List Of Fallacies
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fallacy A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning in the construction of an argument that may appear to be well-reasoned if unnoticed. The term was introduced in the Western intellectual tradition by the Aristotelian '' De Sophisti ...
is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning in the construction of an argument. All forms of human communication can contain fallacies. Because of their variety, fallacies are challenging to classify. They can be classified by their structure (
formal fallacies In logic and philosophy, a formal fallacy is a pattern of reasoning rendered invalid by a flaw in its logical structure. Propositional logic, for example, is concerned with the meanings of sentences and the relationships between them. It focuses ...
) or content (
informal fallacies Informal fallacies are a type of incorrect argument in natural language. The source of the error is not just due to the ''form'' of the argument, as is the case for formal fallacies, but can also be due to their ''content'' and ''context''. Falla ...
). Informal fallacies, the larger group, may then be subdivided into categories such as improper presumption, faulty generalization, error in assigning causation, and relevance, among others. The use of fallacies is common when the speaker's goal of achieving common agreement is more important to them than utilizing sound reasoning. When fallacies are used, the premise should be recognized as not well-grounded, the conclusion as unproven (but not necessarily false), and the argument as unsound.


Formal fallacies

A formal fallacy is an error in the argument's form. All formal fallacies are types of . * Appeal to probability – taking something for granted because it would probably be the case (or might possibly be the case). * Argument from fallacy (also known as the fallacy fallacy) – the assumption that, if a particular ''argument'' for a "conclusion" is fallacious, then the ''conclusion'' by itself is false. *
Base rate fallacy The base rate fallacy, also called base rate neglect or base rate bias, is a type of fallacy in which people tend to ignore the base rate (e.g., general prevalence) in favor of the individuating information (i.e., information pertaining only to a ...
– making a probability judgment based on conditional probabilities, without taking into account the effect of prior probabilities. * Conjunction fallacy – the assumption that an outcome simultaneously satisfying multiple conditions is more probable than an outcome satisfying a single one of them. * fallacy – where the conclusion does not logically follow from the premise. * Masked-man fallacy (illicit substitution of identicals) – the substitution of identical designators in a true statement can lead to a false one.


Propositional fallacies

A propositional fallacy is an error that concerns compound propositions. For a compound proposition to be true, the truth values of its constituent parts must satisfy the relevant logical connectives that occur in it (most commonly: nd r ot nly if f and only if. The following fallacies involve relations whose truth values are not guaranteed and therefore not guaranteed to yield true conclusions.
Types of propositional fallacies: *
Affirming a disjunct The formal fallacy of affirming a disjunct also known as the fallacy of the alternative disjunct or a false exclusionary disjunct occurs when a deductive argument takes the following logical form: :A or B :A :Therefore, not B Or in logical op ...
– concluding that one disjunct of a
logical disjunction In logic, disjunction (also known as logical disjunction, logical or, logical addition, or inclusive disjunction) is a logical connective typically notated as \lor and read aloud as "or". For instance, the English language sentence "it is ...
must be false because the other disjunct is true; ''A or B; A, therefore not B''. *
Affirming the consequent In propositional logic, affirming the consequent (also known as converse error, fallacy of the converse, or confusion of necessity and sufficiency) is a formal fallacy (or an invalid form of argument) that is committed when, in the context of a ...
– the antecedent in an
indicative conditional In natural languages, an indicative conditional is a conditional sentence such as "If Leona is at home, she isn't in Paris", whose grammatical form restricts it to discussing what could be true. Indicatives are typically defined in opposition to c ...
is claimed to be true because the consequent is true; ''if A, then B; B, therefore A''. *
Denying the antecedent Denying the antecedent (also known as inverse error or fallacy of the inverse) is a formal fallacy of inferring the inverse from an original statement. Phrased another way, denying the antecedent occurs in the context of an indicative conditional ...
– the consequent in an
indicative conditional In natural languages, an indicative conditional is a conditional sentence such as "If Leona is at home, she isn't in Paris", whose grammatical form restricts it to discussing what could be true. Indicatives are typically defined in opposition to c ...
is claimed to be false because the antecedent is false; ''if A, then B; not A, therefore not B''.


Quantification fallacies

A quantification fallacy is an error in logic where the quantifiers of the premises are in contradiction to the quantifier of the conclusion.
Types of quantification fallacies: *
Existential fallacy The existential fallacy, or existential instantiation, is a formal fallacy. In the existential fallacy, one presupposes that a class has members when one is not supposed to do so; i.e., when one should not assume existential import. Not to be c ...
– an argument that has a universal premise and a particular conclusion.


