Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico () is an oceanic basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, mostly surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north, and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States; on the southwest and south by the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo; and on the southeast by Cuba. The coastal areas along the Southern U.S. states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, which border the Gulf on the north, are occasionally referred to as the "Third Coast" of the United States (in addition to its Atlantic and Pacific coasts), but more often as "the Gulf Coast".

The Gulf of Mexico took shape about 300 million years ago (mya) as a result of plate tectonics. The Gulf of Mexico basin is roughly oval and is about wide. Its floor consists of sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Straits of Florida between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba. Because of its narrow connection to the Atlantic Ocean, the gulf has very small tidal ranges.

The size of the gulf basin is about . Almost half of the basin consists of shallow continental shelf waters. The volume of water in the basin is roughly (). The gulf is one of the most important offshore petroleum production regions in the world, making up 14% of the United States' total production. Moisture from the Gulf of Mexico also contributes to weather across the United States, including severe weather in Tornado Alley.

Name

As with the name of Mexico, the gulf's name is associated with the ethnonym ''Mexica'', which refers to the Nahuatl-speaking people of the Valley of Mexico better known as the Aztecs. In Aztec religion, the gulf was called , or 'House of Chalchiuhtlicue', after the deity of the seas. Believing that the sea and sky merged beyond the horizon, they called the seas , meaning 'sky water', contrasting them with finite, landlocked bodies of water, such as lakes. The Maya civilization, which used the gulf as a major trade route, likely called the gulf , meaning 'great water'.

Up to 1530, European maps depicted the gulf, though left it unlabeled. Hernán Cortés called it "Sea of the North" () in his dispatches, while other Spanish explorers called it the "Gulf of Florida" () or "Gulf of Cortés" (). A 1584 map by Abraham Ortelius also labeled it as the "Sea of the North" (). Other early European maps called it the "Gulf of St. Michael" (), "Gulf of Yucatán" (), "Yucatán Sea" (), "Great Antillean Gulf" (), "Cathayan Sea" (), or "Gulf of New Spain" (). At one point, New Spain encircled the gulf, with the Spanish Main extending into what later became Mexico and the southeastern United States.

The name "Gulf of Mexico" (; , later ) first appeared on a world map in 1550 and a historical account in 1552. As with other large bodies of water, Europeans named the gulf after Mexico, land of the Mexica, because mariners needed to cross the gulf to reach that destination. This name has been the most common name since the mid-17th century, when it was still considered a Spanish sea. French Jesuits used this name as early as 1672. In the 18th century, Spanish admiralty charts similarly labeled the gulf as "Mexican Cove" or "Mexican Sound" ( or ). Until the Republic of Texas broke away from Mexico in 1836, Mexico's coastal boundary extended eastward along the gulf to present-day Louisiana.

Among the other languages of Mexico, the gulf is known as in Nahuatl, in Yucatec Maya, and in Tzotzil.

On January 20, 2025, United States president Donald Trump signed an executive order directing U.S. federal agencies to adopt the name Gulf of America for the gulf waters bounded by the U.S. Although there is no formal protocol on the general naming of international waters, ''Gulf of Mexico'' is officially recognized by the International Hydrographic Organization, which seeks to standardize the names of international maritime features for certain purposes and counts all three countries adjacent to the gulf as member states. Major online map platforms and several U.S.-based media outlets voluntarily adopted the change. Mexican president Claudia Sheinbaum objected to the declaration of a name change.

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization publication ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'' defines the southeast limit of the Gulf of Mexico as:

A line joining Cape Catoche Light () with the Light on Cape San Antonio in Cuba, through this island to the meridian of 83°W and to the Northward along this meridian to the latitude of the South point of the Dry Tortugas (24°35′N), along this parallel Eastward to Rebecca Shoal (82°35′W) thence through the shoals and Florida Keys to the mainland at the eastern end of Florida Bay and all the narrow waters between the Dry Tortugas and the mainland being considered to be within the Gulf.

Population

The total population of the five U.S. states facing the gulf is 67 million people. Of these, a total of 15.8 million people live in the Gulf Coastal Region, in counties directly bordering the gulf. The six Mexican states that face the gulf have a total population of 19.1 million people. Three provinces of northwest Cuba, including Havanas in the gulf hosted a temporary population of more than 10,000 workers on any given day, who were rotated on a weekly staggered schedule. Increasing automation later led to a decline in the offshore worker population.

