cooking
Cooking, also known as cookery or professionally as the culinary arts, is the art, science and craft of using heat to make food more palatable, digestible, nutritious, or Food safety, safe. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from ...
traditions and practices of
France
France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. In the 14th century,
Guillaume Tirel
Guillaume Tirel (), known as Taillevent (, "wind-cutter" i.e. an idle swaggerer) (born ca. 1310 in Pont-Audemer – 1395), was an important figure in the early history of French cuisine. He was cook to the Court of France at the time of the fir ...
, a
court
A court is an institution, often a government entity, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between Party (law), parties and Administration of justice, administer justice in Civil law (common law), civil, Criminal law, criminal, an ...
chef
A chef is a professional Cook (profession), cook and tradesperson who is proficient in all aspects of outline of food preparation, food preparation, often focusing on a particular cuisine. The word "chef" is derived from the term (), the di ...
known as "Taillevent", wrote ''
Le Viandier
''Le Viandier'' (often called ''Le Viandier de Taillevent'', ) is a recipe collection generally credited to Guillaume Tirel, alias ''Taillevent''. However, the earliest version of the work was written around 1300, about 10 years before Tirel's b ...
'', one of the earliest
recipe
A recipe is a set of instructions that describes how to prepare or make something, especially a dish (food), dish of prepared food. A sub-recipe or subrecipe is a recipe for an ingredient that will be called for in the instructions for the main r ...
collections of
medieval France
The Kingdom of France in the Middle Ages (roughly, from the 10th century to the middle of the 15th century) was marked by the fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire and West Francia (843–987); the expansion of royal control by the House of C ...
. In the 17th and 18th centuries, chefs
François Pierre La Varenne
François Pierre de la Varenne (, 1615–1678 in Dijon), Burgundian by birth, was the author of ''Le Cuisinier françois'' (1651), one of the most influential cookbooks in early modern French cuisine. La Varenne's book expressed the culinary inn ...
and Marie-Antoine Carême spearheaded movements that shifted French cooking away from its foreign influences and developed France's own indigenous style.
Cheese
Cheese is a type of dairy product produced in a range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk (usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats or sheep). During prod ...
and
wine
Wine is an alcoholic drink made from Fermentation in winemaking, fermented fruit. Yeast in winemaking, Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made f ...
are a major part of the cuisine. They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations and ''
appellation d'origine contrôlée
In France, the ''appellation d'origine contrôlée'' (, ; abbr. AOC ) is a label that identifies an agricultural product whose stages of production and processing are carried out in a defined geographical area – the ''terroir'' – and using ...
'' (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws.
Culinary tourism
Culinary tourism or food tourism or gastronomy tourism is the exploration of food as the purpose of tourism. It is considered a vital component of the tourism experience. Dining out is common among tourists and "food is believed to rank alongsid ...
and the '' Guide Michelin'' helped to acquaint commoners with the ''
cuisine bourgeoise In French gastronomy, ''cuisine bourgeoise'' is the home cooking of middle class (bourgeoise) families as distinguished from elaborate restaurant cooking, ''haute cuisine'', and from the cooking of the regions, the peasantry, and the urban poor.
Th ...
'' of the urban elites and the peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country.
Knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines. Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education. In November 2010, French
gastronomy
Gastronomy is the study of the relationship between Human food, food and culture, the art of preparing and serving rich or delicate and appetizing food, the cooking styles of particular regions, and the science of good eating. One who is well ver ...
was added by the
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
medieval cuisine
Medieval cuisine includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various Culture of Europe, European cultures during the Middle Ages, which lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. During this period, Diet (nutrition), diets and cooking ch ...
, banquets were common among the
aristocracy
Aristocracy (; ) is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocracy (class), aristocrats.
Across Europe, the aristocracy exercised immense Economy, economic, Politics, political, and soc ...
. Multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called ''service en confusion'', or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers. The sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used.
Pies were a common banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather than as food itself, and it was not until the very end of the
Late Middle Ages
The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the Periodization, period of History of Europe, European history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period ( ...
that the
shortcrust
Shortcrust is a type of pastry often used for the base of a tart, quiche, pie, or (in the British English sense) flan. Shortcrust pastry can be used to make both sweet and savory pies such as apple pie, quiche, lemon meringue or chicken pie.
A ...
pie was developed.
Meals often ended with an ''issue de table'', which later changed into the modern dessert, and typically consisted of ''
dragée
A dragée ( , , ; ) is a bite-sized confectionery with a hard outer shell, which can be made of sugar, chocolate, or other substances. Dragées come in various shapes and sizes and are often used for decorative purposes, particularly in pastri ...
s'' (in the Middle Ages, meaning spiced lumps of hardened sugar or honey), aged cheese, and spiced wine, such as hypocras.
The ingredients of the time varied greatly according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey, and other preservatives. Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse.
Livestock
Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...
were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked. Bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were
brine
Brine (or briny water) is a high-concentration solution of salt (typically sodium chloride or calcium chloride) in water. In diverse contexts, ''brine'' may refer to the salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawat ...
d and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt. Fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during
Lent
Lent (, 'Fortieth') is the solemn Christianity, Christian religious moveable feast#Lent, observance in the liturgical year in preparation for Easter. It echoes the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert and enduring Temptation of Christ, t ...
, the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten.
Artificial freshwater ponds (often called ''stews'') held
carp
The term carp (: carp) is a generic common name for numerous species of freshwater fish from the family (biology), family Cyprinidae, a very large clade of ray-finned fish mostly native to Eurasia. While carp are prized game fish, quarries and a ...
tench
The tench or doctor fish (''Tinca tinca'') is a freshwater, fresh- and brackish water, brackish-water fish of the order Cypriniformes found throughout Eurasia from Western Europe including Great Britain, Britain and Ireland east into Asia as far ...
,
bream
Bream (, ) are species of freshwater fish belonging to a variety of genera including '' Abramis'' (e.g., ''A. brama'', the common bream), '' Ballerus'', '' Blicca'', '' Brama'', '' Chilotilapia'', '' Etelis'', '' Lepomis'', '' Gymnocranius'', ...
,
eel
Eels are ray-finned fish belonging to the order Anguilliformes (), which consists of eight suborders, 20 families, 164 genera, and about 1000 species. Eels undergo considerable development from the early larval stage to the eventual adult stage ...
, and other fish.
Poultry
Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, Eggs as food, eggs or feathers. The practice of animal husbandry, raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typ ...
was kept in special yards, with pigeon and
squab
In culinary terminology, squab is an immature domestic pigeon, typically under four weeks old, or its meat. Some authors describe it as tasting like dark chicken.
The word "squab" probably comes from Scandinavia; the Swedish word means "loose ...
being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included
venison
Venison refers primarily to the meat of deer (or antelope in South Africa). Venison can be used to refer to any part of the animal, so long as it is edible, including the internal organs. Venison, much like beef or pork, is categorized into spe ...
,
boar
The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a Suidae, suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The speci ...
,
hare
Hares and jackrabbits are mammals belonging to the genus ''Lepus''. They are herbivores and live Solitary animal, solitarily or in pairs. They nest in slight depressions called forms, and their young are precociality, able to fend for themselves ...
, rabbit, and
fowl
Fowl are birds belonging to one of two biological orders, namely the gamefowl or landfowl ( Galliformes) and the waterfowl ( Anseriformes). Anatomical and molecular similarities suggest these two groups are close evolutionary relatives; toget ...
.
Kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as
tansy
Tansy (''Tanacetum vulgare'') is a perennial, herbaceous flowering plant in the genus ''Tanacetum'' in the aster family, native to temperate Europe and Asia. It has been introduced to other parts of the world, including North America, and in ...
,
rue
''Ruta graveolens'', commonly known as rue, common rue or herb-of-grace, is a species of the genus '' Ruta'' grown as an ornamental plant and herb. It is native to the Mediterranean. It is grown throughout the world in gardens, especially for i ...
, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today. Spices were treasured and very expensive at that time—they included pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and mace. Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine are
cubeb
''Piper cubeba'', cubeb or tailed pepper is a plant in genus ''Piper (plant), Piper'', cultivated for its fruit and essential oil. It is mostly grown in Java (island), Java and Sumatra, hence sometimes called Java pepper. The fruits are gathere ...
s, long pepper (both from vines similar to black pepper),
grains of paradise
Grains of paradise (''Aframomum melegueta'') is a species in the ginger family, Zingiberaceae, and closely related to cardamom. Its seeds are used as a spice (ground or whole); it imparts a pungent, black-pepper-like flavor with hints of cit ...
, and galengale.
Sweet-sour flavors were commonly added to dishes with vinegar and '' verjus'' combined with sugar (for the affluent) or honey. A common form of food preparation was to thoroughly cook, pound, and strain mixtures into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to be beneficial to make use of nutrients.
Visual display was prized. Brilliant colors were obtained by the addition of, for example, juices from spinach and the green part of
leek
A leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek (synonym (taxonomy), syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of Leaf sheath, leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a "s ...
s. Yellow came from
saffron
Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of '' Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent ...
or egg yolk, while red came from
sunflower
The common sunflower (''Helianthus annuus'') is a species of large annual forb of the daisy family Asteraceae. The common sunflower is harvested for its edible oily seeds, which are often eaten as a snack food. They are also used in the pr ...
, and purple came from '' Crozophora tinctoria'' or '' Heliotropium europaeum''.
Gold and silver leaf were placed on food surfaces and brushed with egg whites. Elaborate and showy dishes were the result, such as ''tourte parmerienne'' which was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with chicken-drumstick turrets coated with
gold leaf
upA gold nugget of 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter (bottom) can be expanded through hammering into a gold foil of about 0.5 m2 (5.4 sq ft). The Japan.html" ;"title="Toi gold mine museum, Japan">Toi gold mine museum, Japan.
Gold leaf is gold that has ...
. One of the grandest showpieces of the time was a roast
swan
Swans are birds of the genus ''Cygnus'' within the family Anatidae. The swans' closest relatives include the goose, geese and ducks. Swans are grouped with the closely related geese in the subfamily Anserinae where they form the tribe (biology) ...
or
peacock
Peafowl is a common name for two bird species of the genus '' Pavo'' and one species of the closely related genus '' Afropavo'' within the tribe Pavonini of the family Phasianidae (the pheasants and their allies). Male peafowl are referred t ...
sewn back into its skin with feathers intact, the feet and beak being
gilded
Gilding is a decorative technique for applying a very thin coating of gold over solid surfaces such as metal (most common), wood, porcelain, or stone. A gilded object is also described as "gilt". Where metal is gilded, the metal below was tradi ...
. Since both birds are stringy, and taste unpleasant, the skin and feathers could be kept and filled with the cooked, minced and seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like goose or chicken.
The most well-known French chef of the Middle Ages was
Guillaume Tirel
Guillaume Tirel (), known as Taillevent (, "wind-cutter" i.e. an idle swaggerer) (born ca. 1310 in Pont-Audemer – 1395), was an important figure in the early history of French cuisine. He was cook to the Court of France at the time of the fir ...
, also known as Taillevent. Taillevent worked in numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century. His first position was as a kitchen boy in 1326. He was chef to Philip VI, then the Dauphin who was son of John II. The Dauphin became King
Charles V of France
Charles V (21 January 1338 – 16 September 1380), called the Wise (; ), was King of France from 1364 to his death in 1380. His reign marked an early high point for France during the Hundred Years' War as his armies recovered much of the terri ...
in 1364, with Taillevent as his chief cook. His career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his death, he was buried in grand style between his two wives. His tombstone represents him in armor, holding a shield with three cooking pots, ''marmites'', on it.
Ancien Régime
Paris was the central hub of culture and economic activity, and as such, the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were to be found there. Markets in Paris such as ''
Les Halles
Les Halles (; 'The Halls') was Paris' central fresh food market. It last operated on 12 January 1973 and was replaced by an underground shopping centre and a park. The unpopular modernist development was demolished yet again in 2010, and replac ...
'', ''la Mégisserie'', those found along '' Rue Mouffetard'', and similar smaller versions in other cities were very important to the distribution of food. Those that gave French produce its characteristic identity were regulated by the
guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They so ...
system, which developed in the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
. In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government as well as by the French crown. A guild restricted those in a given branch of the culinary industry to operate only within that field.
There were two groups of guilds—first, those that supplied the raw materials: butchers, fishmongers, grain merchants, and gardeners. The second group were those that supplied prepared foods: bakers, pastry cooks, sauce makers, poulterers, and
caterer
Catering is the business of providing food services at a remote site or a site such as a hotel, hospital, pub, aircraft, cruise ship, park, festival, filming location or film studio.
