolatry or worshiping beings or things other than God ('attributing an associate (to God)')
* Shirk, Iran, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran
* Shirk-e Sorjeh ...
''. Despite his great aversion to venerating the saints after their earthly passing and seeking their intercession, it should nevertheless be noted that Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not deny the existence of saints as such; on the contrary, he acknowledged that "the miracles of saints (''karāmāt al-awliyāʾ'') are not to be denied, and their right guidance by God is acknowledged" when they acted properly during their life. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposing the practice of the pilgrimage of the saint's tombs as it is considered as Bidʻah
In Islam and sharia (Islamic law), ( , ) refers to innovation in religious matters. Linguistically, as an Arabic word, the term can be defined more broadly, as "innovation, novelty, heretical doctrine, heresy". It is the subject of many hadith ...
(heresy), such as the practice of the pilgrimage towards a tomb believed belong to a companion of the Prophet named Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar
Dhirarr ibn al-Azwar Al-Asadi () also spelled as Diraar or Dirarr (original name Diraar ibn Malik), was a skilled warrior since before the time of Islam who participated in the Early Muslim conquests and a Sahabah, companion of the Islamic proph ...
in the valley of Ghobaira.
On non-Muslims
According to the political scientist
Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and Power (social and political), power, and the analysis of political activities, political philosophy, political thought, polit ...
Dore Gold, Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab presented a strong anti-Christian
Anti-Christian graffiti from the Alexamenos graffito">Alexamenos worships his god.")
Anti-Christian sentiment, also referred to as Christianophobia or Christophobia, is the fear, hatred, discrimination, or prejudice against Christians and/or asp ...
and anti-Judaic stance in his main theological treatise ''Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'', describing the followers of both Christian
A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
and Jewish
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
faiths as sorcerers who believe in devil-worship, and by citing a hadith attributed to the Islamic prophet
Prophets in Islam () are individuals in Islam who are believed to spread God's message on Earth and serve as models of ideal human behaviour. Some prophets are categorized as messengers (; sing. , ), those who transmit divine revelation, mos ...
Muhammad
Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
he stated that capital punishment
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. The sentence (law), sentence ordering that an offender b ...
for the sorcerer is "that he be struck with the sword". Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab asserted that both the Christian and Jewish religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded that "The ways of the People of the Book
People of the Book, or ''Ahl al-Kitāb'' (), is a classification in Islam for the adherents of those religions that are regarded by Muslims as having received a divine revelation from Allah, generally in the form of a holy scripture. The clas ...
are condemned as those of polytheists."
However, Western scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas defended the position of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, stating that:
despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death ... he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife ..."
Reception
By contemporaries
The doctrines of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were criticized by a number of Islamic scholars
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
during his lifetime, accusing him of disregarding Islamic history, monuments, traditions and the sanctity of Muslim life. His critics were mainly ''ulama
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
'' from his homeland, the Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
region of central Arabia, which was directly affected by the growth of the Wahhabi movement
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other p ...
, based in the cities of Basra
Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
, Mecca
Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
, and Medina
Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
. Some of the early opponents of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab classified his doctrine as a "Kharijite
The Kharijites (, singular ) were an Islamic sect which emerged during the First Fitna (656–661). The first Kharijites were supporters of Ali who rebelled against his acceptance of arbitration talks to settle the conflict with his challeng ...
sectarian
Sectarianism is a debated concept. Some scholars and journalists define it as pre-existing fixed communal categories in society, and use it to explain political, cultural, or religious conflicts between groups. Others conceive of sectarianism a ...
heresy
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs or religious law of a religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of heresy.
Heresy in Heresy in Christian ...
".
On the other hand, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and his supporters held that they were the victims of aggressive warfare; accusing their opponents of starting the pronouncements of ''Takfir
''Takfir'' () is an Arabic language, Arabic and Glossary of Islam, Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim of being an Apostasy in Islam, apostate. The word is found neither ...
'' (excommunication) and maintained that the military operations of Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive. The memory of the unprovoked military offensive launched by Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), the powerful chieftain of Riyadh
Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyadh Province and the centre of the Riyadh Governorate. Located on the eastern bank of Wadi Hanifa, the current form of the metropolis largely emerged in th ...
, on Diriyya in 1746 was deeply engrained in the Wahhabi tradition. Early Wahhabi chronicler Ibn Ghannām states in his book ''Tarikh an-Najd'' (History of Najd) that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did not order the use of violence until his enemies excommunicated him and deemed his blood licit:"He gave no order to spill blood or to fight against the majority of the heretics and the misguided until they started ruling that he and his followers were to be killed and excommunicated."
By 1802, the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
had officially begun to wage religious campaigns against the Wahhabis, issuing tracts condemning them as ''Kharijites''. In contrast, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab profoundly despised the "decorous, arty tobacco-smoking, music happy, drum pounding, Egyptian
''Egyptian'' describes something of, from, or related to Egypt.
Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to:
Nations and ethnic groups
* Egyptians, a national group in North Africa
** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of year ...
and Ottoman nobility
Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
who traveled across Arabia to pray at Mecca each year", and intended to either subjugate them to his doctrine or overthrow them. A handful of Arabian
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
s participated on the Ottoman side of the controversy. Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah ibn Humayd's 19th century biographical dictionary sheds light on those Hanbali scholars. However, the reliability of his biography itself is disputed for its inherent biases, which portrays Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his followers as heretics
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs or religious law of a religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of heresy.
Heresy in Christianity, Judai ...
. It also misrepresents many Najdi Najdi may refer to:
*People of Najd
* Najdi (surname)
*Najdi Arabic
Najdi Arabic (, Najdi Arabic: , ) is the group of Arabic varieties originating from the Najd region of Saudi Arabia. Outside of Saudi Arabia, it is also the main Arabic variety ...
Hanbali scholars as on the side of Ottoman Hanbalis.