Geology

The consensus among geologists is that before the late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. Before the late Triassic, the area consisted of dry land, which included continental crust that now underlies Yucatán, within the middle of the supercontinent Pangaea. This land lay south of a continuous mountain range that extended from north-central Mexico, through the Marathon Uplift in west Texas and the Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma, and to Alabama where it linked directly to the Appalachian Mountains. It was created by the collision of continental plates that formed Pangaea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, this mountain range was breached in the late Cretaceous by the formation of the Mississippi Embayment.

The rifting that created the basin was associated with zones of weakness within Pangaea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, and African plates collided to create it. First, there was a late Triassic–early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, the continental crust was stretched and thinned as rifting progressed through early and middle Jurassic times. This thinning created a broad zone of transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with block faulting and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical thickness of continental crust. At this time, rifting first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastwards to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the opening basin to create an enclosed marginal sea. The subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt and associated anhydrite evaporites. During the late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the basin and progressed to the point that seafloor spreading and formation of oceanic crust occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. Seafloor spreading stopped at the end of the Jurassic, about 145–150 mya.During the late Jurassic through early Cretaceous, the basin experienced a period of cooling and subsidence of the crust underlying it. The subsidence resulted from crustal stretching, cooling, and loading. Initially, the crustal stretching and cooling combination caused about of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional and oceanic crust. The basin expanded and deepened because subsidence occurred faster than sediment could fill it.

Later, loading of the crust within the basin and adjacent coastal plain by the accumulation of kilometers of sediments during the rest of the Mesozoic and all of the Cenozoic further depressed the underlying crust to its current position about below sea level. Particularly during the Cenozoic, a time of relative stability for the coastal zones, thick clastic wedges built out the continental shelf along the northwestern and northern margins of the basin.

To the east, the stable Florida Platform was not covered by the sea until the latest Jurassic or the beginning of Cretaceous time. The Yucatán Platform was emergent until the mid-Cretaceous. After both platforms were submerged, the formation of carbonates and evaporites has delineated the geologic history of these two stable areas. Most of the basin was rimmed during the early Cretaceous by carbonate platforms, and its western flank was involved during the latest Cretaceous and early Paleogene periods in a compressive deformation episode, the Laramide Orogeny, which created the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico.

The Gulf of Mexico is 41% continental slope, 32% continental shelf, and 24% abyssal plain with the greatest depth of 12,467 feet in the Sigsbee Deep. Seven main areas are given as:
* Gulf of Mexico basin contains the Sigsbee Deep and can be further divided into the continental rise, the Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, and the Mississippi Cone.
* Northeast Gulf of Mexico extends from a point east of the Mississippi River Delta near Biloxi to the eastern side of Apalachee Bay.
* South Florida Continental Shelf and Slope extends along the coast from Apalachee Bay to the Straits of Florida and includes the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas.
* Campeche Bank extends from the Yucatán Straits in the east to the Tabasco– Campeche Basin in the west and includes Arrecife Alacran.
* Bay of Campeche is a bight extending from the western edge of Campeche Bank to the offshore regions east of Veracruz.
* Western Gulf of Mexico is located between Veracruz to the south and the Rio Grande to the north.
* Northwest Gulf of Mexico extends from Alabama to the Rio Grande.

Brine pools

A number of brine pools, sometimes called brine lakes, are known on the seafloor of the northern half of the Gulf of Mexico. Brine pools in the Gulf of Mexico range from just across to long. Brine is produced wherever the water of the Gulf comes in contact with the Louann Salt, a evaporite formation from the Jurassic period, along faults or in unconsolidated sediments. The Louann Salt extends under most of the continental shelf around the northern part of the Gulf from west of Florida to Texas. Under the pressure of overlaying sediments, the salt deforms and migrates, a process known as salt tectonics. Masses of salt may rise through overlaying sediments to form salt domes, or may be extruded along the Sigsbee Escarpment where the slope of the continental shelf exposes lower laying stata.

The brines usually exceed 200 parts-per-thousand (ppt) of salt and are 25% or more denser than most seawater (average 35 ppt). The density difference inhibits mixing of the brine with other sea water, and the brine flows downslope and gathers in depressions in the gulf floor. Hydrocarbons and gas hydrates rising from salt diapirs may cause doming of the gulf floor, with the gas sometimes erupting strongly enough to leave a depression in the gulf floor surrounded by a rim, where brine may pool. The East Flower Garden Bank brine pool is in a crater formed by the collapsed cap of a salt dome. The circular pool covers with a maximum depth of , and is beneath the surface of the Gulf. It is anoxic and contain quantities of hydrogen sulfide and methane.