History of catering
The earliest account of major service ...
s. Some guilds offered both raw materials and prepared food, such as the '' charcutiers'' and ''rôtisseurs'' (purveyors of roasted meat dishes). They would supply cooked meat pies and dishes as well as raw meat and poultry. This caused issues with butchers and poulterers, who sold the same raw materials.
The guilds served as a training ground for those within the industry. The degrees of assistant cook, full-fledged cook and master chef were conferred. Those who reached the level of master chef were of considerable rank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level of income as well as economic and job security. At times, those in the royal kitchens did fall under the
guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They so ...
hierarchy, but it was necessary to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills after leaving the service of the royal kitchens. This was not uncommon as the Paris cooks' Guild regulations allowed for this movement.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many new food items from the
New World
The term "New World" is used to describe the majority of lands of Earth's Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas, and sometimes Oceania."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: ...
. Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets show
Catherine de' Medici
Catherine de' Medici (, ; , ; 13 April 1519 – 5 January 1589) was an Italian Republic of Florence, Florentine noblewoman of the Medici family and Queen of France from 1547 to 1559 by marriage to Henry II of France, King Henry II. Sh ...
serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner. The dish called
cassoulet
Cassoulet (, also ,; ) is a rich stew originating in southern France. The food writer Elizabeth David described it as "that sumptuous amalgamation of haricot beans, sausage, pork, mutton and preserved goose, aromatically spiced with garlic and h ...
has its roots in the New World discovery of haricot beans, which are central to the dish's creation, but had not existed outside of the Americas until the arrival of Europeans.
''Haute cuisine'' (, "high cuisine") has foundations during the 17th century with a chef named La Varenne. As an author of works such as ''Le Cuisinier françois'', he is credited with publishing the first true French cookbook. His book includes the earliest known reference to
roux
Roux () is a mixture of flour and fat cooked together and used to thicken sauces. Roux is typically made from equal parts of flour and fat by weight. The flour is added to the melted fat or Cooking oil, oil on the stove top, blended until smoo ...
using pork fat. The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one for
fasting
Fasting is the act of refraining from eating, and sometimes drinking. However, from a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (before "breakfast"), or to the metabolic sta ...
. His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known in the Middle Ages to new techniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter dishes, and more modest presentations of pies as individual pastries and turnovers. La Varenne also published a book on pastry in 1667 entitled ''Le Parfait confitvrier'' (republished as ''Le Confiturier françois'') which similarly updated and codified the emerging ''haute cuisine'' standards for desserts and pastries.
Chef
François Massialot
François Massialot (1660, in Limoges – 1733, in Paris) was a French chef who served as ''chef de cuisine'' (''officier de bouche'') to various illustrious personages, including Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIV, and his so ...
wrote ''Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois'' in 1691, during the reign of
Louis XIV
LouisXIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great () or the Sun King (), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the List of longest-reign ...
. The book contains menus served to the royal courts in 1690. Massialot worked mostly as a freelance cook, and was not employed by any particular household. Massialot and many other royal cooks received special privileges by association with the French royalty. They were not subject to the regulation of the guilds; therefore, they could cater weddings and banquets without restriction. His book is the first to list recipes alphabetically, perhaps a forerunner of the first culinary dictionary. It is in this book that a
marinade
Marinating is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. This sauce, called the marinade, can be either acidic (made with ingredients such as vinegar, lemon juice, or wine), or enzymatic (made with ingredien ...
is first seen in print, with one type for poultry and feathered game, while a second is for fish and shellfish. No quantities are listed in the recipes, which suggests that Massialot was writing for trained cooks.
The successive updates of ''Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois'' include important refinements such as adding a glass of wine to fish stock. Definitions were also added to the 1703 edition. The 1712 edition, retitled ''Le Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois'', was increased to two volumes, and was written in a more elaborate style with extensive explanations of technique. Additional smaller preparations are included in this edition as well, leading to lighter preparations, and adding a third course to the meal.
Ragout
Ragout (, , ) is a stew served as a main dish.
Etymology
The term comes from the French ''ragoûter'', meaning 'to revive the taste'.
Preparation
The basic method of preparation involves slow cooking over a low heat. The main ingredients are ...
, a stew still central to French cookery, makes its first appearance as a single dish in this edition as well; prior to that, it was listed as a garnish.
Late 18th century – early 19th century
Shortly before the French Revolution, dishes like ' gained prominence. Essentially royal cuisine produced by the royal household, this is a chicken-based recipe served on ''
vol-au-vent
A ''vol-au-vent'' (pronounced , French for "windblown", to describe its lightness) is a small hollow case of puff pastry. It was formerly also called a patty case. .
A ''vol-au-vent'' is typically made by cutting two circles in rolled out p ...
'' created under the influence of Queen
Marie Leszczyńska
Maria Karolina Zofia Felicja Leszczyńska (; 23 June 1703 – 24 June 1768), also known as Marie Leczinska (), was Queen of France as the wife of King Louis XV from their marriage on 4 September 1725 until her death in 1768. The daughter of St ...
, the Polish-born wife of
Louis XV
Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity (then defi ...
. This recipe is still popular today, as are other recipes from Queen Marie Leszczyńska like ''
consommé à la Reine
In cooking, a consommé is a type of clear soup made from richly flavoured Stock (food), stock or broth that has been clarified, a process that uses egg whites to remove fat and sediment.
Consommé has three English pronunciations: traditional ...
'' and '' filet d'aloyau braisé à la royale''. Queen Marie is also credited with introducing Polonaise garnishing to the French diet.
The French Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it abolished the guild system. This meant anyone could now produce and sell any culinary item they wished.
Bread was a significant food source among peasants and the working class in the late 18th century, with many of the nation's people being dependent on it. In French provinces, bread was often consumed three times a day by the people of France. According to Brace, bread was referred to as the basic dietary item for the masses, and it was also used as a foundation for soup. In fact, bread was so important that harvest, interruption of commerce by wars, heavy flour exploration, and prices and supply were all watched and controlled by the French Government. Among the underprivileged, constant fear of famine was always prevalent. From 1725 to 1789, there were fourteen years of bad yields to blame for the low grain supply. In Bordeaux, during 1708–1789, thirty-three bad harvests occurred.Marie-Antoine Carême was born in 1784, five years before the
Revolution
In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...
. He spent his younger years working at a ''
pâtisserie
A (), patisserie in French or pastry shop in English, is a type of bakery that specializes in pastries and sweets. In French language, French, the word ''pâtisserie'' also denotes a pastry as well as pastry-making.
While the making and selli ...
'' until he was discovered by
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (; ; 2 February 1754 – 17 May 1838), 1st Prince of Benevento, then Prince of Talleyrand, was a French secularization, secularized clergyman, statesman, and leading diplomat. After studying theology, he b ...
; he would later cook for
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
. Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carême had become known for his '' pièces montées'', which were extravagant constructions of pastry and sugar architecture.
More important to Carême's career was his contribution to the refinement of French cuisine. The basis for his style of cooking was his sauces, which he named mother sauces. Often referred to as
fond
In the culinary arts, fond is a contraction of ''fonds de cuisine'' which is loosely described as "the foundation and working capital of the kitchen". In its native usage, fond refers to the sauce created by dissolving the flavorful solid bits o ...
s, meaning "foundations", these base sauces, '' espagnole'', '' velouté'', and '' béchamel'', are still known today. Each of these sauces was made in large quantities in his kitchen, then formed the basis of multiple derivatives. Carême had over one hundred sauces in his repertoire.
In his writings, soufflés appear for the first time. Although many of his preparations today seem extravagant, he simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that existed beforehand. Central to his codification of the cuisine were ''Le Maître d'hôtel français'' (1822), ''Le Cuisinier parisien'' (1828) and ''L'Art de la cuisine française au dix-neuvième siècle'' (1833–5).
Late 19th century – early 20th century
Georges Auguste Escoffier is commonly acknowledged as the central figure to the modernization of ''haute cuisine'' and organizing what would become the national cuisine of France. His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels in Europe and America during the 1880s-1890s. The
Savoy Hotel
The Savoy Hotel is a luxury hotel located in the Strand in the City of Westminster in central London, England. Built by the impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte with profits from his Gilbert and Sullivan opera productions, it opened on 6 August 1 ...
managed by
César Ritz
César Ritz, born Cäsar Ritz (23 February 1850 – 26 October 1918), was a Swiss hotelier and founder of several hotels, most famously the Hôtel Ritz Paris, Hôtel Ritz in Paris and the The Ritz London Hotel, Ritz and Carlton Hotel, London, Ca ...
was an early hotel in which Escoffier worked, but much of his influence came during his management of the kitchens in the Carlton from 1898 until 1921. He created a system of "parties" called the
brigade system
The kitchen brigade (, ) is a system of hierarchy found in restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, commonly referred to as "kitchen staff" in English-speaking countries.
The concept was developed by Auguste Escoffier (1846–1935). Th ...
, which separated the professional kitchen into five separate stations.
These five stations included the ''
garde manger
A () is a cool, well-ventilated area where savory cold dishes (such as salads, , appetizers, canapés, pâtés, and terrines) are prepared and other foods are stored under refrigeration.
The person in charge of this area, and all of the sav ...
'' that prepared cold dishes; the ''entremettier'' prepared starches and vegetables, the ''rôtisseur'' prepared roasts, grilled and fried dishes; the ''
saucier
A saucier () or sauté chef is a position in the classical brigade style kitchen. It can be translated into English as ''sauce chef''. In addition to preparing sauces, the saucier prepares stews, hot hors d'œuvres, and sautés food to order. ...
'' prepared sauces and soups; and the ''pâtissier'' prepared all pastry and desserts items.
This system meant that instead of one person preparing a dish on one's own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different components for the dish. An example used is ''oeufs au plat Meyerbeer'', the prior system would take up to fifteen minutes to prepare the dish, while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by the ''entremettier'', kidney grilled by the ''rôtisseur'', truffle sauce made by the ''saucier'' and thus the dish could be prepared in a shorter time and served quickly in the popular restaurants.
Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure of the meal. He published a series of articles in professional journals which outlined the sequence, and he finally published his ''Livre des menus'' in 1912. This type of service embraced the ''
service à la russe
(; , ) is a style of serving food in which dishes are brought to the table sequentially and served separately to each guest. ''Service à la russe'' was developed in France in the 19th century by adapting traditional Russian table service to ex ...
'' (serving meals in separate courses on individual plates), which Félix Urbain Dubois had made popular in the 1860s. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of ''
Le Guide Culinaire
''Le Guide Culinaire'' () is Georges Auguste Escoffier's 1903 French restaurant cuisine cookbook, his first. It is regarded as a classic and still in print. Escoffier developed the recipes while working at the Savoy, Ritz and Carlton hotels fro ...
'' in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. The book was a collaboration with Philéas Gilbert, E. Fetu, A. Suzanne, B. Reboul, Ch. Dietrich, A. Caillat and others. The significance of this is to illustrate the universal acceptance by multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking.
''Le Guide Culinaire'' deemphasized the use of heavy sauces and leaned toward lighter '' fumets'', which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and vegetables. This style of cooking looked to create garnishes and sauces whose function is to add to the flavor of the dish, rather than mask flavors like the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of the past. Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in addition to recipes from Carême, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's ''
Le Viandier
''Le Viandier'' (often called ''Le Viandier de Taillevent'', ) is a recipe collection generally credited to Guillaume Tirel, alias ''Taillevent''. However, the earliest version of the work was written around 1300, about 10 years before Tirel's b ...
'', which had a modern version published in 1897. A second source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes that were translated into the refined techniques of ''haute cuisine''.
Expensive ingredients would replace the common ingredients, making the dishes much less humble. The third source of recipes was Escoffier himself, who invented many new dishes, such as '' pêche Melba''. Escoffier updated ''Le Guide Culinaire'' four times during his lifetime, noting in the foreword to the book's first edition that even with its 5,000 recipes, the book should not be considered an "exhaustive" text, and that even if it were at the point when he wrote the book, "it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress marches on each day."
This period is also marked by the appearance of the '' nouvelle cuisine''. The term "nouvelle cuisine" has been used many times in the history of French cuisine which emphasized the freshness, lightness and clarity of flavor and inspired by new movements in world cuisine. In the 1740s, Menon first used the term, but the cooking of Vincent La Chapelle and François Marin was also considered modern. In the 1960s,
Henri Gault
Henri Gault (, 4 November 1929 - 9 July 2000) was a French food journalist. He was co-founder of the Gault Millau guides with Christian Millau, and invented the phrase '' nouvelle cuisine''. He later stated that he regretted it.
Biography
Gau ...
and
Christian Millau
Christian Dubois-Millot, pen name Christian Millau (, 30 December 1928 – 5 August 2017), was a French food critic and author.