Ibn Humayd's maternal lineage, Al-Turki, was of some local renown for its religious scholars, including two men who opposed the Wahhabi movement. One of them, named Ibn Muhammad, compared Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab with Musaylimah
Musaylima (), d.632, was a claimant of prophethood from the Banu Hanifa tribe. Based from Diriyah in present day Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, he claimed to be a prophet and was an enemy of Islam in 7th-century Arabia. He was a leader of the enemies of ...
. He also accused Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab of wrongly declaring fellow Muslims to be infidels based on a misguided reading of Quranic passages and prophetic traditions (''Hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
''), and of wrongly declaring all scholars as infidels who did not agree with his "deviant innovation". In contrast to this anti-Wahhabi family tradition, Ibn Humayd's early education included extensive studies under two Wahhabi Shaykhs, both praised in his biographical dictionary. He then travelled to Damascus
Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
and Mecca
Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
, wherein he attended lessons of men known for strong anti-Wahhabi convictions. Ibn Humayd's compatibility with Ottoman religious outlook made him eligible for the post of Ottoman Mufti
A mufti (; , ) is an Islamic jurist qualified to issue a nonbinding opinion ('' fatwa'') on a point of Islamic law (''sharia''). The act of issuing fatwas is called ''iftāʾ''. Muftis and their ''fatāwa'' have played an important role thro ...
in Mecca.
Another Hanbali scholar whom Ibn Humayd portrays as a central figure in rejecting Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was Ibn Fayruz Al-Tamimi al-Ahsai (1729/30 – 1801/02). Ibn Fayruz publicly repudiated Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings when he sent an envoy to him. Ibn Fayruz then wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid I and requested Ottoman assistance to subjugate Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's followers, whom he referred to as the "seditious Kharijites
The Kharijites (, singular ) were an Islamic sect which emerged during the First Fitna (656–661). The first Kharijites were supporters of Ali who rebelled against his acceptance of arbitration talks to settle the conflict with his challeng ...
" of Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
. The Wahhabis, in turn, came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.
According to Ibn Humayd, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's father criticized his son for his unwillingness to specialize in jurisprudence and disagreed with his doctrine and declared that he would be the cause of wickedness. Similarly his brother, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab, wrote one of the first treatises refuting the Wahhabi doctrine,[ ''The Divine Thunderbolts in Refutation of Wahhabism'' (''Al-Šawā'iq Al-Ilāhiyya fī Al-radd 'alā Al-Wahhābiyya''),] alleging that Muhammad was ill-educated and intolerant, and classing his views as fringe and fanatical. Sulayman's first anti-Wahhabi treatise was followed by a second book, ''The Unmistakable Judgment in the Refutation of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab'' (''Faṣl al-Ḫiṭāb fī Al-radd 'alā Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb''). Later ''Muwahhidun'' scholarly figures like Abdullah ibn Abd al-Latif Aal al-Shaykh (d. 1921 C.E) would respond to these accusations by asserting that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab refrained from making ''Takfir'': " Shaykh Muhammad (May God have Mercy on him) never made takfeer of the people in the beginning; except via establishing the proofs and the da'wah, because at that time there was a dearth of knowledge of the message (of Islām) and for that reason he said 'due to their ignorance and the lack of anyone who makes them aware'. However, as for those on whom the proofs are established, then there is nothing to prevent ''takfeer'' being made on such people"
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was known to have had disagreements with both his father and his brother Sulayman
Sulayman (Arabic: سُلِيمَان ''sulaymān'') is an Arabic name of the Biblical king and Islamic prophet Solomon meaning 'man of peace', derived from the Hebrew name Shlomo.
The name Sulayman is a diminutive of the name Salman (سَلْما ...
.
Sulayman, his brother, disputed many of his doctrinal statements and was one of his staunch opponents during a certain time-period. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's father disagreed with his son's metholodolgy in implementing reforms. According to historical records, Sulayman declared his repentance and started to support his brother during later life, after understanding the doctrines and objectives of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist movement.
The 19th century anti-Wahhabi critic and historian Ahmad ibn al-Zayni Dahlan, Ottoman empire's Grand Mufti
A Grand Mufti (also called Chief Mufti, State Mufti and Supreme Mufti) is a title for the leading Faqīh, Islamic jurist of a country, typically Sunni, who may oversee other muftis. Not all countries with large Sunni Muslim populations have Gra ...
of the Shafi'i
The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Madhhab () or Shafi'i is one of the four major schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionis ...
madhab
A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali.
They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all ...
in Mecca, recorded the account of the dispute between Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his brother Sulayman, reporting that:
According to various historical records, Sulayman repented and joined the religious mission of his brother. However, there is a disagreement regarding his repentance. While earlier Najdi chroniclers like Ibn Ghannam reported he repented and embraced Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's cause in Diriyah
Diriyah (; formerly romanization of Arabic, romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya) is a towns in Saudi Arabia, town and governorate in Saudi Arabia. Located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh, Diriyah was the original home of t ...
, later historians like Ibn Bishr simply mentions his departure to Diriyah with his family and his last years under the protection of Diriyah, while being allowed by state-allotted stipend. A letter attributed to Sulayman also mentions his public repentance.
The Ottoman Grand Mufti
A Grand Mufti (also called Chief Mufti, State Mufti and Supreme Mufti) is a title for the leading Faqīh, Islamic jurist of a country, typically Sunni, who may oversee other muftis. Not all countries with large Sunni Muslim populations have Gra ...
of Mecca, Ahmad Zayni Dahlan
Ahmad Zayni Dahlan () (1816–1886) was the Grand Mufti of Mecca between 1871 and his death. He also held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in the Hejaz and Imam al-Haramayn (Imam of the two holy cities, Mecca and Medina). Theologically and juridi ...