Formal syllogistic fallacies

Syllogistic fallacies – logical fallacies that occur in
syllogisms A syllogism (, ''syllogismos'', 'conclusion, inference') is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. In its earliest form (define ...
. * Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise (illicit negative) – a categorical
syllogism A syllogism (, ''syllogismos'', 'conclusion, inference') is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. In its earliest form (defin ...
has a positive conclusion, but at least one negative premise. * Fallacy of exclusive premises – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative. *
Fallacy of four terms The fallacy of four terms () is the formal fallacy that occurs when a syllogism has four (or more) terms rather than the requisite three, rendering it invalid. Definition Categorical syllogisms always have three terms: :Major premise: Weapons a ...
(''quaternio terminorum'') – a categorical syllogism that has four terms. * Illicit major – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its major term is not distributed in the major premise but distributed in the conclusion. * Illicit minor – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its minor term is not distributed in the minor premise but distributed in the conclusion. * Negative conclusion from affirmative premises (illicit affirmative) – a categorical syllogism has a negative conclusion but affirmative premises. * Fallacy of the undistributed middle – the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed. * Modal fallacy – confusing necessity with sufficiency. A condition X is necessary for Y if X is required for even the possibility of Y. X does not bring about Y by itself, but if there is no X, there will be no Y. For example, oxygen is necessary for fire. But one cannot assume that everywhere there is oxygen, there is fire. A condition X is sufficient for Y if X, by itself, is enough to bring about Y. For example, riding the bus is a sufficient mode of transportation to get to work. But there are other modes of transportation – car, taxi, bicycle, walking – that can be used. * Modal scope fallacy – a degree of unwarranted necessity is placed in the conclusion.