Born in Paris, he began his career as a journalist in the "interior policy" department of ''Le Monde'' newspaper. In 1 ...
revived it to describe the cooking of
Paul Bocuse
Paul François Pierre Bocuse (; 11 February 1926 – 20 January 2018) was a French chef based in Lyon known for the quality of his restaurants and his innovative approaches to cuisine. Dubbed "the pope of gastronomy", he was affectionately nick ...
,
Jean
Jean may refer to:
People
* Jean (female given name)
* Jean (male given name)
* Jean (surname)
Fictional characters
* Jean Grey, a Marvel Comics character
* Jean Valjean, fictional character in novel ''Les Misérables'' and its adaptations
* J ...
Michel Guérard
Michel Robert-Guérard (; 27 March 1933 – 19 August 2024), known as Michel Guérard, was a French chef, author, one of the founders of '' nouvelle cuisine'' and the inventor of '' cuisine minceur''.
Early life and education
Michel Guérard w ...
, Roger Vergé and Raymond Oliver. These chefs were working toward rebelling against the "orthodoxy" of
Escoffier
Georges Auguste Escoffier (; 28 October 1846 – 12 February 1935) was a French chef, restaurateur, and culinary writer who popularised and updated traditional French cooking methods. Much of Escoffier's technique was based on that of Marie-A ...
's cuisine. Some of the chefs were students of Fernand Point at the '' Pyramide'' in Vienne, and had left to open their own restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of cooking.
The characteristics that emerged during this period were:
1. A rejection of excessive complication in cooking.
2. The cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés was greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic.
3. The cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients.
4. Large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus.
5. Strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used.
6. They stopped using heavy sauces such as '' espagnole'' and ''béchamel'' thickened with flour based "''roux''" in favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar.
7. They used regional dishes for inspiration instead of ''haute cuisine'' dishes.
8. New techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used; Bocuse even used microwave ovens.
9. The chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through their dishes.
10. And finally, the chefs were extremely innovative and created new combinations and pairings.
Some have speculated that a contributor to ''nouvelle cuisine'' was World War II when animal protein was in short supply during the German occupation. By the mid-1980s food writers stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs began returning to the ''haute cuisine'' style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new techniques remained.
When the French colonized Vietnam, one of the most famous and popular dishes, ''
pot-au-feu
(, ; ) is a French cuisine, French dish of slowly boiled meat and vegetables, usually served as two courses: first the broth (''bouillon'') and then the meat (''bouilli'') and vegetables. The dish is familiar throughout France and has many r ...
'', was subsequently introduced to the local people. While it did not directly create the widely recognizable Vietnamese dish, Pho, it served as a reference for the modern-day form of Pho.
National cuisine
There are many dishes that are considered part of French national cuisine today.
A meal often consists of three courses, ''
hors d'œuvre
An hors d'oeuvre ( ; ), appetiser, appetizer or starter is a small dish (food), dish served before a meal in European cuisine. Some hors d'oeuvres are served cold, others hot. Hors d'oeuvres may be served at the dinner table as a part of the ...
'' or ''
entrée
An entrée (, ; ), in modern French table service and that of much of the English-speaking world, is a dish served before the main course of a meal. Outside North America and parts of English-speaking Canada, it is generally synonymous with th ...
'' (introductory course, sometimes soup), ''plat principal'' (main course), ''fromage'' (cheese course) or ''
dessert
Dessert is a course (food), course that concludes a meal; the course consists of sweet foods, such as cake, biscuit, ice cream, and possibly a beverage, such as dessert wine or liqueur. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly umami, ...
'', sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert.
The notion of a French national cuisine is understood as a set of foods that all people eat and have strong opinions about, regardless of
class
Class, Classes, or The Class may refer to:
Common uses not otherwise categorized
* Class (biology), a taxonomic rank
* Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects
* Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used d ...
. Those who are poorer still eat the same foods as the rich, albeit less frequently.
;Hors d'œuvre
File:Terrine de saumon au basilic.JPG, Basil salmon '' terrine''
File:Lobster bisque.jpg, '' Bisque'' is a smooth and creamy French ''
potage
Pottage or potage (, ; ) is a term for a thick soup or stew made by boiling vegetables, grains, and, if available, meat or fish. It was a staple food for many centuries. The word ''pottage'' comes from the same Old French root as ''potage'', w ...
''.
File:Foie gras en cocotte.jpg, ''
Foie gras
; (, ) is a specialty food product made of the liver of a Domestic duck, duck or Domestic goose, goose. According to French law, ''foie gras'' is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by ''gavage'' (force feeding).
''Foie gras'' i ...
'' with mustard seeds and green onions in duck '' jus''
;Plat principal
File:Pot-au-feu2.jpg, ''
Pot-au-feu
(, ; ) is a French cuisine, French dish of slowly boiled meat and vegetables, usually served as two courses: first the broth (''bouillon'') and then the meat (''bouilli'') and vegetables. The dish is familiar throughout France and has many r ...
'' is a ''
cuisine classique
''Haute cuisine'' (; ) or ''grande cuisine'' is a style of cooking characterised by meticulous preparation, elaborate presentation, and the use of high quality ingredients. Typically prepared by highly skilled gourmet chefs, haute cuisine dishe ...
'' dish.
File:Blanquette de veau à l'ancienne 04.jpg, ''
Blanquette de veau
Blanquette de veau () is a French cuisine, French veal stew. In the classic version of the dish the meat is simmered in a white stock and served in a sauce velouté enriched with cream and egg. It is among the most popular meat dishes in France.
...
''
;Pâtisserie
File:Lille Meert2.JPG, Typical French ''
pâtisserie
A (), patisserie in French or pastry shop in English, is a type of bakery that specializes in pastries and sweets. In French language, French, the word ''pâtisserie'' also denotes a pastry as well as pastry-making.
While the making and selli ...
''
File:Mille-feuille 20100916.jpg, ''
Mille-feuille
A (; ),The name is also written as and . also known by the names Napoleon in North America, vanilla slice in the United Kingdom, and custard slice, is a French dessert made of puff pastry layered with pastry cream. Its modern form was influ ...
''
File:Arc-en-ciel comestible.jpg, ''
Macaron
A macaron ( , )
or French macaroon ( )
is a sweet meringue-based confection made with egg white, icing sugar, granulated sugar, almond meal, and often food colouring.
Since the 19th century, a typical Parisian-style macaron has been a ...
''
File:Eclairs at Fauchon in Paris.jpg, ''
Éclair
An éclair ( or , ; ) is a pastry made with choux dough filled with a cream and topped with a flavored icing. The dough, which is the same as that used for profiteroles, is typically piped into an oblong shape with a pastry bag and baked u ...
''
;Dessert
File:Crêpe Suzette au Citron.jpg, ''
Crêpe
A crêpe or crepe ( or , , ) is a dish made from unleavened batter or dough that is cooked on a frying pan or a griddle. Crêpes are usually one of two varieties: ''sweet crêpes'' () or ''savoury galettes'' (). They are often served ...
French regional cuisine is characterized by its extreme diversity and style. Traditionally, each region of France has its own distinctive cuisine.
Paris and Île-de-France
Paris and Île-de-France are central regions where almost anything from the country is available, as all train lines meet in the city. Over 9,000 restaurants exist in Paris and almost any cuisine can be obtained here. High-quality
Michelin Guide
The ''Michelin Guides'' ( ; ) are a series of guide books that have been published by the French tyre company Michelin since 1900. The ''Guide'' awards up to three Michelin star (classification), stars for excellence to a select few restaurants ...
-rated restaurants proliferate here.
Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace
Game and ham are popular in
Champagne
Champagne (; ) is a sparkling wine originated and produced in the Champagne wine region of France under the rules of the appellation, which demand specific vineyard practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places within it, spe ...
, as well as the special sparkling wine simply known as
Champagne
Champagne (; ) is a sparkling wine originated and produced in the Champagne wine region of France under the rules of the appellation, which demand specific vineyard practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places within it, spe ...
. Fine fruit preserves are known from
Lorraine
Lorraine, also , ; ; Lorrain: ''Louréne''; Lorraine Franconian: ''Lottringe''; ; ; is a cultural and historical region in Eastern France, now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Its name stems from the medieval kingdom of ...
as well as the
quiche Lorraine
Quiche Lorraine is a savoury French tart with a filling of cream, eggs, and bacon or ham, in an open pastry case. It was little known outside the French region of Lorraine until the mid-20th century. As its popularity spread, nationally and inter ...
.
Alsace
Alsace (, ; ) is a cultural region and a territorial collectivity in the Grand Est administrative region of northeastern France, on the west bank of the upper Rhine, next to Germany and Switzerland. In January 2021, it had a population of 1,9 ...
, a region of historically Allemanic German culture, has retained elements of
German cuisine
The cuisine of Germany consists of many different local or regional cuisines, reflecting the country's federal history. Germany itself is part of the larger cultural region of Central Europe, sharing many culinary traditions with neighbouring c ...
, especially similar to those from the neighboring Palatinate and
Baden
Baden (; ) is a historical territory in southern Germany. In earlier times it was considered to be on both sides of the Upper Rhine, but since the Napoleonic Wars, it has been considered only East of the Rhine.
History
The margraves of Ba ...
region, but has implemented French influences since France first took control of the region in the 17th century. As such,
beer
Beer is an alcoholic beverage produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches from cereal grain—most commonly malted barley, although wheat, maize (corn), rice, and oats are also used. The grain is mashed to convert starch in the ...
s made in the area are similar to the style of bordering Germany. Dishes like '' choucroute'' (French for ''
sauerkraut
Sauerkraut (; , ) is finely cut raw cabbage that has been fermented by various lactic acid bacteria. It has a long shelf life and a distinctive sour flavor, both of which result from the lactic acid formed when the bacteria ferment the sugar ...
'') are also popular. Many "'' eaux de vie''" (distilled alcohol from fruit) also called schnaps are from this region, due to a wide variety of local fruits (cherry, raspberry, pear, grapes) and especially prunes (mirabelle, plum). 259,295
File:Champagne flute and bottle.jpg,
Flute
The flute is a member of a family of musical instruments in the woodwind group. Like all woodwinds, flutes are aerophones, producing sound with a vibrating column of air. Flutes produce sound when the player's air flows across an opening. In th ...
of
Champagne
Champagne (; ) is a sparkling wine originated and produced in the Champagne wine region of France under the rules of the appellation, which demand specific vineyard practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places within it, spe ...
Quiche
Quiche ( ) is a French tart consisting of a pastry crust filled with savoury custard and pieces of cheese, meat, seafood or vegetables. A well-known variant is quiche lorraine, which includes lardons or bacon. Quiche may be served hot, wa ...
''
File:Choucroute-p1030191.jpg, ''
Choucroute garnie
''Choucroute garnie'' ( French for ''dressed sauerkraut'') is an Alsatian recipe of sauerkraut with sausages and other salted meats and charcuterie, and often potatoes.
Although sauerkraut is a traditionally German and Eastern European dish, wh ...
Nord Pas-de-Calais, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany
The coastline supplies many
crustacean
Crustaceans (from Latin meaning: "those with shells" or "crusted ones") are invertebrate animals that constitute one group of arthropods that are traditionally a part of the subphylum Crustacea (), a large, diverse group of mainly aquatic arthrop ...
s,
sea bass
Sea bass is a common name for a variety of species of marine fish. Many fish species of various families have been called sea bass.
In Ireland and the United Kingdom, the fish sold and consumed as sea bass is exclusively the European bass, ''Dic ...
,
monkfish
Members of the genus ''Lophius'', also sometimes called monkfish, fishing-frogs, frog-fish, and sea-devils, are various species of lophiid anglerfishes found in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. ''Lophius'' is known as the "monk" or "monkfish" to ...
and
herring
Herring are various species of forage fish, belonging to the Order (biology), order Clupeiformes.
Herring often move in large Shoaling and schooling, schools around fishing banks and near the coast, found particularly in shallow, temperate wate ...
.
Normandy
Normandy (; or ) is a geographical and cultural region in northwestern Europe, roughly coextensive with the historical Duchy of Normandy.
Normandy comprises Normandy (administrative region), mainland Normandy (a part of France) and insular N ...
has top-quality seafood, such as
scallop
Scallop () is a common name that encompasses various species of marine bivalve molluscs in the taxonomic family Pectinidae, the scallops. However, the common name "scallop" is also sometimes applied to species in other closely related famili ...
Brittany
Brittany ( ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica in Roman Gaul. It became an Kingdom of Brittany, independent kingdom and then a Duch ...
has a supply of lobster, crayfish and
mussel
Mussel () is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and Freshwater bivalve, freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other ...
s.