The brine pool known as GB425, which is deep, is fed by a mud volcano. The temperature at the surface of the pool can vary from , and is on average warmer than normal bottom temperatures. The brine pool known as GC233 is at a depth similar to that of GB425, deep. The pool sits in a depression at the top of a mound and covers about . While GC233 has a lower inflow of brine than GB425 and a temperature about below that of GB425, the two pools share some similarities, such as a salinity of about 130 ppt, low sulfides, almost no sulfates, and high concentrations of hydrocarbons.

The Orca Basin is deep, and covers about with a maximum depth of . The large size is the result of the merger of several salt domes. Salinity in the pool increases gradually over a depth of , and reaches 300 ppt at depth, with zero dissolved oxygen.

A brine pool was discovered in 2014 on the sea floor at a depth of with a circumference of and depth of , which is four to five times saltier than the surrounding water. The site cannot sustain any kind of life other than bacteria, mussels with a symbiotic relationship, tube worms, and certain kinds of shrimp. It has been called the "Jacuzzi of Despair" because it is warmer at compared to the surrounding water at .

Hydrology

Circulation of water in and through the Gulf is part of the larger circulation patterns of the Atlantic Ocean. Water flows into the Gulf from the Caribbean Sea through the Yucatan Channel as the Yucatan Current, and exits to the North Atlanic Ocean through the Florida Straits as the Florida Current, which becomes the Gulf Stream. Movement through the two straits is confined to the upper layers of ocean water, as the Yucatan Strait has a maximum depth of only , while the Florida Straits has a maximum depth of only .

The Yucatan Current fills most of the Yucatan Channel to a depth of up to , with a maximum flow of per second. There are weaker countercurrents along the coasts of Cuba and Yucatan and below the main current. The average volumetric flow rate through the Yucatan Channel varied between 15.8 and 28.1 Sverdrups ( hectometers per second) from 1999 to 2013. The Florida Current fills all of the Florida Straits (at approximately 81°W, between the lower Florida Keys and Cuba) to a depth of , with a maximum flow of per second. The average volumetric flow rate through the Florida Straits varied between 27.2 and 27.9 Sverdrups.

The Yucatan Current is connected to the Florida Current by an anti-cyclonic (clockwise) loop of variable size, the Loop Current. The Loop Current may extend into the northeastern part of the Gulf, and may flow over the continental shelf along the west coast of the Florida peninsula. The Loop Current is as strong as the Gulf Stream and dominates the Gulf. Anti-cyclonic and cyclonic (anti-clockwise) rings or eddie's are shed from the Loop Current and move into the western Gulf. Cyclonic and anti-cyclonic eddies form pairs, and such pairs of eddie's often dominate circulation in the western Gulf.

The Loop Current is up to in diameter and is surrounded by small cyclonic (anti-clockwise) eddies. Large warm-core rings or eddies are shed off the Loop Current at irregular intervals. The Loop Current can be seen in satellite images using both sea surface temperatures and Sea surface height. On the east side of the Gulf, a weak countercurrent flows north along the continental slope of the Florida peninsula. In the Northeast corner of the Gulf there is a weak cyclonic circulation over the continental shelf. The strength of this circulation is inversely proportional to how far north the Loop Current extends.

The Loop Current is part of the North Atlantic Gyre, a ocean current circulation that includes the Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Current, Canary Current, and North Equatorial Current. The eddies shed by the Loop Current spread though the Gulf, affecting the circulation in almost all parts of the Gulf. The creation of the eddies is a variable and often complex process, influenced in part by how far the Loop Currents has penetrated into the Gulf. Eddies shed by the Loop Current sometimes reattach to the Loop Current. Eddies surrounding the Loop Current react interactively with it, affecting both the penetration of the loop into the Gulf, and the size and number of eddies shed by the loop.

Rings or eddies shed from the Loop Current may be up to in diameter and deep. The outer currents in the ring may flow at up to , while the rings as a whole move westward at about .

The water flowing into the Gulf from the Caribbean Sea is not homogenous. About 40% is from the South Atlantic Ocean, and is warmer and fresher than the rest of the water. The South Atlantic component is distinguishable in the upper of the left hand and central parts of the Florida Current. Another component in the deeper part of the current is Antarctic intermediate water. The rest of the water carried into the Gulf consists of various masses from the North Atlantic.

History

Pre-Columbian

As early as the Maya civilization, the Gulf of Mexico was used as a trade route off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula and present-day Veracruz.

Spanish exploration

Although Europeans credited the Spanish voyage of Christopher Columbus with the discovery of the Americas, the ships in his four voyages did not reach the Gulf of Mexico. Instead, the Spanish sailed into the Caribbean around Cuba and Hispaniola. The first alleged European exploration of the Gulf of Mexico was by Amerigo Vespucci in 1497. Vespucci is purported to have followed the coastal land mass of Central America before returning to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida between Florida and Cuba. However, this first voyage of 1497 is widely disputed. Many historians doubt that it took place as described. In his letters, Vespucci described this trip, and once Juan de la Cosa returned to Spain, a famous world map was produced.