(d. 1886), wrote an anti-Wahhabi treatise, in which he listed the religious practices that the Najdi Hanbalis considered idolatrous: visiting the tomb of Muhammad, seeking the intercession of saints, venerating Muhammad and obtaining the blessings of saints. He also accused Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab of not adhering to the Hanbali school and that he was deficient in learning.[ However, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had believed that visiting the tomb of Muhammad was a righteous deed, referring to it as "among the best of deeds" while condemning its excesses. The medieval theologians ]Ibn Taymiyyah
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim ulama, ...
and Ibn Qayyim
Shams ad-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb az-Zurʿī d-Dimashqī l-Ḥanbalī (29 January 1292–15 September 1350 CE / 691 AH–751 AH), commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ("The son of the principal of he scho ...
, who inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, had issued ''Fatwa
A fatwa (; ; ; ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (sharia) given by a qualified Islamic jurist ('' faqih'') in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a ''mufti'', ...
s'' declaring the visitations to the tomb of Muhammad to be ''haram
''Haram'' (; ) is an Arabic term meaning 'taboo'. This may refer to either something sacred to which access is not allowed to the people who are not in a state of purity or who are not initiated into the sacred knowledge; or, in direct cont ...
'' (forbidden); which would lead to their imprisonment.
In response, the British Indian
British Indians are citizens of the United Kingdom (UK) whose ancestral roots are from India.
Currently, the British Indian population exceeds 2 million people in the UK, making them the single largest Ethnic groups in the United Kingdo ...
''Ahl-i Hadith
Ahl-i-Hadith or Ahl-e-Hadith (, ''people of hadith'') is a Salafi reform movement that emerged in North India in the mid-nineteenth century from the teachings of Syed Ahmad Barelvi, Sayyid Ahmad Shahid, Syed Nazeer Husain and Nawab Siddiq Has ...
'' scholar Muhammad Bashir Sahsawani (1834-1908 C.E) wrote the treatise ''Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswaswah al-Shaikh Dahlaan'' in order to refute Dahlan. Sahsawani asserted that after his correspondence with various scholars of the ''Muwahhidun'' movement and study of their creedal works; he came to the conclusion that the allegation that they excommunicated "non-Wahhabis" were false and slanderous.
The Islamic scholar Muhammad Rashid Rida
Sayyid Muhammad Rashīd Rida Al-Hussaini (; 1865 – 22 August 1935) was an Islamic scholar, reformer, theologian and revivalist. An early Salafist, Rida called for the revival of hadith studies and, as a theoretician of an Islamic state, cond ...
(d. 1935 C.E/ 1354 A.H) in his introduction to al-Sahsawani's refutation of Dahlan, described Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a ''mujaddid
A ''mujaddid'' () is an Islamic term for one who brings "renewal" () to the religion. According to the popular Muslim tradition, it refers to a person who appears at the turn of every century of the Islamic calendar to revitalize Islam, clean ...
'' repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his ''Al-Manar
Al-Manar () is a Lebanese satellite television station owned and operated by the Islamist political party and paramilitary group Hezbollah, '' magazine, Rashid Rida greatly contributed to the spread of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings in the Islamic world
The terms Islamic world and Muslim world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is ...
. He was a strong supporter of Ibn Taymiyyah and scholars of Najd, publishing works in his magazine entitled ''Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah'' and ''al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz.'' Rida notes that given Dahlan's position in Mecca
Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
, and availability there of the works of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, he must have simply chosen to write otherwise. Rida also argued that Dahlan simply wrote what he heard from people, and criticised him for not verifying reports and seeking out the writings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. He condemned Dahlan for his ignorance and his sanctioning of acts of ''kufr'' and ''shirk''; based on his reinterpretation of Islamic texts.
Rashid Rida contended that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was a victim of persecution by the combined oppression of three forces: i) the power of state and its rulers ii) power of hypocritical scholars and iii) power of tyrannical commoners. Fiercely rebuking his opponents, Rashid Rida declared: "The best weapon they brandished against him was that he contradicted the majority of Muslims. Who were the majority of Muslims Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab contradicted in his ''Da'wah''? They were Bedouins of the desert, worse than the people of ''Jahiliyyah
In Islamic salvation history, the ''Jāhiliyyah'' (Age of Ignorance) is an era of pre-Islamic Arabia as a whole or only of the Hejaz leading up to the lifetime of Muhammad.
The Arabic expression (meaning literally “the age or condition of i ...
'', intent on looting and theft. They allowed shedding the blood of Muslims and non-Muslims, just to earn a living. They took their tyrants as judges in every matter and denied many aspects of Islam on which there is consensus specially among scholars matters in which no Muslim can claim ignorance."
Ali Bey el Abbassi, a Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas
**Spanish cuisine
**Spanish history
**Spanish culture
...
explorer who was in Mecca in 1803, shortly after the Wahhabi conquest of Hejaz, presented a starkly different view of the Wahhabis. He was surprised to find that they were fairly "moderate, reasonable and civilized". He further observed that, rather than engaging in rampant violence and destruction, the Wahhabis were pleasant and well-organized. According to Ali Bey, there were major differences in the political approach of Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin, and that of his son, Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud
Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud ( ''ʿAbd al ʿAzīz bin Muḥammad Āl Suʿūd''; 1720–1803) was the second ruler of the Emirate of Diriyah. He was the eldest son of Muhammad bin Saud and the son-in-law of Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab. Abdulaziz ...
, during whose reign
A reign is the period of a person's or dynasty's occupation of the office of monarch of a nation (e.g., King of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabia, List of Belgian monarchs, Belgium, Co-princes of Andorra, Andorra), of a people (e.g., List of Frankish kin ...
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was retired from active public life. Ali Bey asserts that unlike the fair-minded Muhammad Ibn Saud; his son 'Abd Al-Azeez began employing a "convert or die" approach for the acquirment of wealth and stabilising the state. Ali Bey writes in his ''Travels'': "I discovered much reason and moderation among the Wehhabites to whom I spoke, and from whom I obtained the greater part of the information which I have given concerning their nation..... The reformer Abdoulwehhab did not invest himself with any honour or public character: he was only the chief of the sect, and did not require any personal distinction. After his death, his son, who succeeded him, preserved the same simplicity."
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
diplomat Harford Jones-Brydges, who was stationed in Basra
Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
in 1784 attributed the popular hysteria about the Wahhabis to a different cause. Unlike Ottoman depictions, Brydges believed that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was in keeping with the teachings of Quran, was "perfectly orthodox", "consonant to the purest and best interpretations of that volume", and that Ottomans feared its spread precisely on that basis.
The Egyptian
''Egyptian'' describes something of, from, or related to Egypt.
Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to:
Nations and ethnic groups
* Egyptians, a national group in North Africa
** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of year ...
historian and Azhari Islamic scholar Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti (1753–1825 C.E) was a great admirer of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his movement. He defended his doctrines in Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and held the movement in high regard, viewing its doctrines as having a great prospective to spearhead future Islamic revival
Islamic revival ('' '', lit., "regeneration, renewal"; also ', "Islamic awakening") refers to a revival of the Islamic religion, usually centered around enforcing sharia. A leader of a revival is known in Islam as a '' mujaddid''.
Within the Is ...
. Al-Jabarti had the chance to personally meet with various Wahhabi scholars in Egypt in 1814. Finding them to be friendly and knowledgeable, Al-Jabarti stated that the Wahhabis were "modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary." He described Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a man who "summoned men to ''Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
'' and the Prophet's '' Sunna'', bidding them to abandon innovations
Innovation is the practical implementation of ideas that result in the introduction of new goods or services or improvement in offering goods or services. ISO TC 279 in the standard ISO 56000:2020 defines innovation as "a new or changed entit ...
in worship". Through his writings, Al-Jabarti repeatedly stressed that the beliefs and doctrines championed by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were nothing other than orthodox Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam is the largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any Succession to Muhammad, successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr ...
.
Moroccan military leader 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi (1882-1963 C.E) praised Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reform endeavour as a "promising voice" that sparked spiritual and intellectual Awakening across the Islamic World
The terms Islamic world and Muslim world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is ...
.
Prominent Syrian
Syrians () are the majority inhabitants of Syria, indigenous to the Levant, most of whom have Arabic, especially its Levantine and Mesopotamian dialects, as a mother tongue. The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Syrian people is a blend ...
Hanbali
The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence, belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It is named after and based on the teachings of the 9th-century scholar, jurist and tradit ...
scholar 'Abd al-Qadir ibn Badran (1864-1927 C.E/ 1280-1346 A.H) praised the efforts of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab in his treatise ''Al-Madkhal ila Madhhab il-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal'' (An Introduction to the Madhab of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal), writing: "When he .e, Ibn 'Abd al Wahhablearned the narrations and the ''Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
'' and became expertised in the ''madhab
A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali.
They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all ...
'' of Ahmad
Ahmad () is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other English spellings of the name include Ahmed. It is also used as a surname.
Etymology
The word derives from the root ( ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from ...
; he began supporting the Truth, fighting ''bid'ah
In Islam and sharia (Islamic law), ( , ) refers to innovation in religious matters. Linguistically, as an Arabic word, the term can be defined more broadly, as "innovation, novelty, heretical doctrine, heresy". It is the subject of many hadith ...
'' and resisting what illiterates have made part of this monotheistic religion and ''Sharia
Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...
'' of moderation''.'' Some people supported him and made their worship solely to The One God following his path, which was to establish pure ''Tawhid'', call sincerely to monotheism and direct worship in all of its forms solely to The Creator of creation alone. Some people resisted him; they were used to rigidity in following what their forefathers did and they armoured themselves with laziness instead of seeking the truth."
Modern reception
Various academics have compared Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to the 15th-century German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany, the country of the Germans and German things
**Germania (Roman era)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
Christian
A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
pastor
A pastor (abbreviated to "Ps","Pr", "Pstr.", "Ptr." or "Psa" (both singular), or "Ps" (plural)) is the leader of a Christianity, Christian congregation who also gives advice and counsel to people from the community or congregation. In Lutherani ...
Martin Luther
Martin Luther ( ; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, Theology, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and former Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. Luther was the seminal figure of the Reformation, Pr ...
, for their efforts in launching socio-religious movements that challenged the authority of the dominant clerical and political hierarchy of their societies. Despite being adherents of different religions; both of them were inspired by their respective idealised visions of the past and shared similar themes such as the social and economic upliftment of their societies empowered through mass-education enabled by campaigns for open access to Scriptures. He is honoured by many scholars of the Salafi
The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a fundamentalist revival movement within Sunni Islam, originating in the late 19th century and influential in the Islamic world to this day. The name "''Salafiyya''" is a self-designation, claiming a retu ...
tradition as a juristic authority and source of reference. Salafi scholars Rashid Rida
Sayyid Muhammad Rashīd Rida Al-Hussaini (; 1865 – 22 August 1935) was an Ulama, Islamic scholar, Islah, reformer, theologian and Islamic revival, revivalist. An early Salafi movement, Salafist, Rida called for the revival of hadith studies and ...
and 'Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz
Abdulaziz ibn Abdullah Al Baz (; 21 November 1912 – 13 May 1999), known as Ibn Baz or Bin Baz, was a Saudi Islamic scholar who served as the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia from 1993 until his death in 1999.
According to French political scientis ...
considered him a ''mujaddid
A ''mujaddid'' () is an Islamic term for one who brings "renewal" () to the religion. According to the popular Muslim tradition, it refers to a person who appears at the turn of every century of the Islamic calendar to revitalize Islam, clean ...
''. Salafi revivalist scholar Al-Albani
Muhammad Nasir al-Din (19142 October 1999), commonly known as al-Albani, was an Albanian Islamic scholar. A leading figure of Salafism, he is commemorated for his works on revaluation of hadith studies.
Born in Shkodër, Albania, to a family ad ...
(d. 1999) believed that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was not a mujtahid
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' (i ...
in fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.[Fiqh](_blank)
Encyclopædia Britannica ''Fiqh'' is of ...
, accusing him of 'blindlly' following the Hanbali school. Al-Albani also challenged Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's credentials in the knowledge of hadith.
According to the 20th-century Austro-Hungarian
Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military and diplomatic alliance, it consist ...
scholar Muhammad Asad
Muhammad Asad (born Leopold Weiss; 2 July 1900 – 20 February 1992) was an Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Muslim polymath, born in modern day Ukraine. He worked as a journalist, traveler, writer, List of political theorists, political theori ...
, all modern Islamic Renaissance movements took inspiration from the spiritual impetus set in motion in the 18th century by Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Crediting Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab for his contributions to Islamic Renaissance
Islamic revival ('' '', lit., "regeneration, renewal"; also ', "Islamic awakening") refers to a revival of the Islamic religion, usually centered around enforcing sharia. A leader of a revival is known in Islam as a ''mujaddid''.
Within the Isl ...
and spread of revolutionary ideals across the Muslim world
The terms Islamic world and Muslim world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is ...
, Tunisian Islamist intellectual Rached Gannouchi writes:"Just as in the West
West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.
Etymology
The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...
in the age of Renaissance, the Muslim world was stirred by a great awakening. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab's message of ''jihad'' and ''ijtihad'' inspired an unbroken movement... to push the umma
Umma () in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell Jokha. More recently it has been sugges ...
towards ''jihad'' against its enemies, to abandon the guise of tradition (''taqlid'') and to unite its divisions around the mystical origins of Islam and Islamic thought."
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi
Rashīd Aḥmad ibn Hidāyat Aḥmad Ayyūbī Anṣārī Gangohī (12 June 182611 August 1905) was a Deobandi Islamic scholar from Indian subcontinent, a leading figure of the Deobandi jurist and scholar of hadith, author of '' Fatawa-e-Rash ...
, one of the founders of the Deobandi school praised Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a virtuous scholar who upheld the Sunnah and campaigned against polytheistic
Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one Deity, god. According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese folk religions, is really so, ...
and superstitious
A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly applied to beliefs and p ...
beliefs and practices. Hence, the contemporary ''ulema'' of Deoband mostly respect him while being critical of the Salafi movement. Major scholars of Tabligh Jamaat -a Deobandi-inspired missionary movement- such as Muhammad Zakariya, Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi
Muḥammad Ilyās ibn Muḥammad Ismā‘īl Kāndhlawī Dihlawī (1885 – 13 July 1944) was an Indian Islamic scholar of the Deobandi movement who founded the Tablighi Jamaat, in 1925, in Mewat province.
Early life and education
Muhammad I ...
, Yusuf Kandhalawi, etc. were supportive of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's ideals. Senior Deobandi scholar Manzur Numani penned the treatise "''Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab ke Khilaf Propaganda''" (The Propaganda against Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab) in defense of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Thus, many activists of Deobandi persuasion view Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement as an example for establishing an Islamic state
The Islamic State (IS), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Daesh, is a transnational Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist organization and unrecognized quasi-state. IS ...
in contemporary Muslim societies.
Islamic scholar Yusuf Al-Qārādawī praised Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a ''Mujaddid
A ''mujaddid'' () is an Islamic term for one who brings "renewal" () to the religion. According to the popular Muslim tradition, it refers to a person who appears at the turn of every century of the Islamic calendar to revitalize Islam, clean ...
'' (religious reviver) of the Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
who defended the purity of ''Tawhid
''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...
'' from various superstitions and polytheistic beliefs. Praising Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's efforts, Muhammad Rashīd Ridá wrote:"Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi was one of those ''Mujaddids'', hocalled for the upholding of ''Tawhid'' and the sincerity of worship to God alone with what He legislated in His Book and on the tongue of His Messenger, the Seal of the Prophets; ... abandoning heresies and sins, establishing the abandoned rituals of Islam, and venerating its violated sanctities."
In his book "''Saviours of the Islamic Spirit''", Islamic scholar Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi
Syed Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi (also known as Ali Miyan; 5 December 1913 – 31 December 1999) was a leading Indian Islamic scholar, thinker, writer, preacher, reformer and a Muslim public intellectual of 20th century India and the author of ...
(1913-1999 C.E) acclaimed Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a "great reformer" who called his people to ''Tawhid'', revived injunctions based on ''Qur'an'' and ''Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
'' and eradicated superstitious rites prevalent amongst the illiterate masses of Central Arabia. Nadwi compared his movement to that of the contemporary South Asia
South Asia is the southern Subregion#Asia, subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and Ethnicity, ethnic-Culture, cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's populatio ...
n Islamic revivalist Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
Qutb ud-Din Ahmad ibn ʿAbd-ur-Rahim al-ʿUmari ad-Dehlawi (; 1703–1762), commonly known as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (also Shah Wali Allah), was an Islamic Sunni scholar and Sufi reformer, who contributed to Islamic revival in the Indian s ...
(1703-1762 C.E/ 1114-1176 A.H) who had expounded similar ideas such as differentiating between ''Tawhid-i-Uluhiyyat'' (Oneness of Worship) and ''Tawhid-i-Rububiyat'' (Oneness of Lordship) and promotion of strict adherence to ''Qur'an'' and ''Hadith
Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
''. In Nadwi's opinion, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was able to make outstanding efforts with far-reaching impact compared to other contemporary reformers since he played the role of a revolutionary reformer whose initiatives were implemented through a newly established Islamic state
The Islamic State (IS), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Daesh, is a transnational Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist organization and unrecognized quasi-state. IS ...
and thus his movement was highly pertinent for the people of his time.
Professor
Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an Academy, academic rank at university, universities and other tertiary education, post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin ...
Satoru Nakamura of Kobe University
, also known in the Kansai region as , is a public research university located in Kobe, Hyōgo, Japan.
The university was established in 1949, but the academic origins of Kobe University trace back to the establishment of Kobe Higher Commercia ...
affirms that sectarian clerics were the first to initiate ''Takfir
''Takfir'' () is an Arabic language, Arabic and Glossary of Islam, Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim of being an Apostasy in Islam, apostate. The word is found neither ...
'' (excommunication) and sanction bloodshed against the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, forcing Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab to launch a defensive Jihad
''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...
, citing religious justifications in line with the principles of Islamic '' Wasitiyya''. In 2010, Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz
Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (; born 31 December 1935) has been King of Saudi Arabia since 2015, and was Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia from 2015 to 2022. He is the 25th son of King Abdulaziz, the founder of Saudi Arabia. He assumed the thron ...
, at the time serving as the governor of Riyadh
Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyadh Province and the centre of the Riyadh Governorate. Located on the eastern bank of Wadi Hanifa, the current form of the metropolis largely emerged in th ...
, said that the doctrine of Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was pure Islam, and said regarding his works:"I dare anyone to bring a single alphabetical letter from the Sheikh's books that goes against the book of Allah and the teachings of his prophet, Muhammad."
Western Reception
During the early 21st century Western security discourse, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement, Wahhabism, was often associated with various Jihadi
Jihadism is a neologism for modern, armed militant Islamic movements that seek to establish states based on Islamic principles. In a narrower sense, it refers to the belief that armed confrontation is an efficient and theologically legit ...
movements across the Islamic World
The terms Islamic world and Muslim world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is ...
. Various Western analysts claimed that the pan-Islamist
Pan-Islamism () is a political movement which advocates the unity of Muslims under one Islamic country or state – often a caliphate – or an international organization with Islamic principles. Historically, after Ottomanism, which aimed at t ...
militant organization al-Qaeda
, image = Flag of Jihad.svg
, caption = Jihadist flag, Flag used by various al-Qaeda factions
, founder = Osama bin Laden{{Assassinated, Killing of Osama bin Laden
, leaders = {{Plainlist,
* Osama bin Lad ...
were influenced by the Wahhabi doctrine. Other scholars note that the ideology of al-Qaeda is Salafi jihadism
Salafi jihadism, also known as Salafi-jihadism, jihadist Salafism and revolutionary Salafism, is a religiopolitical Sunni Islam, Sunni Islamist ideology that seeks to establish a global caliphate through armed struggle. In a narrower sense, ji ...
that emerged as a synthesis of the Qutbist doctrine with Salafism. Western media
Western media is the mass media of the Western world. During the Cold War, Western media contrasted with Soviet media. Western media has gradually expanded into developing countries (often, non-Western countries) around the world.
History
T ...
often conflated Deobandi Jihadists of Taliban
, leader1_title = Supreme Leader of Afghanistan, Supreme leaders
, leader1_name = {{indented plainlist,
* Mullah Omar{{Natural Causes{{nbsp(1994–2013)
* Akhtar Mansour{{Assassinated (2015–2016)
* Hibatullah Akhundzada (2016–present) ...
in Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
with Wahhabis in the early 2000s; despite the fact that Taliban adhered to the doctrines of the Hanafi
The Hanafi school or Hanafism is the oldest and largest Madhhab, school of Islamic jurisprudence out of the four schools within Sunni Islam. It developed from the teachings of the Faqīh, jurist and theologian Abu Hanifa (), who systemised the ...
Deobandi
The Deobandi movement or Deobandism is a revivalist movement within Sunni Islam that adheres to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. It was formed in the late 19th century around the Darul Uloom Madrassa in Deoband, India, from which the nam ...
movement. According to other sources, Salafis are fundamentally opposed to the ideology of Al-Qaeda. According to various Western media outlets, the ideology
An ideology is a set of beliefs or values attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely about belief in certain knowledge, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones". Form ...
of Islamic State
The Islamic State (IS), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Daesh, is a transnational Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist organization and unrecognized quasi-state. IS ...
, a Salafi Jihadist militant organization, has also been inspired by Wahhabi doctrines, alongside Salafism, Qutbism
Qutbism is an exonym that refers to the Sunni Islamist beliefs and ideology of Sayyid Qutb, a leading Islamist revolutionary of the Muslim Brotherhood who was executed by the Egyptian government of Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1966. Influenced by t ...
, and Salafi jihadism
Salafi jihadism, also known as Salafi-jihadism, jihadist Salafism and revolutionary Salafism, is a religiopolitical Sunni Islam, Sunni Islamist ideology that seeks to establish a global caliphate through armed struggle. In a narrower sense, ji ...
.
During the early years of post-9/11 hysteria, FBI
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the domestic Intelligence agency, intelligence and Security agency, security service of the United States and Federal law enforcement in the United States, its principal federal law enforcement ag ...
had designated al-Qaeda
, image = Flag of Jihad.svg
, caption = Jihadist flag, Flag used by various al-Qaeda factions
, founder = Osama bin Laden{{Assassinated, Killing of Osama bin Laden
, leaders = {{Plainlist,
* Osama bin Lad ...
as "the number one terrorist threat to the United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
" and the neo-cons in the Bush Administration were able to incite hysterical narratives of "Wahhabism
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to oth ...
" through their expanded influence in politics and Western media. Neo-conservative
Neoconservatism (colloquially neocon) is a political movement which began in the United States during the 1960s among liberal hawks who became disenchanted with the increasingly pacifist Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party alo ...
journalist Lulu Schwartz
Lulu Schwartz (born Stephen A. Schwartz, September 9, 1948, and also known previously as Stephen Suleyman Schwartz) is an American Sufi journalist, columnist, and author. She has been published in a variety of media, including ''The Wall Street J ...
and former U.S. Senator
The United States Senate is a chamber of the bicameral United States Congress; it is the upper house, with the U.S. House of Representatives being the lower house. Together, the Senate and House have the authority under Article One of the ...
and Republican politician Jon Kyl
Jon Llewellyn Kyl ( ; born April 25, 1942) is an American politician and lobbyist who served as a United States Senator for Arizona from 1995 to 2013. Following the death of John McCain in 2018, Kyl briefly returned to the Senate; his resignatio ...
claimed before a U.S. Senate Judiciary Subcommittee in June 2003 that "Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world". Their recommendations would become influential in Bush Administration's agenda for its " Global War on Terrorism".[ "Journalists and experts, as well as spokespeople of the world, have said that Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world, from ]Morocco
Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...
to Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
, via Israel
Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
, Saudi Arabia, Chechnya
Chechnya, officially the Chechen Republic, is a Republics of Russia, republic of Russia. It is situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, between the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. The republic forms a part of the North Caucasian Federa ...
. In addition, Saudi media sources have identified Wahhabi agents from Saudi Arabia as being responsible for terrorist attacks on U.S. troops in Iraq. ''The Washington Post'' has confirmed Wahhabi involvement in attacks against U.S. forces in Fallujah
Fallujah ( ) is a city in Al Anbar Governorate, Iraq. Situated on the Euphrates, Euphrates River, it is located roughly to the west of the capital city of Baghdad and from the neighboring city of Ramadi. The city is located in the region ...
." - Claims made by US Republican politician and vocal Iraq war advocate Jon Kyl in 2003 during a subcommittee hearing of US Senate Judiciary Committee
On the other hand, contemporary Western historians and researchers have taken a more nuanced approach on the history and evolution of the "Wahhabi
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other ...
" movement; pointing out the discrepancy between the Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's teachings, some of his later followers and the actions of contemporary militant Jihadist
Jihadism is a neologism for modern, armed militant Political aspects of Islam, Islamic movements that seek to Islamic state, establish states based on Islamic principles. In a narrower sense, it refers to the belief that armed confrontation ...
groups. Various scholars assert that many writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab were revised during the 19th century by authorities of the Second Saudi State
The second Saudi state (), officially known as the Emirate of Najd, was a state that existed between 1824 and 1891 in the Najd region of what is now Saudi Arabia. Saudi rule was restored to central (Najd) and Eastern Arabia after the first Sau ...
; transforming them away from a poetic-vernacular style of communication with mass appeal to a more rigid and purist understanding that aligned with the interests of the ruling class and the clerical establishment. David E. Long believes that modern Jihadist movements are more influenced by the ideological worldview of Egyptian Islamist extremism of the 20th century, rather than Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's socio-religious reformism. Although many Salafi-Jihadists maybe inspired by Wahhabi ideals, it doesn't credibly explain their inclinations towards lethal violence.
Western scholars like Michael Ryan assert that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reformist
Reformism is a political tendency advocating the reform of an existing system or institution – often a political or religious establishment – as opposed to its abolition and replacement via revolution.
Within the socialist movement, ref ...
teachings were a rationalist enterprise that sought to eradicate superstitions widespread in the context of tribal rivalry within the Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
. Moreover, the regional background of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's intellectual efforts in the chaotic context of the 18th-century Arabian Peninsula had been distinct from the 21st century global Jihad ideology of organisations like Al-Qaeda or IS. Consequently, his scholarly heirs, including the prestigious Aal al-Shaykhs constitute the primary ideological nemesis of groups such as al-Qaeda. Since the Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers their traditional religious institutions and scholars to Bin Laden's claims to revolutionary
A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates for, a revolution. The term ''revolutionary'' can also be used as an adjective to describe something producing a major and sudden impact on society.
Definition
The term—bot ...
Jihadi-Salafism; Al-Qaeda harshly attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with much rhetorical vitriol.
Various scholars have also contested Orientalist portrayals of Wahhabi movement as "ultra-conservative" or "stagnant", noting its dynamic nature and capability of multiple interpretations. Professor Satoru Nakamura of Kobe University
, also known in the Kansai region as , is a public research university located in Kobe, Hyōgo, Japan.
The university was established in 1949, but the academic origins of Kobe University trace back to the establishment of Kobe Higher Commercia ...
has criticized Orientalist scholars who depicted Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a slavish imitator of Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim schola ...
, without studying the scholar's vast works and analysing historical nuances. Contemporary academic research in the Islamic studies
Islamic studies is the academic study of Islam, which is analogous to related fields such as Jewish studies and Quranic studies. Islamic studies seeks to understand the past and the potential future of the Islamic world. In this multidiscipli ...
field has found that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's scholarly methodology were based on the moderation of "Islamic Middle Way" ( ''Wasitiyya'').
His photo
Some alleged photos of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab have spread on the Internet
The Internet (or internet) is the Global network, global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a internetworking, network of networks ...
, but no real photo
A photograph (also known as a photo, or more generically referred to as an ''image'' or ''picture'') is an image created by light falling on a photosensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic image sensor. The process and pra ...
of him has been proven, because the oldest surviving photograph of a camera
A camera is an instrument used to capture and store images and videos, either digitally via an electronic image sensor, or chemically via a light-sensitive material such as photographic film. As a pivotal technology in the fields of photograp ...
dates back to 1826
Events January–March
* January 15 – The French newspaper ''Le Figaro'' begins publication in Paris, initially as a satirical weekly.
* January 17 – The Ballantyne printing business in Edinburgh (Scotland) crashes, ruining noveli ...
or 1827
Events
January–March
* January 5 – The first regatta in Australia is held, taking place in Tasmania (called at the time ''Van Diemen's Land''), on the River Derwent at Hobart.
* January 15 – Furman University, founded in 1826, b ...
, taken by Louis Daguerre
Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre ( ; ; 18 November 1787 – 10 July 1851) was a France, French scientist, artist and photographer, recognized for his invention of the eponymous daguerreotype process of photography. He became known as one of th ...
; and that was thirty-five years after his death
Death is the end of life; the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Death eventually and inevitably occurs in all organisms. The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose sh ...
.
Contemporary recognition
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's thoughts would greatly influence the pan-Islamic
Pan-Islamism () is a political movement which advocates the unity of Muslims under one Islamic country or state – often a caliphate – or an international organization with Islamic principles. Historically, after Ottomanism, which aimed at ...
movement of the 19th century. The national mosque
Lists of mosques cover mosques, places of worship for Muslims. These lists are primarily arranged by continent, with the exception of lists for the largest, tallest, and oldest mosques.
Asia
* List of mosques in Asia
** List of mosques in Afghani ...
of Qatar
Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a country in West Asia. It occupies the Geography of Qatar, Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East; it shares Qatar–Saudi Arabia border, its sole land b ...
is named after him. The " Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque" was opened in 2011, with the Emir of Qatar
The Emir of the State of Qatar () is the monarch and head of state of the country. The emir is also the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces and guarantor of the Constitution. The emir holds the most powerful position in the country, and has a ...
presiding over the occasion. The mosque has the capacity to host a congregation of 30,000 people. In 2017, there was a request published in the Saudi Arabian newspaper ''Okaz
''Okaz'' () is an Arabic Saudi Arabian daily newspaper located in Jeddah. The paper was launched in 1960 and its sister publication is '' Saudi Gazette''. The paper is simultaneously printed in both Riyadh and Jeddah and has offices all over Sau ...
'' signed by 200 descendants of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab that the name of the mosque be changed, because according to their statement "it does not carry its true Salafi path", even though most Qataris adhere to Wahhabism.
The Turaif district
Diriyah (; formerly romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya) is a town and governorate in Saudi Arabia. Located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh, Diriyah was the original home of the House of Saud, and served as the capital of ...
in Diriyah
Diriyah (; formerly romanization of Arabic, romanized as Dereyeh and Dariyya) is a towns in Saudi Arabia, town and governorate in Saudi Arabia. Located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh, Diriyah was the original home of t ...
, the capital of the First Saudi state
The first Saudi state (), officially the Emirate of Diriyah (), was established in 1744, when the emir of a Najdi town called Diriyah, Muhammad I, and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab signed a pact to found a socio-religious r ...
, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site
World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...
in 2010. In 2011, Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
announced its plans for large-scale development of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's domain Diriyah; to establish a national cultural site in Diriyah and turn it into a major tourist attraction. Other features in the area include the ''Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab Foundation'', which is planned to include a light and sound presentation located near the ''Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab''.
Works
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab has been described as a "prolific writer" whose scholarly treatises are collected into fourteen large volumes; which consists of various legal books, Qur'anic commentaries, creedal works, and compilation of ''fatwa
A fatwa (; ; ; ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (sharia) given by a qualified Islamic jurist ('' faqih'') in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a ''mufti'', ...
s''. Some of his major works include:
See also
* Ibn Taymiyyah
Ibn Taymiyya (; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 was a Sunni Muslim ulama, ...
* Wahhabi Movement
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other p ...
* Emirate of Diriyah
The first Saudi state (), officially the Emirate of Diriyah (), was established in 1744, when the emir of a Najdi town called Diriyah, Muhammad I, and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab signed a pact to found a socio-religious ...
* International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism
Starting in the mid-1970s and 1980s (and appearing to diminish after 2017), the international propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism within Sunni Islam and throughout the Muslim world, favored by the conservative oil-exporting Saudi Arabia, Kin ...
Sources
Two of the earliest sources for the biography of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and early history of the Wahhabi
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other ...
movement have been documented by its followers:
* Wahhabi chronicler and scholar Ibn Ghannam's ''Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham'' or ''Tarikh Najd'' (History of Najd) and Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an alim
Alim (or ʿAlīm , also anglicized as Aleem) is one of the Names of God in Islam, meaning "All-knowing one". It is also used as a personal name, as a short form of Abdul Alim, "Servant of the All-Knowing".
Given name
* Alim Ashirov (1955-1979), ...
from al-Hasa Al-Ahsa or Al-Hasa may refer to:
* Al-Ahsa Eyalet, or Lahsa Eyalet, a subdivision of the Ottoman Empire, now part of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Qatar
* Al-Ahsa Oasis, an oasis and historical region in eastern Saudi Arabia.
** Al-Ahsa Governorate, a ...
was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.[ Vasilʹev 1998: 13.]
* Najdi Historian Ibn Bishr's ''Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd'' (The Glorious History of Najd). Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.
A third account, covering Arabian history between the 1730s to 1817 is ''Lam' al-Shihab'' (The Brilliance of the Meteor) written by an anonymous author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a ''bid'ah
In Islam and sharia (Islamic law), ( , ) refers to innovation in religious matters. Linguistically, as an Arabic word, the term can be defined more broadly, as "innovation, novelty, heretical doctrine, heresy". It is the subject of many hadith ...
'' (heresy).
It is also commonly cited in Orientalist circles because it is considered to be a relatively objective and unofficial treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work contains various tales, apocryphal and legendary materials concerning the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.[ Vasilʹev 1998: 14.]
References
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Further reading
* Valentine, S. R., "Force & Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond", Hurst & Co, London, 2015,
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Online
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb: Muslim theologian
in ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Parul Jain, Satyavrat Nirala and Adam Zeidan
External links
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Biodata at MuslimScholars.info
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abd Al Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn
1703 births
1792 deaths
18th-century Arab people
18th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Muslim reformers
Anti-Ottomanism
Arab Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam
Critics of Shia Islam
Islamic religious leaders
Sunni imams
Proto-Salafists
Hanbalis
Mujaddid
Chief Qadis of Emirate of Dir'iyah
18th-century Muslim theologians
Atharis
Wahhabis