Normandy is home to a large population of apple trees; apples are often used in dishes, as well as
cider
Cider ( ) is an alcoholic beverage made from the Fermented drink, fermented Apple juice, juice of apples. Cider is widely available in the United Kingdom (particularly in the West Country) and Ireland. The United Kingdom has the world's highest ...
and
Calvados
Calvados (, , ) is a brandy from Normandy in France, made from apples and/or pears.
History In France
Apple orchards and brewers are mentioned as far back as the 8th century by Charlemagne. The first known record of Norman distillation was ma ...
. The northern areas of this region, especially
Nord
Nord, a word meaning "north" in several European languages, may refer to:
Acronyms
* National Organization for Rare Disorders, an American nonprofit organization
* New Orleans Recreation Department, New Orleans, Louisiana, US
Film and televisi ...
, grow ample amounts of wheat, sugar beets and
chicory
Common chicory (''Cichorium intybus'') is a somewhat woody, perennial herbaceous plant of the family Asteraceae, usually with bright blue flowers, rarely white or pink. Native to Europe, it has been introduced to the Americas and Australia.
M ...
. Thick stews are found often in these northern areas as well.
The produce of these northern regions is also considered some of the best in the country, including cauliflower and artichokes. Buckwheat grows widely in Brittany as well and is used in the region's ''
galette
Galette (from the Norman language, Norman word ''gale'', meaning 'flat cake') is a term used in French cuisine to designate various types of flat round or freeform crusty cakes, or, in the case of a Breton galette ( ; ), a pancake made with buck ...
s'', called ''jalet'', which is where this dish originated.
File:Crème Chantilly.jpg, '' Crème Chantilly'', created at the
Château de Chantilly The Château de Chantilly () is a historic French château located in the town of Chantilly, Oise, about 50 kilometres (30 miles) north of Paris. The site comprises two attached buildings: the Petit Château, built around 1560 for Anne de Montmore ...
.
File:Camembert.JPG, ''
Camembert
Camembert ( , , ) is a moist, soft, creamy, surface-ripened cow's milk cheese. It was first made in the late 18th century in Camembert, Normandy, in northwest France. It is sometimes compared in look, taste and texture to brie cheese, albe ...
'', cheese specialty from
Normandy
Normandy (; or ) is a geographical and cultural region in northwestern Europe, roughly coextensive with the historical Duchy of Normandy.
Normandy comprises Normandy (administrative region), mainland Normandy (a part of France) and insular N ...
File:GaletteCidre.JPG, ''
Crêpe
A crêpe or crepe ( or , , ) is a dish made from unleavened batter or dough that is cooked on a frying pan or a griddle. Crêpes are usually one of two varieties: ''sweet crêpes'' () or ''savoury galettes'' (). They are often served ...
'' and
cider
Cider ( ) is an alcoholic beverage made from the Fermented drink, fermented Apple juice, juice of apples. Cider is widely available in the United Kingdom (particularly in the West Country) and Ireland. The United Kingdom has the world's highest ...
, specialties of
Brittany
Brittany ( ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica in Roman Gaul. It became an Kingdom of Brittany, independent kingdom and then a Duch ...
File:Jielbeaumadier gaufres lilloises 2008.jpg, Lille waffles
File:Belon oysters at Belon river, France.jpg, Belon oysters
Loire Valley and central France
High-quality fruits come from the
Loire Valley
The Loire Valley (, ), spanning , is a valley located in the middle stretch of the Loire river in central France, in both the administrative regions Pays de la Loire and Centre-Val de Loire. The area of the Loire Valley comprises about . It is r ...
and central France, including cherries grown for the liqueur '' Guignolet'' and ''Belle Angevine'' pears. The strawberries and melons are also of high quality.
Fish are seen in the cuisine, often served with a ''
beurre blanc
''Beurre blanc'' (; ) or ''Beurre Nantais'' () is a warm emulsified butter sauce made with a reduction of vinegar and/or white wine (normally Muscadet) and shallots into which softened whole butter is whisked in off the heat to prevent separat ...
'' sauce, as well as wild game, lamb, calves,
Charolais cattle
The Charolais () or Charolaise () is a French breed of taurine beef cattle. It originates in, and is named for, the Charolais area surrounding Charolles, in the Saône-et-Loire department, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region of eastern Fr ...
, ''Géline'' fowl, and goat cheeses.
Young vegetables are used often, as are the specialty mushrooms of the region, '' champignons de Paris''. Vinegars from
Burgundy
Burgundy ( ; ; Burgundian: ''Bregogne'') is a historical territory and former administrative region and province of east-central France. The province was once home to the Dukes of Burgundy from the early 11th until the late 15th century. ...
and
Franche-Comté
Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou dialect, Frainc-Comtou: ''Fraintche-Comtè''; ; also ; ; all ) is a cultural and Provinces of France, historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of France, departments of Doub ...
perch
Perch is a common name for freshwater fish from the genus ''Perca'', which belongs to the family Percidae of the large order Perciformes. The name comes from , meaning the type species of this genus, the European perch (''P. fluviatilis'') ...
, river crabs, snails, game,
redcurrant
The redcurrant or red currant (''Ribes rubrum'') is a member of the genus ''Ribes'' in the gooseberry family. It is native to western Europe. The species is widely cultivated and has escaped into the wild in many regions.
Description
''Ribes ...
s,
blackcurrant
The blackcurrant (''Ribes nigrum''), also known as black currant or cassis, is a deciduous shrub in the family Grossulariaceae grown for its edible berries. It is native to temperate parts of central and northern Europe and northern Asia, w ...
s all originate here.
Savory specialties accounted in the ''Cuisine franc-comtoise'' from the
Franche-Comté
Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou dialect, Frainc-Comtou: ''Fraintche-Comtè''; ; also ; ; all ) is a cultural and Provinces of France, historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of France, departments of Doub ...
region are ', ',
trout
Trout (: trout) is a generic common name for numerous species of carnivorous freshwater ray-finned fishes belonging to the genera '' Oncorhynchus'', ''Salmo'' and ''Salvelinus'', all of which are members of the subfamily Salmoninae in the ...
Morbier
Morbier () is a commune in the Jura department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in Eastern France. From 1680 to 1920, Morbier was, with Morez, the centre of Comtoise clock production. It gave its name to the Morbier cheese, which is p ...
which are best eaten hot or cold, ' and the special dessert '.
Charolais beef,
poultry
Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, Eggs as food, eggs or feathers. The practice of animal husbandry, raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typ ...
from
Bresse
Bresse () is a former French province. It is located in the regions of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté of eastern France. The geographical term ''Bresse'' has two meanings: ''Bresse bourguignonne'' (or ''louhannaise''), whic ...
,
sea snail
Sea snails are slow-moving marine (ocean), marine gastropod Mollusca, molluscs, usually with visible external shells, such as whelk or abalone. They share the Taxonomic classification, taxonomic class Gastropoda with slugs, which are distinguishe ...
, honey cake, Chaource and Époisses cheese are specialties of the local cuisine of Burgundy.
Dijon mustard
Dijon mustard () is a traditional mustard of France. It is named after the city of Dijon in Burgundy, which was the center of mustard making in the late Middle Ages and was granted exclusive rights in France in the 17th century. First used in ...
is also a specialty of Burgundy cuisine. ''
Crème de cassis
Crème de cassis () (also known as cassis liqueur) is a sweet, dark red liqueur made from blackcurrants.
Several cocktails are made with crème de cassis, notably the popular wine cocktail kir and its sparkling variant, the kir royal. Other ...
'' is a popular liquor made from blackcurrants. Oils are used in the cooking here, including nut oils and
rapeseed
Rapeseed (''Brassica napus'' subsp. ''napus''), also known as rape and oilseed rape and canola, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturall ...
oil.
File:Boeuf bourguignon servie avec des pâtes.jpg, ''
Bœuf bourguignon
Beef bourguignon () or bœuf bourguignon (; ), also called beef Burgundy, and ''bœuf à la Bourguignonne'',''Random House Dictionary'online at dictionary.com/ref> is a French stew of beef braised in red wine, often red Burgundy, and beef stock, ...
''
File:Coq au vin at The Swan at the Globe, London.jpg, ''
Coq au vin
''Coq au vin'' (; , "rooster/cock with wine") is a French dish of chicken braised with wine, lardons, mushrooms, and optionally garlic.
A red Burgundy wine is typically used, though many regions of France make variants using local wines, such ...
''
File:Escargotbordeaux.jpg, '' Escargots'', with special tongs and fork
File:Beaujolais salad.jpg, ''
Beaujolais
Beaujolais ( , ) is a French ''Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée'' (AOC) wine in the Burgundy wine, Burgundy region. Beaujolais wines are generally made of the Gamay grape, which has a thin skin and is low in grape tannins, tannin, but like most ...
'' wine
File:Dijon mustard on a spoon - 20051218.jpg,
Dijon mustard
Dijon mustard () is a traditional mustard of France. It is named after the city of Dijon in Burgundy, which was the center of mustard making in the late Middle Ages and was granted exclusive rights in France in the 17th century. First used in ...
vin jaune
is a special and characteristic type of white wine made in the Jura (wine), Jura region in eastern France. It is similar to dry fino Sherry and gets its character from being matured in a barrel under a film of yeast (wine), yeast, known as the ...
''
File:Gateau de menage.jpg, ''Gâteau de ménage''
Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
The area covers the old province of
Dauphiné
The Dauphiné ( , , ; or ; or ), formerly known in English as Dauphiny, is a former province in southeastern France, whose area roughly corresponded to that of the present departments of Isère, Drôme and Hautes-Alpes. The Dauphiné was ...
, once known as the "larder" of France, that gave its name to ''
gratin dauphinois
Gratin dauphinois ( ) is a French gratin of sliced raw potatoes baked in cream, from the Dauphiné region in south-eastern France. There are many variants of the name of the dish, including pommes de terre dauphinoise, potatoes à la dauphino ...
'', traditionally made in a large baking dish rubbed with garlic. Successive layers of potatoes, salt, pepper and milk are piled up to the top of the dish. It is then baked in the oven at low temperature for 2 hours.
Fruit and young vegetables are popular in the cuisine from the
Rhône valley
The Rhône ( , ; Occitan: ''Ròse''; Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before discharging into the Mediterranean Sea ( Gu ...
, as are wines like
Hermitage AOC
Hermitage () is a French wine ''Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée'' (AOC) in the northern Rhône (wine region), Rhône wine region of France south of Lyon. It produces mostly red wine from the Syrah grape; however, small quantities of white wine ...
Condrieu AOC
Condrieu (; from the French ''coin de ruisseau,'' , )K. MacNeil ''The Wine Bible'' pp. 235–240 Workman Publishing 2001 is a French wine-growing ''Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée'' (AOC) located in the northern Rhône, near Vienne and to ...
.
Walnut
A walnut is the edible seed of any tree of the genus '' Juglans'' (family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, '' Juglans regia''. They are accessory fruit because the outer covering of the fruit is technically an i ...
Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage () is a mild pasteurized natural rind cow's milk blue cheese originally produced by monks in the Rhône-Alpes region of France in the 14th century. Now made in the Dauphiné area, the cheese has been a protected Appellation ...
.
Poultry from
Bresse
Bresse () is a former French province. It is located in the regions of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté of eastern France. The geographical term ''Bresse'' has two meanings: ''Bresse bourguignonne'' (or ''louhannaise''), whic ...
, guinea fowl from
Drôme
Drôme (; Occitan: ''Droma''; Arpitan: ''Drôma'') is the southernmost department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of Southeastern France. Named after the river Drôme, it had a population of 516,762 as of 2019.
and fish from the
Dombes
The Dombes (; ) is an area in eastern France, once an independent municipality, formerly part of the provinces of France, province of Burgundy (region), Burgundy, and now a district comprised in the department of France, department of Ain, and b ...
, a light yeast-based cake, called Pogne de Romans and the regional speciality, '' Raviole du Dauphiné'', and there is the short-crust "Suisse", a Valence biscuit speciality.
Lakes and mountain streams in
Rhône-Alpes
Rhône-Alpes () was an administrative region of France. Since 1 January 2016, it is part of the new region Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. It is located on the eastern border of the country, towards the south. The region was named after the river Rhône a ...
are key to the cuisine as well.
Lyon
Lyon (Franco-Provençal: ''Liyon'') is a city in France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of the French Alps, southeast of Paris, north of Marseille, southwest of Geneva, Switzerland, north ...
and
Savoy
Savoy (; ) is a cultural-historical region in the Western Alps. Situated on the cultural boundary between Occitania and Piedmont, the area extends from Lake Geneva in the north to the Dauphiné in the south and west and to the Aosta Vall ...
supply sausages while the Alpine regions supply their specialty cheeses like Beaufort, Abondance,
Reblochon
Reblochon () is a soft washed-rind and smear-ripened French cheese made in the Alpine region of Haute-Savoie from raw cow's milk. It has its own AOC designation.