Informal fallacies

Informal fallacies – arguments that are logically unsound for lack of well-grounded premises. * Argument from incredulity – when someone can't imagine something to be true, and therefore deems it false, or conversely, holds that it must be true because they can't see how it could be false. *
Argument to moderation Argument to moderation ()—also known as the false compromise, argument from middle ground, fallacy of gray, middle ground fallacy, or golden mean fallacy—is the fallacy that the truth Truth or verity is the Property (philosophy), propert ...
(false compromise, middle ground, fallacy of the mean, ) – assuming that a compromise between two positions is always correct. *
Continuum fallacy The sorites paradox (), sometimes known as the paradox of the heap, is a paradox that results from vague predicates. A typical formulation involves a heap of sand, from which grains are removed individually. With the assumption that removing a s ...
(fallacy of the beard, line-drawing fallacy, sorites fallacy, fallacy of the heap, bald man fallacy, decision-point fallacy) – improperly rejecting a claim for being imprecise. * Correlative-based fallacies ** Suppressed correlative – a correlative is redefined so that one alternative is made impossible (e.g., "I am not fat because I am thinner than John."). * Divine fallacy (argument from incredulity) – arguing that, because something is so phenomenal or amazing, it must be the result of superior, divine, alien or paranormal agency. * Double counting – counting events or occurrences more than once in probabilistic reasoning, which leads to the sum of the probabilities of all cases exceeding unity. *
Equivocation In logic, equivocation ("calling two different things by the same name") is an informal fallacy resulting from the use of a particular word or expression in multiple senses within an argument. It is a type of ambiguity that stems from a phrase ...
– using a term with more than one meaning in a statement without specifying which meaning is intended. ** Ambiguous middle term – using a middle term with multiple meanings. ** Definitional retreat – changing the meaning of a word when an objection is raised. Often paired with moving the goalposts (see below), as when an argument is challenged using a common definition of a term in the argument, and the arguer presents a different definition of the term and thereby demands different evidence to debunk the argument. ** Motte-and-bailey fallacy – conflating two positions with similar properties, one modest and easy to defend (the "motte") and one more controversial (the "bailey"). The arguer first states the controversial position, but when challenged, states that they are advancing the modest position. ** Fallacy of accent – changing the meaning of a statement by not specifying on which word emphasis falls. **
Persuasive definition A persuasive definition is a form of stipulative definition which purports to describe the true or commonly accepted meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an uncommon or altered use, usually to support an argument for some view, or to cr ...
– purporting to use the "true" or "commonly accepted" meaning of a term while, in reality, using an uncommon or altered definition. ** *
Ecological fallacy An ecological fallacy (also ecological ''inference'' fallacy or population fallacy) is a formal fallacy in the interpretation of statistical data that occurs when inferences about the nature of individuals are deduced from inferences about the gro ...
– inferring about the nature of an entity based solely upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which that entity belongs. * Etymological fallacy – assuming that the original or historical meaning of a word or phrase is necessarily similar to its actual present-day usage. *
Fallacy of composition The fallacy of composition is an informal fallacy that arises when one inference, infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole. A trivial example might be: "This tire is made of rubber; therefo ...
– assuming that something true of part of a whole must also be true of the whole. * Fallacy of division – assuming that something true of a composite thing must also be true of all or some of its parts. * False attribution – appealing to an irrelevant, unqualified, unidentified, biased or fabricated source in support of an argument. **
Fallacy of quoting out of context Quoting out of context (sometimes referred to as contextomy or quote mining) is an informal fallacy in which a passage is removed from its surrounding matter in such a way as to distort its intended meaning. Context may be omitted intentionally or ...
(contextotomy, contextomy; quotation mining) – selective excerpting of words from their original context to distort the intended meaning. * False authority (single authority) – using an expert of dubious credentials or using only one opinion to promote a product or idea. Related to the appeal to authority. *
False dilemma A false dilemma, also referred to as false dichotomy or false binary, is an informal fallacy based on a premise that erroneously limits what options are available. The source of the fallacy lies not in an invalid form of inference but in a false ...
(false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) – two alternative statements are given as the only possible options when, in reality, there are more. *
False equivalence A false equivalence or false equivalency is an informal fallacy in which an equivalence is drawn between two subjects based on flawed, faulty, or false reasoning. This fallacy is categorized as a fallacy of inconsistency. Colloquially, a false ...
– describing two or more statements as virtually equal when they are not. * Feedback fallacy – believing in the objectivity of an evaluation to be used as the basis for improvement without verifying that the source of the evaluation is a disinterested party. * Historian's fallacy – assuming that decision-makers of the past had identical information as those subsequently analyzing the decision. This is not to be confused with presentism, in which present-day ideas and perspectives are anachronistically projected into the past. * Historical fallacy – believing that certain results occurred only because a specific process was performed, though said process may actually be unrelated to the results. ** Baconian fallacy – supposing that historians can obtain the "whole truth" via induction from individual pieces of historical evidence. The "whole truth" is defined as learning "something about everything", "everything about something", or "everything about everything". In reality, a historian "can only hope to know something about something". * Homunculus fallacy – using a "middle-man" for explanation; this sometimes leads to regressive middle-men. It explains a concept in terms of the concept itself without explaining its real nature (e.g.: explaining thought as something produced by a little thinker – a
homunculus A homunculus ( , , ; "little person", : homunculi , , ) is a small human being. Popularized in 16th-century alchemy and 19th-century fiction, it has historically referred to the creation of a miniature, fully formed human. The concept has root ...
– inside the head simply identifies an intermediary actor and does not explain the product or process of thinking). * – arguing that, if experts in a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point within that field, no conclusion can be reached or that the legitimacy of that field of knowledge is questionable. * If-by-whiskey – an argument that supports both sides of an issue by using terms that are emotionally sensitive and ambiguous. * Incomplete comparison – insufficient information is provided to make a complete comparison. * Intentionality fallacy – the insistence that the ultimate meaning of an expression must be consistent with the intention of the person from whom the communication originated (e.g. a work of fiction that is widely received as a blatant allegory must necessarily not be regarded as such if the author intended it not to be so). *
Kettle logic Kettle logic () is a rhetorical device wherein one uses multiple arguments to defend a point, but the arguments are inconsistent with each other. Jacques Derrida uses this expression in reference to the humorous "kettle story" related by Sigmund ...
– using multiple, jointly inconsistent arguments to defend a position. * Ludic fallacy – failing to take into account that non-regulated random occurrences unknown unknowns can affect the probability of an event taking place. *
Lump of labour fallacy In economics, the lump of labour fallacy is the misconception that there is a finite amount of work—a lump of labour—to be done within an economy which can be distributed to create more or fewer jobs. It is also known as the lump of jobs fa ...
– the misconception that there is a fixed amount of work to be done within an economy, which can be distributed to create more or fewer jobs. * McNamara fallacy (quantitative fallacy) – making an argument using only quantitative observations (measurements, statistical or numerical values) and discounting subjective information that focuses on quality (traits, features, or relationships). * Mind projection fallacy – assuming that a statement about an object describes an inherent property of the object, rather than a personal perception. * Moralistic fallacy – inferring factual conclusions from evaluative premises in violation of
fact–value distinction The fact–value distinction is a fundamental epistemological distinction described between: # Statements of fact (positive or descriptive statements), which are based upon reason and observation, and examined via the empirical method. # Statem ...
(e.g.: inferring ''is'' from ''ought''). Moralistic fallacy is the inverse of naturalistic fallacy. *
Moving the goalposts Moving the goalposts (or shifting the goalposts) is a metaphor, derived from goal-based sports such as football and hockey, that means to change the rule or criterion ("goal") of a process or competition while it is still in progress, in such a wa ...
(raising the bar) – argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded. *
Nirvana fallacy The nirvana fallacy is the informal fallacy of comparing actual things with unrealistic, idealized alternatives. It can also refer to the tendency to assume there is a perfect solution to a particular problem. A closely related concept is the "per ...
(perfect-solution fallacy) – solutions to problems are rejected because they are not perfect. * Package deal – treating essentially dissimilar concepts as though they were essentially similar. *
Proof by assertion Proof most often refers to: * Proof (truth), argument or sufficient evidence for the truth of a proposition * Alcohol proof, a measure of an alcoholic drink's strength Proof may also refer to: Mathematics and formal logic * Formal proof, a ...
– a proposition is repeatedly restated regardless of contradiction; sometimes confused with argument from repetition (, ). * Prosecutor's fallacy – a low probability of false matches does not mean a low probability of false match being found. * Proving too much – an argument that results in an overly generalized conclusion (e.g.: arguing that drinking alcohol is bad because in some instances it has led to spousal or child abuse). * Psychologist's fallacy – an observer presupposes the objectivity of their own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event. * Referential fallacy – assuming that all words refer to existing things and that the meaning of words reside within the things they refer to, as opposed to words possibly referring to no real object (e.g.: Pegasus) or that the meaning comes from how they are used (e.g.: "nobody" was in the room). * Reification (concretism, hypostatization, or the fallacy of misplaced concreteness) – treating an abstract belief or hypothetical construct as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity (e.g.: saying that evolution selects which traits are passed on to future generations; evolution is not a conscious entity with agency). * Retrospective determinism – believing that, because an event has occurred under some circumstance, the circumstance must have made the event inevitable (e.g.: because someone won the lottery while wearing their lucky socks, wearing those socks made winning the lottery inevitable). *
Slippery slope In a slippery slope argument, a course of action is rejected because the slippery slope advocate believes it will lead to a chain reaction resulting in an undesirable end or ends. The core of the slippery slope argument is that a specific decisi ...
(thin edge of the wedge, camel's nose) – asserting that a proposed, relatively small, first action will inevitably lead to a chain of related events resulting in a significant and negative event and, therefore, should not be permitted. * Special pleading – the arguer attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted rule or principle without justifying the exemption (e.g.: an orphaned defendant who murdered their parents asking for leniency).


Improper premise

*
Begging the question In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question or assuming the conclusion (Latin: ) is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion. Historically, begging the question refers to a fault i ...
() – using the conclusion of the argument in support of itself in a premise (e.g.: saying that smoking cigarettes is deadly because cigarettes can kill you; something that kills is deadly). ** Loaded label – while not inherently fallacious, the use of evocative terms to support a conclusion is a type of
begging the question In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question or assuming the conclusion (Latin: ) is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion. Historically, begging the question refers to a fault i ...
fallacy. When fallaciously used, the term's connotations are relied on to sway the argument towards a particular conclusion. For example, in an organic foods advertisement that says "Organic foods are safe and healthy foods grown without any pesticides, herbicides, or other unhealthy additives", the terms "safe" and "healthy" are used to fallaciously imply that non-organic foods are neither safe nor healthy. *
Circular reasoning Circular reasoning (, "circle in proving"; also known as circular logic) is a fallacy, logical fallacy in which the reasoner begins with what they are trying to end with. Circular reasoning is not a formal logical fallacy, but a pragmatic defect ...
() – the reasoner begins with what they are trying to end up with (e.g.: all bachelors are unmarried males). * Fallacy of many questions (complex question, fallacy of presuppositions, loaded question, ) – someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved. This fallacy is often used rhetorically so that the question limits direct replies to those that serve the questioner's agenda. (E.g., "Have you or have you not stopped beating your wife?".)


Faulty generalizations

Faulty generalization – reaching a conclusion from weak premises. *
Accident An accident is an unintended, normally unwanted event that was not deliberately caused by humans. The term ''accident'' implies that the event may have been caused by Risk assessment, unrecognized or unaddressed risks. Many researchers, insurers ...
– an exception to a generalization is ignored. ** No true Scotsman (aka appeal to purity) – makes a generalization true by changing the generalization to exclude a counterexample. *
Cherry picking Cherry picking, suppressing evidence, or the fallacy of incomplete evidence is the act of pointing to individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position while ignoring a significant portion of related and similar cases or data th ...
(suppressed evidence, incomplete evidence, argument by half-truth, fallacy of exclusion, card stacking, slanting) – using individual cases or data that confirm a particular position, while ignoring related cases or data that may contradict that position. ** Nut-picking (suppressed evidence, incomplete evidence) – using individual cases or data that falsify a particular position, while ignoring related cases or data that may support that position. **
Survivorship bias Survivorship bias or survival bias is the logical error of concentrating on entities that passed a selection process while overlooking those that did not. This can lead to incorrect conclusions because of incomplete data. Survivorship bias is ...
– a small number of successes of a given process are actively promoted while completely ignoring a large number of failures. * False analogy – an argument by analogy in which the analogy is poorly suited. * Hasty generalization (fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, hasty induction, ''secundum quid'', converse accident,
jumping to conclusions Jumping to conclusions (officially the jumping conclusion bias, often abbreviated as JTC, and also referred to as the inference-observation confusion) is a psychological term referring to a communication obstacle where one "judge or decide somethin ...
) – basing a broad conclusion on a small or unrepresentative sample. * Argument from anecdote – a fallacy where
anecdotal evidence Anecdotal evidence (or anecdata) is evidence based on descriptions and reports of individual, personal experiences, or observations, collected in a non- systematic manner. The term ''anecdotal'' encompasses a variety of forms of evidence. This ...
is presented as an argument; without any other contributory evidence or reasoning. * Inductive fallacy – a more general name for a class of fallacies, including hasty generalization and its relatives. A fallacy of induction happens when a conclusion is drawn from premises that only lightly support it. * Misleading vividness – involves describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is an exceptional occurrence, to convince someone that it is more important; this also relies on the
appeal to emotion Appeal to emotion or ''argumentum ad passiones'' (meaning the same in Latin) is an informal fallacy characterized by the psychological manipulation, manipulation of the recipient's emotions in order to win an argument, especially in the absence of ...
fallacy. * Overwhelming exception – an accurate generalization that comes with qualifications that eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to assume. * Thought-terminating cliché – a commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell
cognitive dissonance In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is described as a mental phenomenon in which people unknowingly hold fundamentally conflicting cognitions. Being confronted by situations that challenge this dissonance may ultimately result in some ...
, conceal lack of forethought, move on to other topics, etc. – but in any case, to end the debate with a cliché rather than a point.


Questionable cause

Questionable cause is a general type of error with many variants. Its primary basis is the confusion of association with causation, either by inappropriately deducing (or rejecting) causation or a broader failure to properly investigate the cause of an observed effect. * (Latin for 'with this, therefore because of this'; correlation implies causation; faulty cause/effect, coincidental correlation, correlation without causation) – a faulty assumption that, because there is a correlation between two variables, one caused the other. ** (Latin for 'after this, therefore because of this'; temporal sequence implies causation) – X happened, then Y happened; therefore X caused Y. ** Wrong direction (reverse causation) – cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa. The consequence of the phenomenon is claimed to be its root cause. ** Ignoring a common cause *
Fallacy of the single cause The fallacy of the single cause, also known as complex cause, causal oversimplification, causal reductionism, root cause fallacy, and reduction fallacy, is an informal fallacy of questionable cause that occurs when it is assumed that there is a s ...
(causal oversimplification) – it is assumed that there is one, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes. * Furtive fallacy – outcomes are asserted to have been caused by the malfeasance of decision makers. *
Magical thinking Magical thinking, or superstitious thinking, is the belief that unrelated events are causally connected despite the absence of any plausible causal link between them, particularly as a result of supernatural effects. Examples include the idea tha ...
– fallacious attribution of causal relationships between actions and events. In
anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, society, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including archaic humans. Social anthropology studies patterns of behav ...
, it refers primarily to cultural beliefs that ritual, prayer, sacrifice, and taboos will produce specific supernatural consequences. In
psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both consciousness, conscious and Unconscious mind, unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feel ...
, it refers to an irrational belief that thoughts by themselves can affect the world or that thinking something corresponds with doing it.