In 1506, Hernán Cortés participated in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and enslaving Indigenous people for his efforts. In 1510, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide to the governor of Hispaniola, on his expedition to conquer Cuba. In 1518, Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization.

In 1517, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba discovered the Yucatán Peninsula. This was the first European encounter with an advanced civilization in the Americas, with solidly built buildings and complex social structures which they found comparable to those of the Old World. They also had reason to expect that this new land would have gold. All of this encouraged two further expeditions, the first in 1518 under the command of Juan de Grijalva, and the second in 1519 under the command of Hernán Cortés, which led to the Spanish exploration, military invasion, and ultimately settlement and colonization known as the Conquest of Mexico. Hernández did not live to see the continuation of his work: he died in 1517, the year of his expedition, as the result of the injuries and the extreme thirst suffered during the voyage, and disappointed in the knowledge that Velázquez had given precedence to Grijalva as the captain of the next expedition to Yucatán.

In 1523, a treasure ship was wrecked en route at Padre Island, Texas. When word of the disaster reached Mexico City, the viceroy requested a rescue fleet and sent Ángel de Villafañe from Mexico City, marching overland to find the treasure-laden vessels. Villafañe traveled to Pánuco and hired a ship to transport him to the site, which that community had already visited. He arrived in time to greet García de Escalante Alvarado (a nephew of Pedro de Alvarado), commander of the salvage operation, when Alvarado arrived by sea on July 22, 1554. The team laboured until September 12 to salvage the Padre Island treasure. This loss, combined with other ship disasters around the Gulf of Mexico, led to a plan for establishing a settlement on the northern Gulf Coast to protect shipping and rescue castaways more quickly. As a result, the expedition of Tristán de Luna y Arellano was sent and landed at Pensacola Bay on August 15, 1559.

On December 11, 1526, Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire granted Pánfilo de Narváez a licence to establish colonial settlements along the present-day Gulf Coast of the United States, known as the Narváez expedition. The contract gave him one year to gather an army, leave Spain, be large enough to found at least two towns of 100 people each, and garrison two more fortresses anywhere along the coast. On April 7, 1528, they spotted land north of what is now Tampa Bay. They turned south and traveled for two days, looking for a great harbour the master pilot Miruelo knew of. Sometime during these two days, one of the five remaining ships was lost on the rugged coast, but nothing else is known.

In 1697, French sailor Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was chosen by the Minister of Marine to lead an expedition to rediscover the mouth of the Mississippi River and to settle Louisiana, which French explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle had named. The English coveted this region, however in 1682 it was named to honour King Louis XIV of France. D'Iberville's fleet sailed from Brest on October 24, 1698, reaching Santa Rosa Island near Pensacola; he sailed from there to Mobile Bay and explored Massacre Island. He anchored between Cat Island and Ship Island. On February 13, 1689, he went to ashore at what is now Biloxi, with his teenage brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, and completed Fort Maurepas on the northeast side of the Bay of Biloxi on May 1. Three days later, d'Iberville sailed for France leaving his brother Jean-Baptiste as second in command.

The first permanent settlement, Fort Maurepas (now Ocean Springs, Mississippi), was founded in 1699 by d'Iberville. By then the French had also built a small fort at the mouth of the Mississippi at a settlement they named La Balise (or La Balize), "seamark" in French.

Geography

The Gulf of Mexico's eastern, northern, and northwestern shores lie along the US states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The US portion of the coastline spans , receiving water from 33 major rivers that drain 31 states and 2 Canadian provinces, and consisting of the coastline from the southern tip of Florida and the Florida Keys to the U.S.–Mexican border between Brownsville, Texas, and Matamoros, Tamaulipas. The Mexican coastline spans , consisting of the coastline from the US border to the Cabo Catoche Light (near Cancún) at the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula. Cuba has only of official gulf coastline, along its northern land boundary. The southwestern and southern shores of the gulf lie along the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and the northernmost tip of Quintana Roo. On its southeast quadrant, the gulf is bordered by Cuba. It supports major American, Mexican, and Cuban fishing industries. The outer margins of the wide continental shelves of Yucatán and Florida receive cooler, nutrient-enriched waters from the deep by a process known as upwelling, which stimulates plankton growth in the euphotic zone. This attracts fish, shrimp, and squid. River drainage and atmospheric fallout from industrial coastal cities also provide nutrients to the coastal zone.The Gulf Stream, a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of the strongest ocean currents known, originates in the gulf as a continuation of the Caribbean Current–Yucatán Current–Loop Current system. Other circulation features include a permanent cyclonic gyre in the Bay of Campeche and anticyclonic gyres, which are shed by the Loop Current and travel westwards, where they eventually dissipate. The Bay of Campeche constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Numerous bays and smaller inlets fringe the gulf's shoreline. Streams that empty into the gulf include the Mississippi River and the Rio Grande in the northern gulf and the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers in the southern gulf. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is defined by marshes, swamps, and stretches of sandy beach.