Reblochon was first produced in the Thônes and Arly valleys, in the Aravis ...
gourmet
Gourmet (, ) is a cultural idea associated with the culinary arts of fine food and drink, or haute cuisine, which is characterized by their high level of refined and elaborate food preparation techniques and displays of balanced meals that have ...
establishments. Celebrated chefs from this region include Fernand Point,
Paul Bocuse
Paul François Pierre Bocuse (; 11 February 1926 – 20 January 2018) was a French chef based in Lyon known for the quality of his restaurants and his innovative approaches to cuisine. Dubbed "the pope of gastronomy", he was affectionately nick ...
Chartreuse Mountains
The Chartreuse Mountains ( ) are a mountain range in southeastern France, stretching from the city of Grenoble in the south to the Lac du Bourget in the north. They are part of the French Prealps, which continue as the Bauges to the north and ...
are the source of the green and yellow digestif liquor
Chartreuse
Chartreuse () may refer to:
Common meanings
* Chartreuse (liqueur), a French liqueur
* Chartreuse (color), a yellow-green color named after the liqueur
* Grande Chartreuse, the original Carthusian monastery
Other uses
* Chartreuse (dish), a ...
, produced by the monks of the
Grande Chartreuse
Grande Chartreuse () is the head monastery of the Carthusian religious order. It is located in the Chartreuse Mountains, north of the city of Grenoble, in the commune of Saint-Pierre-de-Chartreuse (Isère), France.
History
Originally, the c ...
.
Since the 2014 administrative reform, the ancient area of
Auvergne
Auvergne (; ; or ) is a cultural region in central France.
As of 2016 Auvergne is no longer an administrative division of France. It is generally regarded as conterminous with the land area of the historical Province of Auvergne, which was dis ...
is now part of the
region
In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earth's surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and ...
. One of its leading chefs is Regis Marcon.
File:Gratin-Dauphinois.jpg, ''
Gratin dauphinois
Gratin dauphinois ( ) is a French gratin of sliced raw potatoes baked in cream, from the Dauphiné region in south-eastern France. There are many variants of the name of the dish, including pommes de terre dauphinoise, potatoes à la dauphino ...
''
File:Etalage de bleu du Vercors-Sassenage.jpg, ''
Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage () is a mild pasteurized natural rind cow's milk blue cheese originally produced by monks in the Rhône-Alpes region of France in the 14th century. Now made in the Dauphiné area, the cheese has been a protected Appellation ...
Condrieu
Condrieu () is a Communes of France, commune in the Rhône (department), Rhône Departments of France, department in eastern France.
It is situated on the right bank of the Rhône, some south of Vienne, Isère, Vienne and 44 km south of Ly ...
'' wine
File:Suisse biscuit.JPG, '
File:Bleu de Bresse cheese.jpg, ''
Bleu de Bresse
Bleu de Bresse () is a blue cheese that was first made in the Bresse area of France following World War II. Made from whole milk, it has a firm, edible coating which is characteristically white in colour and has an aroma of mushrooms. Its creamy ...
''
File:Salade bressane.jpg, ''
Poulet de Bresse
The () or volaille de Bresse is a French chicken product which has ''appellation d'origine contrôlée'' status, and which was registered as a Protected Designation of Origin under EU and UK law as ''Volaille de Bresse / Poulet de Bresse / ...
'' chicken salad
File:Rosettes de Lyon.jpg, '' Rosette de Lyon
charcuterie
Charcuterie (, , also , ; ; from , and ) is a branch of French cuisine devoted to prepared meat products, such as bacon, ham, sausage, Terrine (food), terrines, ''galantines'', ''ballotines'', ''pâtés'', and ''confit'', primarily from pork.
Ch ...
''
File:Noix3coquilles.jpg, '' Noix de Grenoble'', unusual trilaterally symmetric walnut
File:Cave Beaufort (Savoie).jpg, Beaufort cheeses ripening in a cellar
Poitou-Charentes and Limousin
Oyster
Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species, the valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but no ...
s come from the
Oléron
The Isle of Oléron or Oléron Island (, ; Saintongese dialect, Saintongese: ''ilâte d'Olerun''; , ) is an island off the Atlantic coast of France (due west of Rochefort, Charente-Maritime, Rochefort), on the southern side of the Pertuis d'Antio ...
mussel
Mussel () is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and Freshwater bivalve, freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other ...
s come from the Bay of Aiguillon.
High-quality produce comes from the region's hinterland, especially goat cheese. This region and in the
Vendée
Vendée () is a department in the Pays de la Loire region in Western France, on the Atlantic coast. In 2019, it had a population of 685,442.Challans.
The region of
Poitou-Charentes
Poitou-Charentes (; ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ) was an administrative region on the southwest coast of France. It comprised four departments: Charente, Charente-Maritime, Deux-Sèvres and Vienne. It included the historical provinces of Angoumo ...
purportedly produces the best butter and cream in France.
Cognac
Cognac ( , also , ) is a variety of brandy named after the Communes of France, commune of Cognac, France. It is produced in the surrounding wine-growing region in the Departments of France, departments of Charente and Charente-Maritime.
Cogn ...
is also made in the region along the river
Charente
Charente (; Saintongese: ''Chérente''; ) is a department in the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine, southwestern France. It is named after the river Charente, the most important and longest river in the department, and also the r ...
.
Limousin
Limousin (; ) is a former administrative region of southwest-central France. Named after the old province of Limousin, the administrative region was founded in 1960. It comprised three departments: Corrèze, Creuse, and Haute-Vienne. On 1 Jan ...
is home to the
Limousin cattle
The Limousin () is a French breed of beef cattle from the Limousin (region), Limousin and Manche regions of France. It was formerly used mainly as a draught animal, but in modern times is reared for beef. A herd-book was established in France ...
, as well as sheep. The woodlands offer game and mushrooms. The southern area around Brive draws its cooking influence from
Périgord
Périgord ( , ; ; or ) is a natural region and former province of France, which corresponds roughly to the current Dordogne department, now forming the northern part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is divided into f ...
and
Auvergne
Auvergne (; ; or ) is a cultural region in central France.
As of 2016 Auvergne is no longer an administrative division of France. It is generally regarded as conterminous with the land area of the historical Province of Auvergne, which was dis ...
to produce a robust cuisine.
Bordeaux, Périgord, Gascony, and Basque country
Bordeaux
Bordeaux ( ; ; Gascon language, Gascon ; ) is a city on the river Garonne in the Gironde Departments of France, department, southwestern France. A port city, it is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the Prefectures in F ...
, a renowned French city, lends its name to a distinctive wine style celebrated worldwide. Bordeaux, along with the larger
Aquitaine
Aquitaine (, ; ; ; ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''Aguiéne''), archaic Guyenne or Guienne (), is a historical region of southwestern France and a former Regions of France, administrative region. Since 1 January 2016 it has been part of the administ ...
region, ranks among the top three wine destinations globally, alongside
Napa Valley
Napa Valley is an American Viticultural Area (AVA) in Napa County, California. The area was established by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) on February 27, 1981, after a 1978 petition submitted by the Napa Valley Vin ...
and
Tuscany
Tuscany ( ; ) is a Regions of Italy, region in central Italy with an area of about and a population of 3,660,834 inhabitants as of 2025. The capital city is Florence.
Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, artistic legacy, and its in ...
. Saint-Emilion, a UNESCO World Heritage village, is a key destination, drawing a multitude of wine tourists to the region.
Bordeaux's diverse viticultural regions specialize in a range of grape varieties such as Merlot, Cabernet Franc, and increasingly Cabernet Sauvignon, each thriving in the picturesque landscapes of the area. This variety contributes significantly to the region's rich viticultural diversity and the production of wines of strong quality.
Building on this agricultural foundation, Bordeaux wine offers a rich history, varied terroir, and complex flavor profile, making it highly versatile for food pairing across various cuisines and occasions.Gagić, Snježana, and Milan Ivkov. Food and Wine pairing-six course menu example. Hotelplan 2013, Contemporary trends in the hospitality industry, Belgrade, Serbia, 28th-29th November, pp. 451–462. ResearchGate. Traditional Bordeaux blends typically include the aforementioned
Cabernet Sauvignon
Cabernet Sauvignon () is one of the world's most widely recognized red wine grape varieties. It is grown in nearly every major wine producing country among a diverse spectrum of climates from Australia and British Columbia, Canada to Lebano ...
,
Merlot
Merlot ( ) is a dark-blue-colored wine grape variety that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines. The name ''Merlot'' is thought to be a diminutive of , the French name for the blackbird, probably a reference to the color ...
, and
Cabernet Franc
Cabernet Franc is one of the major black grape varieties worldwide. It is principally grown for blending with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot in the Bordeaux (wine), Bordeaux style, but can also be vinified alone, as in the Loire (wine), Loire's C ...
, providing a spectrum of flavors and textures that complement a wide array of dishes.
Lighter wines like Bordeaux Blanc or a light-bodied Bordeaux Rouge can elegantly accompany seafood or poultry. The crisp acidity and citrus notes of Bordeaux Blanc complement delicate seafood dishes like grilled fish or shrimp cocktail, while the soft tannins of a light Bordeaux Rouge enhance the flavors of roasted chicken or turkey. Moreover, Bordeaux Rouge wines pair beautifully with dishes like roasted lamb, duck breast, or vegetable stews. The wine's balanced fruitiness and moderate tannins complement the richness of the proteins without overpowering the palate.
Meanwhile, more robust Bordeaux Rouge wines, particularly from renowned appellations like
Saint-Émilion
Saint-Émilion (; Gascon dialect, Gascon: ''Sent Milion'') is a Communes of France, commune in the Gironde department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in Southwestern France.
In the heart of the country of Libournais (the area around Libourne), in a regio ...
, are perfect for richer, savory dishes such as grilled steak or braised beef, where their intense fruit flavors and firm tannins provide a balanced counterpoint to the umami-rich flavors. Understanding this interplay of flavors allows diners to elevate their culinary experiences, creating memorable pairings with Bordeaux wines.
The Pyrenees also has lamb, such as the '' Agneau de Pauillac'', as well as sheep cheeses. Beef cattle in the region include the '' Blonde d'Aquitaine'', '' Boeuf de Chalosse'', '' Boeuf Gras de Bazas'', and '' Garonnaise''.
Free-range chicken, turkey, pigeon,
capon
A capon (from , genitive ''cāpōnis'') is a male chicken that has been castrated or neutered, either physically or chemically, to improve the quality of its flesh for food, and, in some countries like Spain, fattened by forced feeding.
Histor ...
, goose and duck prevail in the region as well.
Gascony
Gascony (; ) was a province of the southwestern Kingdom of France that succeeded the Duchy of Gascony (602–1453). From the 17th century until the French Revolution (1789–1799), it was part of the combined Province of Guyenne and Gascon ...
and
Périgord
Périgord ( , ; ; or ) is a natural region and former province of France, which corresponds roughly to the current Dordogne department, now forming the northern part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is divided into f ...
confit
Confit (, ) (from the French language, French word ''wikt:confire#French, confire'', literally "to preserve") is any type of food that is cooked slowly over a long period as a method of food preservation, preservation.
Confit, as a cooking term, ...
s'' and '' magrets''. This is one of the regions notable for its production of ''
foie gras
; (, ) is a specialty food product made of the liver of a Domestic duck, duck or Domestic goose, goose. According to French law, ''foie gras'' is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by ''gavage'' (force feeding).
''Foie gras'' i ...
'', or fattened goose or duck liver.
The cuisine of the region is often heavy and farm-based.
Armagnac
Armagnac (, ) is a distinctive kind of brandy produced in the Armagnac (region), Armagnac region in Gascony, southwest France. It is distilled from wine usually made from a blend of grapes including Baco 22A, Colombard, Folle blanche and Ugni ...
is also from this region, as are prunes from
Agen
Agen (, , ) is the prefecture of the Lot-et-Garonne department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine, Southwestern France. It lies on the river Garonne, southeast of Bordeaux. In 2021, the commune had a population of 32,485.
Geography
The city of Agen l ...
.
File:Confitdecanard.jpg, '' Confit de canard''
File:Foie gras with sauternes.jpg, A '' terrine'' of ''
foie gras
; (, ) is a specialty food product made of the liver of a Domestic duck, duck or Domestic goose, goose. According to French law, ''foie gras'' is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by ''gavage'' (force feeding).
''Foie gras'' i ...
'' with a bottle of '' Sauternes''
File:Truffe coupée.jpg, Black Périgord
truffle
A truffle is the Sporocarp (fungi), fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, one of the species of the genus ''Tuber (fungus), Tuber''. More than one hundred other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including ''Geopora'', ''P ...
Dordogne
Dordogne ( , or ; ; ) is a large rural departments of France, department in south west France, with its Prefectures in France, prefecture in Périgueux. Located in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region roughly half-way between the Loire Valley and ...
Toulouse, Quercy, and Aveyron
Gers
Gers (; or , ) is a departments of France, department in the regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Southwestern France. Gers is bordered by the departments of Hautes-Pyrénées and Pyrénées-Atlantiques to ...
, a department of France, is within this region and has poultry, while La Montagne Noire and
Lacaune
Lacaune (; , meaning ''the cave'') is a Communes of France, commune in the Tarn (department), Tarn Departments of France, department in southern France.
Geography
The river Gijou has its source in the commune.
History
In 1797, the feral child ...
area offer hams and dry sausages.
White corn is planted heavily in the area both for use in fattening ducks and geese for foie gras and for the production of '' millas'', a cornmeal porridge. Haricot beans are also grown in this area, which are central to the dish ''
cassoulet
Cassoulet (, also ,; ) is a rich stew originating in southern France. The food writer Elizabeth David described it as "that sumptuous amalgamation of haricot beans, sausage, pork, mutton and preserved goose, aromatically spiced with garlic and h ...
''.
The finest sausage in France is '' saucisse de Toulouse'', which is also part of ''cassoulet'' of
Toulouse
Toulouse (, ; ; ) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Haute-Garonne department and of the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region. The city is on the banks of the Garonne, River Garonne, from ...
. The
Cahors
Cahors (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the western part of Southern France. It is the smallest prefecture among the 13 departments that constitute the Occitania (administrative region), Occitanie Region. The capital and main city of t ...
area produces a specialty " black wine" as well as
truffle
A truffle is the Sporocarp (fungi), fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, one of the species of the genus ''Tuber (fungus), Tuber''. More than one hundred other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including ''Geopora'', ''P ...
s and mushrooms.
This region also produces milk-fed lamb. Unpasteurized ewe's milk is used to produce
Roquefort
Roquefort () is a sheep milk blue cheese from southern France. Though similar cheeses are produced elsewhere, European Union law, EU law dictates that only those cheeses aged in the natural Combalou caves of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon may bear the na ...
in
Aveyron
Aveyron (; ) is a Departments of France, department in the Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania, Southern France. It was named after the river Aveyron (river), Aveyron. Its inhabitants are known as ''Aveyro ...
, while in
Laguiole
Laguiole (; ''La Guiòla'' in Languedocien) is a commune in the southern French department of Aveyron.
It is known for its Laguiole cheese, which has an ''Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée'' (label of guaranteed origin), and as the birthp ...
is producing unpasteurized cow's milk cheese. Salers cattle produce milk for cheese, as well as beef and veal products.
The volcanic soils create flinty cheeses and superb lentils. Mineral waters are produced in high volume in this region as well.Cabécou cheese is from
Rocamadour
Rocamadour (; ''Rocamador'' in Occitan) is a commune in the Lot department in southwestern France. It lies in the former province of Quercy. It is a member of Les Plus Beaux Villages de France (The Most Beautiful Villages of France) Associati ...
, a medieval settlement erected directly on a cliff, in the rich countryside of .
This area is one of the region's oldest milk producers; it has chalky soil, marked by history and human activity, and is favourable for the raising of goats.
File:Bowl of cassoulet.JPG, ''
Cassoulet
Cassoulet (, also ,; ) is a rich stew originating in southern France. The food writer Elizabeth David described it as "that sumptuous amalgamation of haricot beans, sausage, pork, mutton and preserved goose, aromatically spiced with garlic and h ...
''
File:Bol d'aligot.jpg, ''
Aligot
Aligot () is a dish made from cheese blended into mashed potatoes (often with some garlic) that is made in L'Aubrac (Aveyron, Cantal, Lozère) region in the southern Massif Central of France. This fondue-like dish from the Aveyron department ...
''
File:Roquefort cheese.jpg, ''
Roquefort
Roquefort () is a sheep milk blue cheese from southern France. Though similar cheeses are produced elsewhere, European Union law, EU law dictates that only those cheeses aged in the natural Combalou caves of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon may bear the na ...
'' cheese
Roussillon, Languedoc, and Cévennes
Restaurants are popular in the area known as '' Le Midi''. Oysters come from the
Étang de Thau
The Étang de Thau (; ) or Bassin de Thau is the largest of a string of lagoons (''étangs'') that stretch along the France, French coast from the Rhône river to the foothills of the Pyrenees and the border to Spain in the Languedoc-Roussillon. ...
, to be served in the restaurants of Bouzigues, Mèze, and
Sète
Sète (; , ), also historically spelled ''Cette'' (official until 1928) and ''Sette'', is a commune in the Hérault department, in the region of Occitania, southern France. Its inhabitants are called ''Sétois'' (male) and ''Sétoises'' (fem ...
. Mussels are commonly seen here in addition to fish specialties of Sète, ''
bourride
Bourride (''bourrido'', in provençal, ''borrida'', in occitan) is a culinary speciality traditional to the cuisine of Provence and Languedoc, based on fish, seafood, and vegetables, served with aïoli and olive oil. A variant of bouillabaisse or ...
'', '' tielles'' and ''rouille de seiche''.
In the
Languedoc
The Province of Languedoc (, , ; ) is a former province of France.
Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately .
History
...
''jambon cru'', sometimes known as ''jambon de montagne'' is produced. High quality ''
Roquefort
Roquefort () is a sheep milk blue cheese from southern France. Though similar cheeses are produced elsewhere, European Union law, EU law dictates that only those cheeses aged in the natural Combalou caves of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon may bear the na ...
'' comes from the ''brebis'' (sheep) on the
Larzac
Larzac (, ), also known as the Causse of Larzac (French: ''Causses, Causse du Larzac''; ), is a limestone karst plateau in the south of the Massif Central, France, situated between Millau (in the Departments of France, department of Aveyron) ...
plateau.
The Les Cévennes area offers mushrooms, chestnuts, berries, honey, lamb, game, sausages, ''
pâté
Pâté ( , , ) is a forcemeat. Originally, the dish was cooked in a pastry case; in more recent times it is more usually cooked without pastry in a terrine. Various ingredients are used, which may include meat from pork, poultry, fish or bee ...
s'' and goat cheeses. Catalan influence can be seen in the cuisine here with dishes like '' brandade'' made from a purée of dried
cod
Cod (: cod) is the common name for the demersal fish genus ''Gadus'', belonging to the family (biology), family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the common name for a number of other fish species, and one species that belongs to genus ''Gad ...
wrapped in mangold leaves. Snails are plentiful and are prepared in a specific Catalan style known as a '' cargolade''.
Wild boar
The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a Suidae, suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The speci ...
can be found in the more mountainous regions of the ''Midi''.
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
The
Provence
Provence is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the France–Italy border, Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterrane ...
and
Côte d'Azur
The French Riviera, known in French as the (; , ; ), is the Mediterranean coastline of the southeast corner of France. There is no official boundary, but it is considered to be the coastal area of the Alpes-Maritimes department, extending fr ...
region is rich in quality citrus, vegetables, fruits and herbs; the region is one of the largest suppliers of all these ingredients in France. The region also produces the largest amount of olives, and creates superb olive oil.
Lavender
''Lavandula'' (common name lavender) is a genus of 47 known species of perennial flowering plants in the sage family, Lamiaceae. It is native plant, native to the Old World, primarily found across the drier, warmer regions of the Mediterranean ...
is used in many dishes found in Haute-Provence. Other important herbs in the cuisine include
thyme
Thyme () is a culinary herb consisting of the dried aerial parts of some members of the genus ''Thymus (plant), Thymus'' of flowering plants in the mint family Lamiaceae. Thymes are native to Eurasia and north Africa. Thymes have culinary, medici ...
rosemary
''Salvia rosmarinus'' (), commonly known as rosemary, is a shrub with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers. It is a member of the sage family, Lamiaceae.
The species is native to the Mediterranean r ...
,
basil
Basil (, ; , ; ''Ocimum basilicum'' (, )), also called great basil, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae (mints). It is a hardiness (plants), tender plant, and is used in cuisines worldwide. In Western cuisine, the generic term "basil" r ...
fennel
Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized ...
,
marjoram
Marjoram (, ''Origanum majorana'') is a cold-sensitive perennial plant, perennial herb or undershrub with sweet pine and citrus flavours. In some Middle Eastern countries, marjoram is synonymous with oregano, and there the names sweet marjoram ...
,
tarragon
Tarragon (''Artemisia dracunculus''), also known as estragon, is a species of perennial herbaceous plant, herb in the family Asteraceae. It is widespread in the wild across much of Eurasia and North America and is cultivated for culinary and medic ...
,
oregano
Oregano (, ; ''Origanum vulgare'') is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae. It was native to the Mediterranean region, but widely naturalised elsewhere in the temperate climate, temperate Northern Hemisphere.
Oregano is a ...
, and
bay leaf
The bay leaf is an aromatic leaf commonly used as a herb in cooking. It can be used whole, either dried or fresh, in which case it is removed from the dish before consumption, or less commonly used in ground form. The flavour that a bay lea ...
. Honey is a prized ingredient in the region.
Seafood
Seafood is any form of Marine life, sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including Fish as food, fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of Mollusca, molluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussel ...
is widely available throughout the coastal area and is heavily represented in the cuisine. Goat cheeses, air-dried sausages, lamb, beef, and chicken are popular here. Garlic and anchovies are used in many of the region's sauces, as in ''Poulet Provençal'', which uses white wine, tomatoes, herbs, and sometimes anchovies, and
Pastis
Pastis (, , ; ) is an anise-flavoured spirit and apéritif traditionally from France, typically containing less than 100 g/L sugar and 40–45% ABV (alcohol by volume).
Origins
Pastis was first commercialized by Paul Ricard in 1932 and enj ...
is found everywhere that alcohol is served.
The cuisine uses a large amount of vegetables for lighter preparations. Truffles are commonly seen in Provence during the winter. Thirteen desserts in Provence are the traditional Christmas dessert, e.g.
quince cheese
Quince cheese (also known as quince paste) is a sweet and tart, thick jelly made of the pulp of the quince fruit. It is a common confection in several countries.
In the Iberian Peninsula, this traditionally Mediterranean food is called ''ate' ...
, biscuits, almonds,
nougat
Nougat refers to a variety of similar confections made from a sweet paste hardened to a chewy or crunchy consistency..
The usual version in Western and Southern Europe is made from a mousse of whipped egg white sweetened with sugar or ho ...
Camargue
The Camargue (, also , , ; ) is a coastal region in southern France located south of the city of Arles, between the Mediterranean Sea and the two arms of the Rhône river delta. The eastern arm is called the Grand Rhône; the western is the ''P ...
, which is the northernmost rice growing area in Europe, with Camargue red rice being a specialty. Anibal Camous, a Marseillais who lived to be 104, maintained that it was by eating garlic daily that he kept his "youth" and brilliance. When his eighty-year-old son died, the father mourned: "I always told him he wouldn't live long, poor boy. He ate too little garlic!"
File:Ratatouille-Dish.jpg, ''
Ratatouille
Ratatouille ( , ; ) is a French Provençal dish of stewed vegetables that originated in Nice and is sometimes referred to as ''ratatouille niçoise'' (). Recipes and cooking times differ widely, but common ingredients include tomato, garlic ...
Bouillabaisse
Bouillabaisse ( , , ; ) is a traditional Cuisine of Provence, Provençal fish soup originating in the port city of Marseille. The word is originally a compound of the two Provençal verbs ('to boiling, boil') and ('to reduce heat', i.e. 'sim ...
''
File:Daube de boeuf carottes.jpg, ''
Daube
Daube (, or ) is a French slow-cooked stew, usually of beef, but other meat is sometimes used. The best-known is the , a Provençal stew made with cheaper cuts of beef braised in wine, with vegetables, garlic and herbs, and traditionally coo ...
''
File:Pissaladière.jpg, ''
Pissaladière
Pissaladière (, , ; or ; or sardenaira) is a dish of flatbread with toppings from the region of Provence and the French city of Niçoise cuisine, Nice. It is often compared to pizza. The dough is usually a bread dough thicker than that of ...
Corsica
Corsica ( , , ; ; ) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the Regions of France, 18 regions of France. It is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of the Metro ...
, and lamb are used to prepare dishes such as '' stufato'', ''
ragout
Ragout (, , ) is a stew served as a main dish.
Etymology
The term comes from the French ''ragoûter'', meaning 'to revive the taste'.
Preparation
The basic method of preparation involves slow cooking over a low heat. The main ingredients are ...
s'' and roasts. Cheeses are also produced, with ''
brocciu
Brocciu () is a Corsican cheese produced from a combination of milk and whey, giving it some of the characteristics of whey cheese. It is produced from ewe's milk. It is notable as a substitute for lactose-rich Italian Ricotta, as brocciu con ...
'' being the most popular.
Chestnut
The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus ''Castanea'', in the beech family Fagaceae. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
Description
...
s, growing in the Castagniccia forest, are used to produce flour, which is used in turn to make bread, cakes and ''
polenta
Polenta (, ) is an Italian cuisine, Italian dish of boiled cornmeal that was historically made from other grains. It may be allowed to cool and solidify into a loaf that can be baked, fried or Grilling, grilled.
The variety of cereal used is ...
''. The forest provides acorns used to feed the pigs and
boar
The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a Suidae, suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The speci ...
s that provide much of the protein for the island's cuisine. Fresh fish and seafood are common.
The island's pork is used to make fine hams, sausage and other unique items including ''
coppa Coppa or COPPA may refer to:
* '' Coppa'' or ''capocollo'', a type of Italian pork cold cut
* Montonico bianco, a white Italian wine grape variety grown in the Calabria region of southern Italy
* Coppa (surname)
* Coppa Italia, a domestic Italian l ...
'' (dried rib cut), '' lonzu'' (dried pork fillet), '' figatellu'' (smoked and dried liverwurst), ''salumu'' (a dried sausage), ''salcietta'', ''Panzetta'', bacon, and '' prisuttu'' (farmer's ham).
Clementine
A clementine (''Citrus × clementina'') is a tangor, a citrus fruit hybrid between a willowleaf mandarin orange ( ''C.'' × ''deliciosa'') and a sweet orange (''C. × sinensis''), named in honor of Clément Rodier, a French missionary who f ...
s (which hold an AOC designation), lemons, nectarines and figs are grown there. Candied
citron
The citron (''Citrus medica''), historically cedrate, is a large fragrant citrus fruit with a thick Peel (fruit), rind. It is said to resemble a 'huge, rough lemon'. It is one of the Citrus taxonomy#Citrons, original citrus fruits from which al ...
is used in
nougat
Nougat refers to a variety of similar confections made from a sweet paste hardened to a chewy or crunchy consistency..
The usual version in Western and Southern Europe is made from a mousse of whipped egg white sweetened with sugar or ho ...
s, while and the aforementioned ''brocciu'' and chestnuts are also used in desserts.
Corsica offers a variety of wines and fruit liqueurs, including Cap Corse, Patrimonio, Cédratine, Bonapartine, '' liqueur de myrte'', ''vins de fruit'', Rappu, and ''
eau-de-vie
An ''eau de vie'' (French language, French for distilled beverage, spirit, §16, §17 ) is a clear, colourless fruit brandy that is produced by means of fermentation and double distillation. The fruit flavor is typically very light.
In Englis ...
de châtaigne''.
French Guiana
French Guianan cuisine or Guianan cuisine is a blend of the different cultures that have settled in
French Guiana
French Guiana, or Guyane in French, is an Overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France located on the northern coast of South America in the Guianas and the West Indies. Bordered by Suriname to the west ...
including European, Indian, Indigenous (Amerindian), Chinese, and Hmong influences. Common dishes include fricassés, stews made of
awara broth
Awara broth (Bouillon d'awara in French and Bouyon wara in Guianan Creole) is a typical Guianan Creole stew from French Guiana, made up of many ingredients that are combined with the pulp of the fruit of Awara tree, reduced at length beforehan ...
(made from palm pulp), blaff (onions, garlic, celery and basil broth), pimentade (tomato sauce broth) or roast cougnade (grilled fish), and Colombos (meat-based stew and vegetables with curry). There are markets in
Cayenne
Cayenne (; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and capital city of French Guiana, an overseas region and Overseas department, department of France located in South America. The city stands on a former island at the mouth of the Caye ...
selling fresh and prepared foods among other items. Some dishes from Metropolitan France are reimagined using local ingredients such as Gratin de Couac using
cassava root
''Manihot esculenta'', commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennia ...
in lieu of potato.
File:Achards.jpg, Achards de légumes
File:Colombo 004.jpg, Colombo de poulet
File:Fricassée de bœuf au riz créole.jpg, Fricassée de bœuf au riz créole
Réunion
The cuisine of
Réunion
Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...
is a
Creole cuisine
Creole cuisine (; ; ) is a cuisine style born in colonial times, from the fusion between African, European and pre-Columbian traditions. ''Creole'' is a term that refers to those of European origin who were born in the New World and have adap ...
(in French, ''Créole'') with a mixture of cooking styles and ingredients. It is strongly influenced by Malagasy cuisine (from
Madagascar
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, is an island country that includes the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa, it is the world's List of islands by area, f ...
), as well as other cuisines from
East Africa
East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...
. It also incorporates elements of larger French, Indian and Chinese cuisines, brought by French colonialization and Indian and Chinese immigrants respectively. Notable dishes include samosas, bouchons, rougail, and various curries.
File:Rougail Saucisse 04-07-07.jpg, Plat de la cuisine réunionaise
File:Tea with Samosa 2.jpg, Somasa
File:Rougail morue.JPG, Saladier de rougail
Creole cuisine
Creole cuisine (; ; ) is a cuisine style born in colonial times, from the fusion between African, European and pre-Columbian traditions. ''Creole'' is a term that refers to those of European origin who were born in the New World and have adap ...
with a mix of French, indigenous, African, and Indian cooking styles using local ingredients such as
breadfruit
Breadfruit (''Artocarpus altilis'') is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family ( Moraceae) believed to have been selectively bred in Polynesia from the breadnut ('' Artocarpus camansi''). Breadfruit was spread into ...
,
cassava
''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
seafood
Seafood is any form of Marine life, sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including Fish as food, fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of Mollusca, molluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussel ...
, including
curries
Curry is a dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and British, and then thoroughly internation ...
and
fritter
A fritter is a portion of meat, seafood, fruit, vegetables, or other ingredients which have been Batter (cooking), battered or breading, breaded, or just a portion of dough without further ingredients, that is deep-frying, deep-fried. Fritters ar ...
s. Crêperies, Brasseries, and restaurants featuring cuisine from various French regions can be found all over Martinique. Notable local dishes include
Accra
Accra (; or ''Gaga''; ; Ewe: Gɛ; ) is the capital and largest city of Ghana, located on the southern coast at the Gulf of Guinea, which is part of the Atlantic Ocean. As of 2021 census, the Accra Metropolitan District, , had a population of ...
a fish-based fritter, Boudin sausage, Fricassée de chatrou an octopus stew, Colombo de Martinique a coconut-milk based curry, and Ti Punch a rum and cane juice based drink.
Guadeloupe
The cuisine of
Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe is an Overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre Island, Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galant ...
includes Caribbean, African, European and Indian influences. Notable dishes includes the fish fritter accra, a savory stuffed donut called bokit, and coconut-based desserts like custard and sorbet. Notably. the spice blend "colombo" or "massalé" is a curry-like mix of pepper, saffron, coriander, cumin and garlic with the flavor profile included by Sri Lankan immigrants. The island is also known for rums and includes nine distilleries producing traditional and agricultural rum.
New Caledonia
The cuisine of
New Caledonia
New Caledonia ( ; ) is a group of islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean, southwest of Vanuatu and east of Australia. Located from Metropolitan France, it forms a Overseas France#Sui generis collectivity, ''sui generis'' collectivity of t ...
includes local Kanak, Melanesian, and traditional French cooking styles. A notable local dish is bougna which is a stew composed of starches, taros, sweet potatoes, poingo bananas, yams, and is accompanied by local meat and cooked in coconut milk. Seafood is also common including fish and lobster. Traditional French pastries, breads, and cheese may also be found especially in the capital of
Nouméa
Nouméa () is the capital and largest city of the French Sui generis collectivity, special collectivity of New Caledonia and is also the largest Francophone city in Oceania. It is situated on a peninsula in the south of New Caledonia's main i ...
.
File:Femme kanak.jpg, Bougna
File:Culture Kanak.jpg
File:Travail du coco.jpg, Travail du coco par une femme Kanak
French Polynesia
The cuisine of French Polynesia includes a significant array of fruits and vegetables especially sweet potato and coconut. Due to the island nature of the region, seafood is also very common. The "''ahima’a''", is a traditional Polynesian underground oven in which hot stones are placed inside to cook the ingredients. Notable dishes include
Faraoa 'ipo
Faraoa ipo is a type of ball bread made in the Tuamotu archipelago of French Polynesia. The bread is made from flour leavened with yeast, with coconut, coconut milk, sugar and salt added. The dough is then shaped into a ball and cooked in coconut ...
Rēti'a
Haupia is the Hawaiian name for a traditional coconut pudding found throughout Polynesia.
History
and other similar coconut puddings are a variety of traditional Polynesian pudding. Puddings made in the Pacific islands generally consist of tw ...
.
Mayotte
The cuisine of Mayotte includes influences from European France, Portugal, the Arab world, and India. Common food includes rice as a daily staple mixed with root vegetables, plantains, fresh and dried fish, and milk from grated coconuts and meat. Notable dishes include Chahoula ya nadzi, rice boiled in water or coconut milk generally served for large meals and makarara a festive fried cake that is prepared into rolls of dough made of flour and coconut milk.
File:Cuisine de l'archipel des Comores par la Brigade de Mayotte aux Grandes Tables de la Friche (Marseille) (53000746104).jpg
File:Pilao and green salad.jpg, Pilao
File:Madagaskar stew 2019-10-01.jpg, Romazava
Specialties by season
French cuisine varies according to the season. In summer, salads and fruit dishes are popular because they are refreshing and produce is inexpensive and abundant. Greengrocers prefer to sell their fruits and vegetables at lower prices if needed, rather than see them rot in the heat. At the end of summer, mushrooms become plentiful and appear in stews throughout France. The hunting season begins in September and runs through February. Game of all kinds is eaten, often in elaborate dishes that celebrate the success of the hunt. Shellfish are at their peak when winter turns to spring, and oysters appear in restaurants in large quantities.
With the advent of deep-freeze and the air-conditioned '' hypermarché'', these seasonal variations are less marked than before, but they are still observed, in some cases due to legal restrictions.
Crayfish
Crayfish are freshwater crustaceans belonging to the infraorder Astacidea, which also contains lobsters. Taxonomically, they are members of the superfamilies Astacoidea and Parastacoidea. They breathe through feather-like gills. Some spe ...
, for example, have a short season and it is illegal to catch them out of season. Moreover, they do not freeze well.
Foods and ingredients
French regional cuisines use locally grown vegetables, such as ''pomme de terre'' (potato), ''blé'' (wheat), ''haricots verts'' (a type of French green bean), ''carotte'' (carrot), ''poireau'' (
leek
A leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek (synonym (taxonomy), syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of Leaf sheath, leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a "s ...
), ''navet'' (turnip), ''aubergine'' (eggplant), ''courgette'' (zucchini), and ''échalotte'' (shallot).
French regional cuisines use locally grown fungi, such as ''truffe'' (Tuber (genus), truffle), ''champignon de Paris'' (button mushroom), ''chanterelle ou girolle'' (chanterelle), ''pleurote (en huître)'' (oyster mushrooms), and ''cèpes'' (porcini).
Common fruits include oranges, tomatoes, tangerines, peaches, apricots, apples, pears, plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries,
redcurrant
The redcurrant or red currant (''Ribes rubrum'') is a member of the genus ''Ribes'' in the gooseberry family. It is native to western Europe. The species is widely cultivated and has escaped into the wild in many regions.
Description
''Ribes ...
s, blackberries, grapes, grapefruit, and
blackcurrant
The blackcurrant (''Ribes nigrum''), also known as black currant or cassis, is a deciduous shrub in the family Grossulariaceae grown for its edible berries. It is native to temperate parts of central and northern Europe and northern Asia, w ...
s.
Varieties of meat consumed include ''poulet'' (Chicken (food), chicken), ''pigeon'' (
squab
In culinary terminology, squab is an immature domestic pigeon, typically under four weeks old, or its meat. Some authors describe it as tasting like dark chicken.
The word "squab" probably comes from Scandinavia; the Swedish word means "loose ...
), ''canard'' (Duck (food), duck), ''oie'' (Goose as food, goose, the source of
foie gras
; (, ) is a specialty food product made of the liver of a Domestic duck, duck or Domestic goose, goose. According to French law, ''foie gras'' is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by ''gavage'' (force feeding).
''Foie gras'' i ...
), ''bœuf'' (beef), ''veau'' (veal), ''porc'' (pork), ''agneau'' (Lamb (food), lamb), ''mouton'' (mutton), ''caille'' (quails in cookery, quail), ''cheval'' (horse meat, horse), ''grenouille'' (frog legs, frog), and ''escargot'' (snails). Commonly consumed fish and seafood include
cod
Cod (: cod) is the common name for the demersal fish genus ''Gadus'', belonging to the family (biology), family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the common name for a number of other fish species, and one species that belongs to genus ''Gad ...
trout
Trout (: trout) is a generic common name for numerous species of carnivorous freshwater ray-finned fishes belonging to the genera '' Oncorhynchus'', ''Salmo'' and ''Salvelinus'', all of which are members of the subfamily Salmoninae in the ...
,
mussel
Mussel () is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and Freshwater bivalve, freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other ...
s,
herring
Herring are various species of forage fish, belonging to the Order (biology), order Clupeiformes.
Herring often move in large Shoaling and schooling, schools around fishing banks and near the coast, found particularly in shallow, temperate wate ...
, oysters, Shrimp (food), shrimp and calamari.
Eggs often eaten as: omelettes, hard-boiled with mayonnaise, Scrambled eggs, scrambled plain, scrambled ''haute cuisine'' preparation, '':fr:œuf à la coque, œuf à la coque''.
Herbs and seasonings vary by region, and include ''fleur de sel'', ''herbes de Provence'', ''olive'',
tarragon
Tarragon (''Artemisia dracunculus''), also known as estragon, is a species of perennial herbaceous plant, herb in the family Asteraceae. It is widespread in the wild across much of Eurasia and North America and is cultivated for culinary and medic ...
,
rosemary
''Salvia rosmarinus'' (), commonly known as rosemary, is a shrub with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers. It is a member of the sage family, Lamiaceae.
The species is native to the Mediterranean r ...
,
marjoram
Marjoram (, ''Origanum majorana'') is a cold-sensitive perennial plant, perennial herb or undershrub with sweet pine and citrus flavours. In some Middle Eastern countries, marjoram is synonymous with oregano, and there the names sweet marjoram ...
, lavender,
thyme
Thyme () is a culinary herb consisting of the dried aerial parts of some members of the genus ''Thymus (plant), Thymus'' of flowering plants in the mint family Lamiaceae. Thymes are native to Eurasia and north Africa. Thymes have culinary, medici ...
,
fennel
Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized ...
, and sage.
Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat, can be purchased either from supermarkets or specialty shops. Street markets are held on certain days in most localities; some towns have a more permanent covered market enclosing food shops, especially meat and fish retailers. These have better shelter than the periodic street markets.
File:Herbesdeprovence.jpg, ''Herbes de provence''
File:Charetveau.jpg, ''
Charolais cattle
The Charolais () or Charolaise () is a French breed of taurine beef cattle. It originates in, and is named for, the Charolais area surrounding Charolles, in the Saône-et-Loire department, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region of eastern Fr ...
''
File:Champignons Agaricus.jpg, ''Champignon de Paris''
File:HaricotsVerts2.JPG, ''Haricot bean, Haricots verts''
File:France-AOC Piment d'Espelette-2005-08-05.jpg, ''Espelette pepper, Piments d'Espelette''
File:Fleur de sel2.jpg, ''Fleur de sel de Guérande''
File:Wine grapes03.jpg, ''Grape, Grappe de raisin''
File:Bressehühner-1.jpg, ''
Poulet de Bresse
The () or volaille de Bresse is a French chicken product which has ''appellation d'origine contrôlée'' status, and which was registered as a Protected Designation of Origin under EU and UK law as ''Volaille de Bresse / Poulet de Bresse / ...
''Le petit déjeuner'' (breakfast) is traditionally a quick meal consisting of ''tartines'' (slices) of French bread with butter and honey or jam (sometimes brioche), along with ''café au lait'' (also called ''café crème''), or black coffee, or tea and rarely hot chicory. Children often drink hot chocolate in bowls or cups along with their breakfasts. ''Croissants'', ''pain aux raisins'' or ''pain au chocolat'' (also named ''chocolatine'' in the south-west of France) are mostly included as a weekend treat. Breakfast of some kind is always served in cafés opening early in the day.
There are also savoury dishes for breakfast. An example is ''le petit déjeuner gaulois'' or ''petit déjeuner fermier'' with the famous long narrow bread slices topped with soft white cheese or boiled ham, called ''mouillettes'', which is dipped in a soft-boiled egg and some fruit juice and hot drink.
Another variation called ''le petit déjeuner chasseur'', meant to be very hearty, is served with ''pâté'' and other ''charcuterie'' products. A more classy version is called ''le petit déjeuner du voyageur'', where delicatessens serve gizzard, bacon, salmon, omelet, or ''croque monsieur'', with or without soft-boiled egg and always with the traditional coffee/tea/chocolate along fruits or fruit juice. When the egg is cooked sunny-side over the ''croque-monsieur'', it is called a ''croque-madame''.
In ''Germinal (novel), Germinal'' and other novels, Émile Zola also mentioned the ''briquet'': two long bread slices stuffed with butter, cheese and or ham. It can be eaten as a standing/walking breakfast, or meant as a "second" one before lunch.
In the movie ''Bienvenue chez les Ch'tis'', Philippe Abrams (Kad Merad) and Antoine Bailleul (Dany Boon) share together countless breakfasts consisting of ''Maroilles cheese, tartines de Maroilles'' (a strong cheese) along with their hot chicory.
Lunch
''Le déjeuner'' (lunch) is a two-hour mid-day meal or a one-hour lunch break . In some smaller towns and in the south of France, the two-hour lunch may still be customary . Sunday lunches are often longer and are taken with the family. Restaurants normally open for lunch at noon and close at 2:30 pm. Some restaurants are closed on Monday during lunch hours.
In large List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants (1999 census), cities, a majority of working people and List of colleges and universities in France, students eat their lunch at a corporate or school cafeteria, which normally serves complete meals as described above; it is not usual for students to bring their own lunch to eat. For companies that do not operate a cafeteria, it is mandatory for employees to be given lunch vouchers as part of their employee benefits. These can be used in most restaurants, supermarkets and ''traiteur (culinary profession), traiteurs''; however, workers having lunch in this way typically do not eat all three courses of a traditional lunch due to price and time constraints. In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave their workplaces to return home for lunch. An alternative, especially among blue-collar workers, is eating sandwiches followed by a dessert; both dishes can be found ready-made at bakeries and supermarkets at budget prices.
Dinner
''Le dîner'' (dinner) often consists of three full course dinner, courses, ''
hors d'œuvre
An hors d'oeuvre ( ; ), appetiser, appetizer or starter is a small dish (food), dish served before a meal in European cuisine. Some hors d'oeuvres are served cold, others hot. Hors d'oeuvres may be served at the dinner table as a part of the ...
'' or ''
entrée
An entrée (, ; ), in modern French table service and that of much of the English-speaking world, is a dish served before the main course of a meal. Outside North America and parts of English-speaking Canada, it is generally synonymous with th ...
'' (appetizers or introductory course, sometimes soup), ''plat principal'' (main course), and a cheese course or dessert, sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert. Yogurt may replace the cheese course, while a simple dessert would be fresh fruit. The meal is often accompanied by bread,
wine
Wine is an alcoholic drink made from Fermentation in winemaking, fermented fruit. Yeast in winemaking, Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made f ...
and mineral water. Most of the time the bread would be a baguette which is very common in France and is made almost every day. Main meat courses are often served with vegetables, along with potatoes, rice or pasta. Restaurants often open at 7:30 pm for dinner, and stop taking orders between the hours of 10:00 pm and 11:00 pm. Some restaurants close for dinner on Sundays.
Beverages
In French cuisine, a beverage that precedes a meal is called an ''apéritif'' (literally: "that opens the appetite"), and can be served with an ''amuse-gueule'' (literally: "mouth amuser"). Those that end it are called '' digestifs''. During the meal, plates are served with water, wine or sometimes beer (''choucroute'' and beer, for example).
;''Apéritifs''
The ''apéritif'' varies from region to region:
Pastis
Pastis (, , ; ) is an anise-flavoured spirit and apéritif traditionally from France, typically containing less than 100 g/L sugar and 40–45% ABV (alcohol by volume).
Origins
Pastis was first commercialized by Paul Ricard in 1932 and enj ...
is popular in the south of France, Crémant d'Alsace in the eastern region.
Champagne
Champagne (; ) is a sparkling wine originated and produced in the Champagne wine region of France under the rules of the appellation, which demand specific vineyard practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places within it, spe ...
can also be served. Kir (cocktail), Kir, also called ''blanc-cassis'', is a common and popular ''apéritif''-cocktail made with a measure of ''crème de cassis'' (blackcurrant liqueur) topped up with white wine. The phrase ''kir royal'' is used when white wine is replaced with a Champagne wine. A simple glass of red wine, such as Beaujolais nouveau, can also be presented as an ''apéritif'', accompanied by an ''amuse-bouche''. Some ''apéritifs'' can be fortified wines with added herbs, such as cinchona, gentian and vermouth. Trade names that sell well include Suze (drink), Suze (the classic gentiane), Byrrh, Dubonnet, and Noilly Prat. Beer can also be an ''apéritif''. Other drinks are fruit juices or syrups for children.
;''Digestifs''
''Digestifs'' are traditionally stronger, and include
Cognac
Cognac ( , also , ) is a variety of brandy named after the Communes of France, commune of Cognac, France. It is produced in the surrounding wine-growing region in the Departments of France, departments of Charente and Charente-Maritime.
Cogn ...
,
Armagnac
Armagnac (, ) is a distinctive kind of brandy produced in the Armagnac (region), Armagnac region in Gascony, southwest France. It is distilled from wine usually made from a blend of grapes including Baco 22A, Colombard, Folle blanche and Ugni ...
,
Calvados
Calvados (, , ) is a brandy from Normandy in France, made from apples and/or pears.
History In France
Apple orchards and brewers are mentioned as far back as the 8th century by Charlemagne. The first known record of Norman distillation was ma ...
, ''eau de vie'' and fruit alcohols.
Christmas
A typical French Christmas dish is turkey or capon, with chestnuts. Other common dishes are smoked salmon, oysters, caviar and ''foie gras''. The Yule log (cake), Yule log (''bûche de Noël'') is a very French tradition during Christmas. Chocolate and cakes also occupy a prominent place for Christmas in France. This cuisine is normally accompanied by Champagne. Tradition says that thirteen desserts complete the Christmas meal in reference to the twelve apostles and Christ.
Food establishments
History
The modern restaurant has its origins in French culture. Prior to the late 18th century, diners who wished to "dine out" would visit their local
guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They so ...
member's kitchen and have their meal prepared for them. However, guild members were limited to producing whatever their guild registry delegated to them. These guild members offered food in their own homes to steady clientele that appeared day-to-day but at set times. The guest would be offered the meal ''table d'hôte'', which is a meal offered at a set price with very little choice of dishes, sometimes none at all.
The first steps toward the modern restaurant were locations that offered "restorative" ''Bouillon (broth), bouillons'', or ''restaurants''—these words being the origin of the name "restaurant". This step took place during the 1760s–1770s. These locations were open at all times of the day, featuring ornate tableware and reasonable prices. These locations were meant more as meal replacements for those who had "lost their appetites and suffered from jaded palates and weak chests."
In 1782 Antoine Beauvilliers, pastry chef to the future Louis XVIII, opened one of the most popular restaurants of the time—the ''Grande Taverne de Londres''—in the arcades of the Palais-Royal. Other restaurants were opened by chefs of the time who were leaving the failing monarchy of France, in the period leading up to the French Revolution. It was these restaurants that expanded upon the limited menus of decades prior, and led to the full restaurants that were completely legalized with the advent of the French Revolution and the abolition of the guilds. This and the substantial discretionary income of the French Directory's ''nouveau riche'' helped keep these new restaurants in business.
Restaurant staff
Larger restaurants and hotels in France employ extensive staff and are commonly referred to as either the ''kitchen brigade'' for the kitchen staff or ''dining room brigade'' system for the dining room staff. This system was created by Georges Auguste Escoffier. This structured team system delegates responsibilities to different individuals who specialize in certain tasks. The following is a list of positions held both in the kitchen and dining rooms brigades in France:
See also
References
Further reading
* Patrick Rambourg, ''Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie françaises'', Paris, Ed. Perrin (coll. tempus n° 359), 2010, 381 pages.
* Bryan Newman, Behind the French Menu ,