Statistical fallacies

* The
observational interpretation fallacy The observational interpretation fallacy is the cognitive bias where associations identified in observational studies are misinterpreted as causal relationships. This misinterpretation often influences clinical guidelines, public health policies, ...
occurs when associations identified in observational studies are misinterpreted as causal relationships. * Regression fallacy – ascribes cause where none exists. The flaw is failing to account for natural fluctuations. It is frequently a special kind of ''post hoc'' fallacy. *
Gambler's fallacy The gambler's fallacy, also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy or the fallacy of the maturity of chances, is the belief that, if an event (whose occurrences are Independent and identically distributed random variables, independent and identically dis ...
– the incorrect belief that separate, independent events can affect the likelihood of another random event. If a fair coin lands on heads 10 times in a row, the belief that it is "due to the number of times it had previously landed on tails" is incorrect. ** Inverse gambler's fallacy – the inverse of the gambler's fallacy. It is the incorrect belief that on the basis of an unlikely outcome, the process must have happened many times before. *
p-hacking Data dredging, also known as data snooping or ''p''-hacking is the misuse of data analysis to find patterns in data that can be presented as statistically significant, thus dramatically increasing and understating the risk of false positives. Thi ...
– belief in the significance of a result, not realizing that multiple comparisons or experiments have been run and only the most significant were published. * Garden of forking paths fallacy – incorrect belief that a single experiment can not be subject to the multiple comparisons effect. * Sunk costs fallacy - refusal to leave a situation because you have already put large amounts of time or effort into it- for example trying to jump over a wall you physically cannot jump over because you have already spent an hour trying to jump.


Relevance fallacies

* Appeal to the stone () – dismissing a claim as absurd without demonstrating proof for its absurdity. * Invincible ignorance (argument by pigheadedness) – where a person simply refuses to believe the argument, ignoring any evidence given. *
Argument from ignorance Argument from ignorance (), or appeal to ignorance, is an informal fallacy where something is claimed to be true or false because of a lack of evidence to the contrary. The fallacy is committed when one asserts that a proposition is true because ...
(appeal to ignorance, ''argumentum ad ignorantiam'') – assuming that a claim is true because it has not been or cannot be proven false, or vice versa. * Argument from incredulity (appeal to common sense) – "I cannot imagine how this could be true; therefore, it must be false." * Argument from repetition ( or ) – repeating an argument until nobody cares to discuss it any more and referencing that lack of objection as evidence of support for the truth of the conclusion; sometimes confused with
proof by assertion Proof most often refers to: * Proof (truth), argument or sufficient evidence for the truth of a proposition * Alcohol proof, a measure of an alcoholic drink's strength Proof may also refer to: Mathematics and formal logic * Formal proof, a ...
. * Argument from silence () – assuming that a claim is true based on the absence of textual or spoken evidence from an authoritative source, or vice versa. * (irrelevant conclusion, missing the point) – an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question.


Red herring fallacies

A red herring fallacy, one of the main subtypes of fallacies of relevance, is an error in logic where a proposition is, or is intended to be, misleading in order to make irrelevant or false inferences. This includes any logical inference based on fake arguments, intended to replace the lack of real arguments or to replace implicitly the subject of the discussion.
Red herring A red herring is something that misleads or distracts from a relevant or important question. It may be either a logical fallacy or a literary device that leads readers or audiences toward a false conclusion. A red herring may be used intentiona ...
– introducing a second argument in response to the first argument that is irrelevant and draws attention away from the original topic (e.g.: saying "If you want to complain about the dishes I leave in the sink, what about the dirty clothes you leave in the bathroom?"). In
jury trial A jury trial, or trial by jury, is a legal proceeding in which a jury makes a decision or findings of fact. It is distinguished from a bench trial, in which a judge or panel of judges makes all decisions. Jury trials are increasingly used ...
, it is known as a Chewbacca defense. In political strategy, it is called a dead cat strategy. * – attacking the arguer instead of the argument. (Note that "" can also refer to the dialectical strategy of arguing on the basis of the opponent's own commitments. This type of is not a fallacy.) ** Circumstantial – stating that the arguer's personal situation or perceived benefit from advancing a conclusion means that their conclusion is wrong. ** Poisoning the well – a subtype of presenting adverse information about a target person with the intention of discrediting everything that the target person says. **
Appeal to motive Appeal to motive is a pattern of argument which consists in challenging a thesis by calling into question the motives of its proposer. It can be considered as a special case of the ad hominem circumstantial argument. As such, this type of argument ...
– dismissing an idea by questioning the motives of its proposer. ** Tone policing – focusing on emotion behind (or resulting from) a message rather than the message itself as a discrediting tactic. ** Traitorous critic fallacy (, 'therefore I leave') – a critic's perceived affiliation is portrayed as the underlying reason for the criticism and the critic is asked to stay away from the issue altogether. Easily confused with the association fallacy (guilt by association) below. ** Bulverism (psychogenetic fallacy) – inferring why an argument is being used, associating it to some psychological reason, then assuming it is invalid as a result. The assumption that if the origin of an idea comes from a biased mind, then the idea itself must also be a falsehood. * Appeal to authority (argument from authority, ) – an assertion is deemed true because of the position or authority of the person asserting it. ** Appeal to accomplishment – an assertion is deemed true or false based on the accomplishments of the proposer. This may often also have elements of appeal to emotion . ** Courtier's reply – a criticism is dismissed by claiming that the critic lacks sufficient knowledge, credentials, or training to credibly comment on the subject matter. * Appeal to consequences () – the conclusion is supported by a premise that asserts positive or negative consequences from some course of action in an attempt to distract from the initial discussion. *
Appeal to emotion Appeal to emotion or ''argumentum ad passiones'' (meaning the same in Latin) is an informal fallacy characterized by the psychological manipulation, manipulation of the recipient's emotions in order to win an argument, especially in the absence of ...
– manipulating the emotions of the listener rather than using valid reasoning to obtain common agreement. ** Appeal to fear – generating distress, anxiety, cynicism, or prejudice towards the opponent in an argument. ** Appeal to flattery – using excessive or insincere praise to obtain common agreement. ** Appeal to pity () – generating feelings of sympathy or mercy in the listener to obtain common agreement. ** Appeal to ridicule – mocking or stating that the opponent's position is laughable to deflect from the merits of the opponent's argument. ** Appeal to spite – generating bitterness or hostility in the listener toward an opponent in an argument. ** Judgmental language – using insulting or pejorative language in an argument. ** Pooh-pooh – stating that an opponent's argument is unworthy of consideration. ** Style over substance – embellishing an argument with compelling language, exploiting a bias towards the esthetic qualities of an argument, e.g. the rhyme-as-reason effect **
Wishful thinking Wishful thinking is the formation of beliefs based on what might be pleasing to imagine, rather than on evidence, rationality, or reality. It is a product of resolving conflicts between belief and desire. Methodologies to examine wishful thin ...
– arguing for a course of action by the listener according to what might be pleasing to imagine rather than according to evidence or reason. *
Appeal to nature In law, an appeal is the process in which cases are reviewed by a higher authority, where parties request a formal change to an official decision. Appeals function both as a process for error correction as well as a process of clarifying and ...
– judgment is based solely on whether the subject of judgment is 'natural' or 'unnatural'. (Sometimes also called the "naturalistic fallacy", but is not to be confused with the other fallacies by that name.) * Appeal to novelty (, ) – a proposal is claimed to be superior or better solely because it is new or modern. (opposite of
appeal to tradition Appeal to tradition (also known as ''argumentum ad antiquitatem'' or ''argumentum ad antiquitam'', appeal to antiquity, or appeal to common practice) is a claim in which a thesis is deemed correct on the basis of correlation with past or present t ...
) * Appeal to poverty () – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (Opposite of appeal to wealth.) *
Appeal to tradition Appeal to tradition (also known as ''argumentum ad antiquitatem'' or ''argumentum ad antiquitam'', appeal to antiquity, or appeal to common practice) is a claim in which a thesis is deemed correct on the basis of correlation with past or present t ...
() – a conclusion supported solely because it has long been held to be true. * Appeal to wealth () – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is wealthy (or refuting because the arguer is poor). (Sometimes taken together with the appeal to poverty as a general appeal to the arguer's financial situation.) * (appeal to the stick, appeal to force, appeal to threat) – an argument made through coercion or threats of force to support position. * (appeal to widespread belief, bandwagon argument, appeal to the majority, appeal to the people) – a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because a majority or many people believe it to be so. * Association fallacy (guilt by association and honor by association) – arguing that because two things share (or are implied to share) some property, they are the same. * Logic chopping fallacy ( nit-picking, trivial objections) – Focusing on trivial details of an argument, rather than the main point of the argumentation. * (bare assertion fallacy) – a claim that is presented as true without support, as self-evidently true, or as dogmatically true. This fallacy relies on the implied expertise of the speaker or on an unstated truism. *
Chronological snobbery Chronological snobbery is an argument that the thinking, art, or science of an earlier time is inherently inferior to that of the present, simply by virtue of its temporal priority or the belief that since civilization has advanced in certain area ...
– a thesis is deemed incorrect because it was commonly held when something else, known to be false, was also commonly held. * (also known as "appeal to worse problems" or "not as bad as") – dismissing an argument or complaint due to what are perceived to be more important problems. First World problems are a subset of this fallacy. * Genetic fallacy – a conclusion is suggested based solely on something or someone's origin rather than its current meaning or context. *
I'm entitled to my opinion I Am or I'm may refer to: Language and literature * "I Am that I Am", a common English translation of the response God used in the Hebrew Bible when Moses asked for His name ** I am (biblical term), a Christian term used in the Bible * "I Am" ( ...
– a person discredits any opposition by claiming that they are entitled to their opinion. * Moralistic fallacy – inferring factual conclusions from evaluative premises, in violation of
fact–value distinction The fact–value distinction is a fundamental epistemological distinction described between: # Statements of fact (positive or descriptive statements), which are based upon reason and observation, and examined via the empirical method. # Statem ...
; e.g. making statements about what is, on the basis of claims about what ought to be. This is the inverse of the naturalistic fallacy. * Naturalistic fallacy – inferring evaluative conclusions from purely factual premises in violation of
fact–value distinction The fact–value distinction is a fundamental epistemological distinction described between: # Statements of fact (positive or descriptive statements), which are based upon reason and observation, and examined via the empirical method. # Statem ...
. Naturalistic fallacy (sometimes confused with
appeal to nature In law, an appeal is the process in which cases are reviewed by a higher authority, where parties request a formal change to an official decision. Appeals function both as a process for error correction as well as a process of clarifying and ...
) is the inverse of moralistic fallacy. ** Is–ought fallacy – deduce a conclusion about what ought to be, on the basis of what is. * (anti-naturalistic fallacy) – inferring an impossibility to infer any instance of ''ought'' from ''is'' from the general invalidity of ''is-ought fallacy'', mentioned above. For instance, ''is'' P \lor \neg P does imply ''ought'' P \lor \neg P for any proposition P, although the ''naturalistic fallacy'' fallacy would falsely declare such an inference invalid. ''Naturalistic fallacy'' fallacy is a type of argument from fallacy. * Straw man fallacy – refuting an argument different from the one actually under discussion, while not recognizing or acknowledging the distinction. * Texas sharpshooter fallacy – improperly asserting a cause to explain a cluster of data. * ('you too' – appeal to hypocrisy, whataboutism) – stating that a position is false, wrong, or should be disregarded because its proponent fails to act consistently in accordance with it. * Two wrongs make a right – assuming that, if one wrong is committed, another wrong will rectify it. *
Vacuous truth In mathematics and logic, a vacuous truth is a conditional or universal statement (a universal statement that can be converted to a conditional statement) that is true because the antecedent cannot be satisfied. It is sometimes said that a s ...
– a claim that is technically true but meaningless, in the form no ''A'' in ''B'' has ''C'', when there is no ''A'' in ''B''. For example, claiming that no mobile phones in the room are on when there are no mobile phones in the room.


See also

* * *
List of common misconceptions Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. Common mis ...
* *
List of paradoxes This list includes well known paradoxes, grouped thematically. The grouping is approximate, as paradoxes may fit into more than one category. This list collects only scenarios that have been called a paradox by at least one source and have their ...
* * (confusing map with territory, menu with meal) * * , in which Aristotle presented thirteen fallacies * (book)


References


Citations


Sources

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Further reading

: ''The following is a sample of books for further reading, selected for a combination of content, ease of access via the internet, and to provide an indication of published sources that interested readers may review. The titles of some books are self-explanatory. Good books on critical thinking commonly contain sections on fallacies, and some may be listed below.'' * * * * * * * * * Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International License


External links



Literacy Education Online

Texas State University Texas State University (TXST) is a public university, public research university with its main campus in San Marcos, Texas, United States, and another campus in Round Rock, Texas, Round Rock. Since its establishment in 1899, the university has ...
page on informal fallacies
Stephen's Guide to the Logical Fallacies
(mirror)
Visualization: Rhetological Fallacies
'' Information is Beautiful''
''Master List of Logical Fallacies''
University of Texas at El Paso The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) is a public university, public research university in El Paso, Texas, United States. Founded in 1913 as the State School of Mines and Metallurgy, it is the third oldest academic component of the Univers ...

''Fallacies''
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''IEP'') is a scholarly online encyclopedia with around 900 articles about philosophy, philosophers, and related topics. The IEP publishes only peer review, peer-reviewed and blind-refereed original p ...
{{Logic * Rhetoric
Fallacies A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning in the construction of an argument that may appear to be well-reasoned if unnoticed. The term was introduced in the Western intellectual tradition by the Aristotelian '' De Sophis ...