The Gulf of Mexico is an excellent example of a passive margin. The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast, notably at the Florida and Yucatán Peninsulas. The shelf is exploited for its oil through offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf and the Bay of Campeche. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include red snapper, amberjack, tilefish, swordfish, and various grouper, as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters are also harvested on a large scale from many bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper manufacture, and tourism.

The gulf is considered aseismic; however, mild tremors have been recorded throughout history (usually 5.0 or less on the Richter magnitude scale). Interactions between sediment loading on the sea floor and adjustment by the crust may cause earthquakes. On September 10, 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that a magnitude 6.0 earthquake occurred about west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida. The quake was reportedly felt from Louisiana to Florida. There were no reports of damage or injuries. Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida. The earthquake was described by the USGS as an intraplate earthquake, the largest and most widely felt recorded in the past three decades in the region. According to ''The Tampa Tribune'' on the following day, earthquake tremors were last felt in Florida in 1952, recorded in Quincy, northwest of Tallahassee.

Maritime boundary delimitation agreements

Cuba and Mexico: Exchange of notes constituting an agreement on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone of Mexico in the sector adjacent to Cuban maritime areas (with map), of July 1976.

Cuba and United States: Maritime boundary agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Cuba, of December 1977.

Mexico and United States: Treaty to resolve pending boundary differences and maintain the Rio Grande and Colorado River as the international boundary, of November 1970; Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean), of May 1978, and treaty on the delimitation of the continental shelf in the western Gulf of Mexico beyond , of June 2000.

In December 2007, Mexico submitted information to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) regarding the extension of Mexico's continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles. Mexico sought an extension of its continental shelf in the Western Polygon based on international law, UNCLOS, and bilateral treaties with the United States, in accordance with Mexico's domestic legislation. In March 2009, the CLCS accepted Mexico's arguments for extending its continental shelf up to into the Western Polygon. Since this would extend Mexico's continental shelf well into territory claimed by the United States, Mexico and the United States would need to enter a bilateral agreement based on international law that delimits their respective claims.

Shipwrecks

A ship now called the ''Mardi Gras'' sank around the early 19th century about off the coast of Louisiana in of water. The ship, whose real identity remains a mystery, is believed to have been a privateer or trader. The shipwreck lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an oilfield inspection crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company (OGGC). In 2007, an expedition led by Texas A&M University and funded by OGGC under an agreement with the Minerals Management Service (now BOEM) was launched to undertake the deepest scientific archaeological excavation to that date to study the site on the seafloor and recover artifacts for public display in the Louisiana State Museum. Videos and a documentary about the project, ''Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck,'' was made by Nautilus Productions with help from BOEM, Texas A&M University, the Florida Public Archaeology Network and Veolia Environmental. about the project, short videos and video updates during the expedition. Video footage from the ROV was used in the documentary.

On July 30, 1942, the SS ''Robert E. Lee'', captained by William C. Heath, was torpedoed by the . The steamship was en route to New Orleans, sailing southeast of the entrance to the Mississippi River; she was being escorted by USS '' PC-566'', captained by Lieutenant Commander Herbert G. Claudius. The explosion destroyed the #3 hold; vented through the B and C decks; and damaged the engines, the radio compartment, and the steering gear. ''PC-566'' dropped depth charges on a sonar contact, sinking ''U-166''. The badly damaged ''Robert E. Lee'' first listed to port, then to starboard, and finally sank within about 15 minutes of the attack. One officer, nine crew members, and 15 passengers were lost. The passengers aboard ''Robert E. Lee'' were primarily survivors of previous torpedo attacks by German U-boats. In 2001, the wrecks of ''U-166'' and ''Robert E. Lee'' were found during the C & C Marine survey. The submarine was found in of water, about from where it had attacked the liner.

Biota

Various biota include chemosynthetic communities near cold seeps and nonchemosynthetic communities such as bacteria and other micro-benthos

HOME


Content is Copyleft
Website design, code, and AI is Copyrighted (c) 2014-2017 by Stephen Payne


Consider donating to Wikimedia



As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases