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Deobandi fiqh is a school of
Islamic jurisprudence ''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.Fiqh
Encyclopædia Britannica
''Fiqh'' is of ...
that is based on the
Hanafi school The Hanafi school or Hanafism is the oldest and largest Madhhab, school of Islamic jurisprudence out of the four schools within Sunni Islam. It developed from the teachings of the Faqīh, jurist and theologian Abu Hanifa (), who systemised the ...
of Islamic law. It is associated with the
Deobandi movement The Deobandi movement or Deobandism is a revivalist movement within Sunni Islam that adheres to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. It was formed in the late 19th century around the Darul Uloom Madrassa in Deoband, India, from which the name ...
, which originated in India in the late 19th century and has since spread to other parts of the world, particularly in South Asia. Deobandi fiqh emphasizes a strict adherence to the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
and the
Sunnah is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
(the traditions of
Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
), and seeks to ensure that all aspects of daily life are guided by
Islamic law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
. It places a strong emphasis on the principles of fiqh, or Islamic jurisprudence, and is known for its strict interpretation of Islamic law. It also emphasizes the importance of
Islamic ethics Islamic ethics () is the "philosophical reflection upon moral conduct" with a view to defining "good character" and attaining the "pleasure of God" (''raza-e Ilahi''). It is distinguished from " Islamic morality", which pertains to "specific norms ...
and morality, and emphasizes the need for Muslims to lead a pious and virtuous life. Deobandi fiqh has had a significant influence on Islamic education and scholarship, particularly in South Asia and among the global
South Asian diaspora The South Asian diaspora, also known as the Desi diaspora, is the group of people whose ancestral origins lie in South Asia, but who live outside the region. There are over 44 million people in this diaspora. Endonyms South Asians in the diaspo ...
. It plays a foundational role in the
judiciary of Afghanistan The judiciary of Afghanistan currently consists of the Supreme Court, appeals courts, civil courts and city courts. All justices of the appeals, civil and city courts are presided over by Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Although some individu ...
. It has also been associated with various Islamic political movements and has been a subject of controversy and debate within the Muslim community.


Definition

Fiqh ''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.Fiqh
Encyclopædia Britannica
''Fiqh'' is of ...
is a term used in Islamic jurisprudence to refer to the understanding and application of
Islamic law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
. It is the process of understanding and interpreting the sources of Islamic law, which include the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
,
Sunnah is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
(the actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the scholars (
Ijma Ijma (, ) is an Arabic term referring to the consensus or agreement of the Islamic community on a point of Islamic law. Sunni Muslims regard it as one of the secondary sources of Sharia law, after the Qur'an, and the Sunnah. Exactly what group s ...
), and analogical reasoning (
Qiyas Qiyas (, , ) is the process of deductive analogy in which the teachings of the hadith are compared and contrasted with those of the Quran in Islamic jurisprudence, in order to apply a known injunction ('' nass'') to a new circumstance and cre ...
), in order to derive legal rulings for specific situations. Fiqh covers a wide range of topics including acts of
worship Worship is an act of religious devotion usually directed towards a deity or God. For many, worship is not about an emotion, it is more about a recognition of a God. An act of worship may be performed individually, in an informal or formal group, ...
,
family law Family law (also called matrimonial law or the law of domestic relations) is an area of the law that deals with family matters and domestic relations. Overview Subjects that commonly fall under a nation's body of family law include: * Marriag ...
,
commercial law Commercial law (or business law), which is also known by other names such as mercantile law or trade law depending on jurisdiction; is the body of law that applies to the rights, relations, and conduct of Legal person, persons and organizations ...
,
criminal law Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It proscribes conduct perceived as threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety, and Well-being, welfare of people inclusive of one's self. Most criminal l ...
, and
international relations International relations (IR, and also referred to as international studies, international politics, or international affairs) is an academic discipline. In a broader sense, the study of IR, in addition to multilateral relations, concerns al ...
.
Deobandism The Deobandi movement or Deobandism is a revivalist movement within Sunni Islam that adheres to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. It was formed in the late 19th century around the Darul Uloom Madrassa in Deoband, India, from which the name ...
refers to a movement within Sunni Islam that originated in the town of Deoband, India, in the late 19th century. The Deobandi movement was initially a reformist movement aimed at reviving traditional Islamic scholarship and practice in the region, and is associated with the founding of the
Darul Uloom Deoband Darul Uloom Deoband is an Islamic university and seminary ( darul uloom) in Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, India, at which the Sunni Deobandi Islamic movement began. Established in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi, Fazlur Rahman Usmani, Sayy ...
in 1866. Deobandism and Fiqh are closely related, the scholars and leaders associated with the Deobandi movement, particularly those from the Darul Uloom Deoband in India, have developed a unique interpretation of
Hanafi The Hanafi school or Hanafism is the oldest and largest Madhhab, school of Islamic jurisprudence out of the four schools within Sunni Islam. It developed from the teachings of the Faqīh, jurist and theologian Abu Hanifa (), who systemised the ...
fiqh that is influenced by their own intellectual tradition and religious outlook. Deobandi fiqh emphasizes a strict adherence to the Quran and Sunnah, and follows a methodology of legal reasoning that is based on the principles and teachings of Imam
Abu Hanifa Abu Hanifa (; September 699 CE – 767 CE) was a Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, ascetic,Pakatchi, Ahmad and Umar, Suheyl, "Abū Ḥanīfa", in: ''Encyclopaedia Islamica'', Editors-in-Chief: Wilferd Madelung and, Farhad Daftary. and epony ...
, the founder of the Hanafi school. This methodology involves the use of legal analogy (
qiyas Qiyas (, , ) is the process of deductive analogy in which the teachings of the hadith are compared and contrasted with those of the Quran in Islamic jurisprudence, in order to apply a known injunction ('' nass'') to a new circumstance and cre ...
), consensus (
ijma Ijma (, ) is an Arabic term referring to the consensus or agreement of the Islamic community on a point of Islamic law. Sunni Muslims regard it as one of the secondary sources of Sharia law, after the Qur'an, and the Sunnah. Exactly what group s ...
), and other sources of Islamic law to derive legal rulings for specific situations. The Deobandi scholars and leaders have also emphasized the need to purify Islamic practice from what they see as deviations and innovations, and to resist the influence of
Western culture Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, Western society, or simply the West, refers to the Cultural heritage, internally diverse culture of the Western world. The term "Western" encompas ...
and
colonialism Colonialism is the control of another territory, natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers control the political and tribal power of the colonised territory. While frequently an Imperialism, imperialist project, colonialism c ...
. This has led to a particular focus on issues of Islamic identity, morality, and education, as well as a critical engagement with contemporary political and social issues.


History and development

In the 19th century, the British colonial authorities established a system of secular education in India, which had a significant impact on the study of fiqh. Many Muslims saw the study of Islamic law as incompatible with the new education system, and as a result, the study of fiqh began to decline. However, in the late 19th century, there was a significant revival of interest in Islamic scholarship in India, leading to the establishment of many new madrasas, among them
Darul Uloom Deoband Darul Uloom Deoband is an Islamic university and seminary ( darul uloom) in Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, India, at which the Sunni Deobandi Islamic movement began. Established in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi, Fazlur Rahman Usmani, Sayy ...
, which became the center of the
Deobandi movement The Deobandi movement or Deobandism is a revivalist movement within Sunni Islam that adheres to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. It was formed in the late 19th century around the Darul Uloom Madrassa in Deoband, India, from which the name ...
. Darul Uloom Deoband was established on May 30, 1866, by a group of Islamic scholars, led by
Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi Muhammad Qasim Nanawtawi (1832 – 15 April 1880) () was an Indian Sunni Hanafi Maturidi Islamic Scholar, theologian and a Sufi who was one of the main founders of the Deobandi Movement, starting from the Darul Uloom Deoband. Name and line ...
and
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi Rashīd Aḥmad ibn Hidāyat Aḥmad Ayyūbī Anṣārī Gangohī (12 June 182611 August 1905) was a Deobandi Islamic scholar from Indian subcontinent, a leading figure of the Deobandi jurist and scholar of hadith, author of '' Fatawa-e-Rash ...
. They founded the institution in response to what they perceived as a decline in Islamic scholarship in India. Since then, Darul Uloom Deoband has become one of the most influential Islamic institutions globally, training thousands of Islamic scholars and clerics, many of whom have gone on to establish their own madrasas and Islamic institutions. Consequently, Darul Uloom Deoband has become the center of a chain of madrasas that extends across South Asia and beyond. These madrasas are commonly known as Deobandi madrasas, named after the town of Deoband and the teachings of Darul Uloom Deoband. Deobandi madrasas prioritize the study of classical Islamic texts such as the Qur'an, Hadith, and Islamic jurisprudence. They follow a traditional methodology known as the
Dars-i Nizami Dars-i Nizami () is a study curriculum or system used in many Islamic institutions ( madrassas) and Darul Ulooms, which originated in the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century and can now also be found in parts of South Africa, Canada, the Unite ...
curriculum. These madrasas are prevalent in various parts of the world, with a particularly strong presence in South Asia, but also in other regions such as Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. In such madrasas, there is often a separate department called Darul Ifta where Deobandi fiqh is practiced, serving as the primary source for the development of Deobandi fiqh. In India, numerous madrasas follow the Deobandi teachings, including
Mazahir Uloom Mazahir Uloom (also known as Mazahir Uloom Waqf Qadeem) is an Islamic seminary located in Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Started in November 1866 by Saadat Ali Faqih, and developed further by Mazhar Nanautawi and Ahmad Ali Saharanpuri; it is reg ...
, Madinatul Uloom Bagbari,
Jamia Islamia Talimuddin Jamiah Islamiah Talimuddin Dabhel (or Dabhel Jamiah Islamiah or Jamiah Islamiah Dabhel) is a Deobandi Islamic seminary in Dabhel, Gujarat, India. Education pattern The Jamiah has the following departments: * Nazirah-e-Qur'an (reading the Qur ...
,
Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama (translated as, House of Knowledge and Assembly of Scholars University) is an Islamic seminary in Lucknow, India. It was established by the Nadwatul Ulama, a council of Muslim scholars, on 26 September 1898. This ed ...
,
Madrasa Aminia Madrasa Aminia Islamia Arabia (best known as Madrasa Aminia) is an Islamic seminary in Delhi. History Amin al-Din Dehlawi, an Islamic scholar who was a student of Mahmud Hasan Deobandi, developed an idea of establishing a madrasa in Delhi. He ...
, Madrasa Shahi, and Darul Uloom Waqf. In Bangladesh, these madrasas are known as
Qawmi madrasa Qawmi Madrasah (, ) is an adjective describing one of the two major madrasah educational categories in Bangladesh. The Qawmi madrasahs are not regulated by the Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board. As private charitable organizations, Qawmi madr ...
s, and they include
Darul Uloom Hathazari Al-Jāmiʿah al-Ahliyyah Dār al-ʿUlūm Muʿīn al-Islām (), popularly known as the Hāṭhazārī Madrasah () or the Great Madrasah (), is a Qawmi institution of Hathazari, located in Bangladesh's Chittagong District. Established in 1901, it ...
,
Al Jamia Al Islamia Patiya Al-Jāmiʿah Al-Islāmiyyah Patiya (, ), better known simply as Patiya Madrasa () and formerly known as Al-Madrasah Aḍ-Ḍamīriyyah Qāsim al-ʿUlūm (, ), is a Qawmi Madrasah located in Patiya Upazila of Chittagong District, Bangladesh. It wa ...
,
Jamia Qurania Arabia Lalbagh Al-Jāmiʿah al-Qurʼāniyyah al-ʿArabiyyah Lālbāgh (), better known simply as Lalbagh Madrasah (), is a Qawmi madrasa providing higher Islamic studies in Dhaka, Bangladesh It has seven education sections from kindergarten to post-graduate lev ...
,
Al-Jamiah Al-Islamiah Obaidia Nanupur Jamia Islamia Obaidia Nanupur (), popularly known as Nanupur Madrasah (), is a famous Qawmi Jamiah. The Jamiah was established by Shah Sultan Ahmad Nanupuri in 1958. It is situated at Nanupur, Fatikchhari, Bangladesh. There are 5000 students at ...
, and
Jamiatul Uloom Al-Islamia Lalkhan Bazar Jamiatul Uloom Al-Islamia Lalkhan Bazar (), popularly known as Lalkhan Bazar Madrasa (), is a Qawmi madrasah situated in the Lalkhan Bazar area of port city Chittagong. History The jamia is founded by Mufti Izharul Islam, founding leader of ...
. Pakistan also has a strong presence of Deobandi madrasas, such as
Darul Uloom Karachi Darul Uloom Karachi () is a Madrasa in Karachi, Pakistan. It was founded by Muhammad Shafi in June 1951 at Nanak Wara and later on it transferred to Korangi, Karachi, on 17 March 1957. It continues the tradition of the Darul uloom system ini ...
,
Darul Uloom Haqqania Darul Uloom Haqqania or Jamia Dar al-Ulum Haqqania (Pashto/) is an Islamic seminary ( darul uloom or madrasa) in the town of Akora Khattak, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, northwestern Pakistan. The seminary propagates the Hanafi Deobandi scho ...
, Jamia Ashrafia,
Jamia Tur Rasheed Jamia Tur Rasheed, Karachi () is an Islamic seminary in Karachi, Pakistan. The seminary was established by Rasheed Ahmad Ludhianvi. It is accredited degree awarding institute by Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training and the ...
,
Jamia Uloom-ul-Islamia Jamia Uloom-ul-Islamia (, ''Jāmiā Ulūm-i Islāmīyā'' / , ''Jāmi‘at-ul-‘Ulūm-ul-Islāmīyah'') is an Islamic University in Binori Town, Banoori Town, Karachi, Pakistan. The university continues the tradition of the Darul Uloom system ...
, Jamia Binoria,
Jamia Faridia Jamia Uloom Al-Islamia Al-Faridia (), commonly known as Jamia Faridia (), is a Deobandi movement, Deobandi Islamic university situated near the Faisal Mosque in Sectors_of_Islamabad#E-sectors, Sector E-7 of Islamabad, Pakistan. The university ...
, Jamia Farooqia, and Jamia Khairul Madaris. In South Africa, Deobandi madrasas such as Darul Uloom Zakariyya, Darul Uloom Newcastle, and Madrasah In'aamiyyah are notable. The United Kingdom also has several Deobandi madrasas, including
Darul Uloom London Darul Uloom London is a boys, Islamic, private boarding school and sixth form in Chislehurst, Greater London Greater London is an administrative area in England, coterminous with the London region, containing most of the continuous urb ...
, Darul Uloom Bury, Madinatul Uloom Al Islamiya, and Darul Uloom Bolton. An example of a Deobandi madrasa from Iran is Darul Uloom Zahedan. The Department of Fatwa, also known as Darul Ifta, has its origins in the Indian subcontinent where it was established at Darul Uloom Deoband. The institution was renowned for the ulama (Islamic scholars) who taught there and many people would come from far and wide to seek their guidance on Islamic regulations. However, due to the ulama's teaching commitments, they were often unable to provide timely answers to people's questions. To address this issue, the madrasa assigned Yaqub Nanautawi, a respected teacher, the responsibility of answering theological queries. After his death, this task was taken on by other teachers until, due to the growing number of people seeking answers, a separate department of fatwa was established within the madrasa in 1892 under the name of Darul Ifta. The department was led by
Aziz-ul-Rahman Usmani Aziz-ul-Rahman Usmani (also written as Azizur Rahman Usmani; died 1928) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar who served as first Head Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband. He is best known for his ''Fatawa Darul Uloom Deoband''. His brother was Shabbir Ah ...
, the first mufti appointed to the position. Deobandi fiqh and its affiliated movement have since gained considerable influence in many parts of the Islamic world, particularly in
South Asia South Asia is the southern Subregion#Asia, subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and Ethnicity, ethnic-Culture, cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's populatio ...
, and have given rise to various political and religious movements. These movements have been involved in a range of activities, from religious education to political activism and even armed conflict, and continue to play a crucial role in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of Sunni Islam.


Contemporary Deobandism

In addition to the established networks of madrasas and similar institutions, Deobandi fiqh operates today through various Islamic organizations that frequently organize seminars and publish research papers. For example, the Islamic Fiqh Academy (India) is a well-known organization dedicated to promoting Islamic jurisprudence and providing guidance on religious issues. Established in 1989 under the
All India Muslim Personal Law Board All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) is a non-governmental organisation (NGO) in India that represents the interests of Muslims in matters of personal law. It was formed in 1973 with the objective of protecting and promoting the appli ...
- the apex body of Indian Muslims - the Academy aims to examine and resolve contemporary issues faced by Muslims in India and worldwide in accordance with Islamic jurisprudence. The Academy conducts research, publishes papers and books, and organizes seminars and conferences on a wide range of topics related to Islamic law and its modern-day applications. Its activities span various areas of Islamic law, including family law, commercial law, criminal law, and contract law. The Academy also offers guidance on contemporary issues such as bioethics, finance, and social justice. Alongside its research and publishing work, the Islamic Fiqh Academy of India provides training and education to scholars and students of Islamic law, running courses and training programs to promote the study and comprehension of Islamic law and its practical applications. Furthermore, the Academy engages in community outreach activities, such as public lectures, workshops, and awareness campaigns, to promote a better understanding of Islam and its values. It collaborates with other Islamic organizations and scholars in India and worldwide to promote interfaith dialogue and cooperation. The Deobandi fiqh utilizes a variety of methods for development, including the publication of magazines and newsletters. One such publication is ''
Bayyināt ''Bayyināt'' () is the monthly journal of Jamia Uloom-ul-Islamia. Its Arabic version is also published under the title of ''Al-Bayyinat''. Its came into print in November 1962. Its the projection of Deobandi Ulama's religious authority in Pakis ...
'', a monthly magazine published from
Jamia Uloom-ul-Islamia Jamia Uloom-ul-Islamia (, ''Jāmiā Ulūm-i Islāmīyā'' / , ''Jāmi‘at-ul-‘Ulūm-ul-Islāmīyah'') is an Islamic University in Binori Town, Banoori Town, Karachi, Pakistan. The university continues the tradition of the Darul Uloom system ...
in Pakistan that primarily focuses on topics related to the Deobandi school of thought. This magazine features articles covering Islamic theology, jurisprudence, history, and contemporary issues affecting the Muslim community. Known for its conservative views, ''Bayyināt'' enjoys popularity among the Deobandi community in Pakistan. Another publication, ''The Majlis: Voice of Islam'', is an ultra-conservative newsletter founded by Ahmad Sadeq Desai and published from South Africa. This monthly newsletter covers topics such as Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and contemporary issues, and is recognized for its strong language and uncompromising stance on issues related to Islam. While ''The Majlis'' has faced criticism for promoting intolerance and extremism, it still holds a significant following among conservative Muslims in South Africa and has been influential in shaping the discourse surrounding Islam in the country. Additionally, ''AlKawsar'', a research-oriented monthly magazine published from Bangladesh and associated with Markazud Dawah Al Islamia, has gained recognition for its high-quality publications since its establishment in 2005. Typically, the Deobandi fiqh adheres to the Hanafi school of thought, but in some madrasas in South Africa, the
Shafi'i The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Madhhab () or Shafi'i is one of the four major schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionis ...
fiqh is also taught and practiced, depending on the situation. One such institution is Darul Uloom Newcastle, which was founded in 1973 by Cassim Sema.


Methodology

The methodology of Deobandi fiqh is largely based on the principles and teachings of the Hanafi school of thought, which emphasizes the importance of scholarly consensus (ijma), analogy (qiyas), and legal reasoning (
ijtihad ''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
) in the interpretation and application of Islamic law. The Deobandi scholars also place a strong emphasis on the study of the Quran and Hadith, as well as the works of classical Islamic scholars, such as
Abu Hanifa Abu Hanifa (; September 699 CE – 767 CE) was a Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, ascetic,Pakatchi, Ahmad and Umar, Suheyl, "Abū Ḥanīfa", in: ''Encyclopaedia Islamica'', Editors-in-Chief: Wilferd Madelung and, Farhad Daftary. and epony ...
,
Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111), archaically Latinized as Algazelus, was a Shafi'i Sunni Muslim scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, the ...
, and
Shah Waliullah Dehlawi Qutb ud-Din Ahmad ibn ʿAbd-ur-Rahim al-ʿUmari ad-Dehlawi (‎; 1703–1762), commonly known as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (also Shah Wali Allah), was an Islamic Sunni scholar and Sufi reformer, who contributed to Islamic revival in the Indian s ...
. In addition to these traditional sources of Islamic knowledge, the Deobandi fiqh also draws on the teachings and practices of the founder of the Deobandi movement,
Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi Muhammad Qasim Nanawtawi (1832 – 15 April 1880) () was an Indian Sunni Hanafi Maturidi Islamic Scholar, theologian and a Sufi who was one of the main founders of the Deobandi Movement, starting from the Darul Uloom Deoband. Name and line ...
, and his successors. The Deobandi methodology places a particular emphasis on the study and transmission of Islamic knowledge through a system of madrasas (Islamic seminaries), which provide a structured curriculum of Islamic studies that covers topics such as Quranic exegesis, Hadith studies, Islamic law, theology, and spirituality. This emphasis on Islamic education and scholarship has been a defining feature of the Deobandi movement and has contributed to its spread and influence in many parts of the Muslim world.


Bid'ah

Bid'ah In Islam and sharia (Islamic law), ( , ) refers to innovation in religious matters. Linguistically, as an Arabic word, the term can be defined more broadly, as "innovation, novelty, heretical doctrine, heresy". It is the subject of many hadith ...
, meaning innovation in Islam, is any recently introduced belief or practice that does not align with established Islamic teachings or traditions. This deviation from the Sunnah, or the way of the Muhammad, is generally considered negative. The concept of Bid'ah in Islam has several classifications, with Bid'ah Hasanah (praiseworthy innovation) and Bid'ah Sayyiah (blameworthy innovation) being the most common. The Deoband school, founded during the Indian reformist tradition, contributed to this reform of Bid'ah. While opinions on the definition of Bid'ah vary among different scholars and schools of thought, the Deobandi concept of Bid'ah is specific and limited.
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi Rashīd Aḥmad ibn Hidāyat Aḥmad Ayyūbī Anṣārī Gangohī (12 June 182611 August 1905) was a Deobandi Islamic scholar from Indian subcontinent, a leading figure of the Deobandi jurist and scholar of hadith, author of '' Fatawa-e-Rash ...
referred to Shah Muhammad Ishaq's definition of Bid'ah via Arbain: "Any practice not reported from the salaf (ancestors) as ibadat (a religious duty) that is performed as ibadat is bidat." Gangohi rejected the classification of good and bad Bid'ah, saying "There is no Bid'ah as a good Bid'ah. The one called good is actually the Sunnat."
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
concurred, saying a real Bid'ah would always be bad, and the good Bid'ah is Bid'ah only in form, but in reality, it is Sunnat because it is part of some general principle of religion. According to Thanwi, Bid'ah is defined as accepting any matter that is not part of religion (din) in particular or in general, as part of din by way of acknowledgment or practice.


Taqlid and Ijtihad

Taqlid ''Taqlid'' (, " imitation") is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on context and age. Cla ...
and
Ijtihad ''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' ( ...
are two important concepts in Islamic law that govern how legal opinions are derived and applied. While there are different views on their relative importance, both Taqlid and Ijtihad have a role to play in ensuring that Islamic law is properly interpreted and applied in accordance with the sources of law. Taqlid is widely accepted in Islamic scholarship as a valid approach to legal interpretation and application, especially for laypeople who do not have the necessary knowledge or expertise to derive legal opinions from primary sources. On the other hand, Ijtihad is also widely recognized as an important means of adapting Islamic law to new contexts and challenges. Ijtihad involves independent legal reasoning, where a qualified scholar uses the sources of law to derive new legal opinions in situations where there is no clear precedent or guidance. This can involve analogical reasoning (qiyas), where the scholar draws analogies between existing legal rulings and new situations, or other forms of reasoning. There are different views on the relative importance of Taqlid and Ijtihad in Islamic law. Some scholars and schools of thought emphasize the importance of Taqlid, viewing it as an essential means of preserving the coherence and integrity of Islamic law. Others view Ijtihad as a necessary means of adapting Islamic law to new contexts and challenges, and believe that Taqlid should be applied with caution and flexibility. The Deobandi School of thought, for example, emphasizes the importance of Taqlid, especially strict adherence to the Hanafi School of jurisprudence. Deobandi scholars view Taqlid as an important means of ensuring that Islamic law is properly followed and interpreted, especially for those who do not possess the requisite knowledge and expertise to engage in Ijtihad. They also believe that Ijtihad is necessary for the evolution of Islamic law, but should be undertaken with caution and respect for the traditions of Islamic scholarship. Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, emphasized the obligation of Taqlid, citing the Quranic verse that states, "Ask the people of knowledge if you do not know." (16:43) He also distinguished between individual and non-individual Taqlid, where individual Taqlid involves following the opinion of one scholar in all matters of importance, and non-individual Taqlid involves inquiring of any scholar, whom one likes. Similarly, Ashraf Ali Thanwi, defined Ijtihad and Taqlid as follows: he stated that legally reliable qiyas (analogical reasoning) could either be that of every person in whatever he thinks or only of some persons. However, it is evident that not everyone's qiyas is reliable according to the Quranic verse that states, "If they had referred it to the prophet and the people of authority from among themselves, those who are able to think out the matter would have known it."(4:83) Therefore, there are some persons whose qiyas is reliable and some whose qiyas is not reliable. One whose qiyas is reliable is called mujtahid and mustanbit, and others are called muqallid. Hence, it is obligatory for a muqallid to follow a mujtahid.


Fuqahā’

A faqih (plural=‘fuqahā’) is a scholar who has gained mastery in interpreting and applying the various sources of Islamic law, including the Quran, Hadith, and the consensus of scholars, to practical situations. Several Deobandi scholars have made significant contributions to Islamic jurisprudence in the Indian subcontinent and beyond, earning recognition as faqihs. These include: *
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi Rashīd Aḥmad ibn Hidāyat Aḥmad Ayyūbī Anṣārī Gangohī (12 June 182611 August 1905) was a Deobandi Islamic scholar from Indian subcontinent, a leading figure of the Deobandi jurist and scholar of hadith, author of '' Fatawa-e-Rash ...
, born in 1828 in the Indian village of Gangoh. A prominent member of the Deobandi school of thought, he was renowned for his deep understanding of Islamic law, particularly in the Hanafi school of thought. '' Fatawa-e-Rashidiya'', a collection of his fatwas on various Islamic legal issues, is considered one of his most important works. Known for their detail and depth, the fatwas in this collection remain a valuable resource for scholars and students of Islamic law. *
Aziz-ul-Rahman Usmani Aziz-ul-Rahman Usmani (also written as Azizur Rahman Usmani; died 1928) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar who served as first Head Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband. He is best known for his ''Fatawa Darul Uloom Deoband''. His brother was Shabbir Ah ...
(1892-1974) was a leading figure in the Deobandi school of thought and authored numerous works on Islamic law and theology. ''Fiqh al-Islam'', one of his most important works, is an extensive and detailed exposition of Hanafi fiqh and is regarded as one of the most authoritative works on Hanafi fiqh in the Urdu language. *
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
(1863-1943), was another renowned figure in Islamic scholarship and a leading figure in the Deobandi school of Islamic thought. He wrote several works on Islamic law and spirituality and was known for his contributions to the field of
Tasawwuf Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
(Islamic mysticism). His collection of fatwas on various Islamic legal issues, ''
Imdad al-Fatawa ''Imdad al-Fatawa'' (), also known as ''Fatawa Ashrafia'', is a collection of fatwas in the Hanafi fiqh compiled by Ashraf Ali Thanwi, a scholar from India who addressed new issues and challenges. The book was refined and arranged by his successo ...
'', is widely respected for its clarity and accessibility, making it an essential resource for scholars and students of Islamic law. * Kifayatullah Dehlawi(1864-1948), who was born in Delhi, was a respected faqih and a well-known scholar of Islamic law in the Indian subcontinent. He was an expert in the Hanafi school of thought and a prominent member of the Deobandi school of thought. His most significant work is ''Kifayat al-Mufti'', a comprehensive collection of his fatwas on various legal issues. The book, which is divided into nine volumes, is a valuable resource for scholars and students of Islamic law. He also wrote ''Ta'lim al-Islam'', a primer on Islamic beliefs and practices for children, which covers topics such as the pillars of Islam, the articles of faith, and daily religious practices. The book is widely read and has become a popular textbook in many madrasas in the Indian subcontinent and beyond. *
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
was a well-known Islamic scholar and jurist who was born in India in 1916. He studied under various scholars and eventually became a mufti himself, issuing fatwas (legal opinions) on various Islamic matters. He authored a number of books, including ''Imdad al-Muftiyyin'', which is a commentary on the famous Hanafi legal text, ''
Al-Hidayah ''Al-Hidayah fi Sharh Bidayat al-Mubtadi'' (d. 593 AH/1197 CE) (, ''al-Hidāyah fī Sharḥ Bidāyat al-Mubtadī''), commonly referred to as ''al-Hidayah'' (lit. "the guidance", also spelled ''Hedaya'' Charles Hamilton (trans.) ''The Hedaya: Comm ...
''. *
Mahmood Hasan Gangohi Mahmood Hasan Gangohi (July 1907 – 2 September 1996) was an Indian mufti, Islamic scholar and former Head Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband and Mazahir Uloom, Saharanpur. He was the most senior disciple of Zakariyya Kandhlawi. Among his notable ...
(1919-1996) was also a notable Islamic scholar and jurist from India. He was a student of several renowned scholars and was known for his expertise in Hanafi fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). He authored several works, including '' Fatawa Mahmudiyya'', which is a collection of his legal opinions on a variety of Islamic topics. *
Nizamuddin Azami Nizamuddin Azami (; November 1910 – 26 February 2000) was an Islamic scholar who served as the twelfth and last Head Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband. He made contributions in Islamic jurisprudence, and his works include ''Muntakhabat-e-Nizām al- ...
(1918-2000) was a well-known Islamic scholar and jurist from India. He was known for his expertise in Hanafi fiqh and was a prolific writer and teacher. He authored several works, including ''Muntakhabat-e-Nizam al-Fatawa'', which is a collection of his legal opinions on various Islamic topics. He also played a key role in the revival of traditional Islamic learning in India and was a mentor to many prominent Islamic scholars. * Rashid Ahmed Ludhianvi was a prominent Islamic scholar and religious leader in Pakistan who had a deep knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). He was born on June 10, 1938, in the city of Ludhiana, Punjab, India, and was taught by
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
. He is also renowned for his contributions to Islamic jurisprudence through his work ''Ahsan ul-Fatawa'', a comprehensive collection of legal opinions and rulings that cover a wide range of issues in Islamic law. Although based on the principles of the Hanafi school of Islamic law, he draws from other schools of Islamic law, such as the Shafi'i and Maliki schools. ''Ahsan ul-Fatawa'' is highly regarded among scholars of Islamic law and is often used as a reference for fatwas in many parts of the world. *
Muhammad Faizullah Mufti Faizullah (), was a Bangladeshi Deobandi Islamic scholar, mufti, poet, educator and a reformer. He was among early students to study at the Darul Uloom Hathazari. He was an alumnus of Darul Uloom Deoband and later served as the Chief Mufti ...
(1890-1976), was a prominent Islamic scholar and jurist from Bangladesh. He held the position of Grand Mufti of East Pakistan and later Bangladesh, and was widely respected for his profound knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence. Faizullah's significant contribution to Islamic scholarship was his work on '' Fatawa-e-Darul Uloom Hathazari'', which is a comprehensive collection of Islamic legal opinions or fatwas. Faizullah served as head mufti at
Darul Uloom Hathazari Al-Jāmiʿah al-Ahliyyah Dār al-ʿUlūm Muʿīn al-Islām (), popularly known as the Hāṭhazārī Madrasah () or the Great Madrasah (), is a Qawmi institution of Hathazari, located in Bangladesh's Chittagong District. Established in 1901, it ...
, renowned for its scholarship and for producing many notable Islamic scholars. * Mujahidul Islam Qasmi was born on 1936, in the town of
Darbhanga Darbhanga is the fifth largest city and municipal corporation in the state of Bihar in India, and is considered an important city in North Bihar. It serves as the headquarters of the Darbhanga district and the Darbhanga division. Darbhanga ...
in the state of
Bihar Bihar ( ) is a states and union territories of India, state in Eastern India. It is the list of states and union territories of India by population, second largest state by population, the List of states and union territories of India by are ...
, India, and passed away on 4 April 2002. He was a renowned Islamic scholar and served as the Chief Mufti of Imarat-e-Shari'yah, founder of
Islamic Fiqh Academy, India Islamic Fiqh Academy (IFA) of India is a Deobandi fiqh organization. It was established in 1988 in New Delhi under the guidance of Mujahidul Islam Qasmi. The primary objective of the academy is to address contemporary issues and challenges faced ...
and president of the
All India Muslim Personal Law Board All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) is a non-governmental organisation (NGO) in India that represents the interests of Muslims in matters of personal law. It was formed in 1973 with the objective of protecting and promoting the appli ...
. Qasmi was known for his extensive knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence and was particularly influential in the issuance of fatwas (legal opinions) on a wide range of issues. He authored several books on Islamic law and was respected for his balanced and moderate approach to interpreting Islamic texts. His contributions to Islamic scholarship and the issuance of fatwas have left a lasting impact on the Muslim community in India and beyond. *
Abdur Rahman (scholar) Abdur Rahman (; 1920–2015), also known as Faqihul Millat, was a Bangladeshi Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school. He was born in Imam Nagar, Fatikchhari, Chittagong, in 1920. He was the founder director of the Islamic Research Center Banglade ...
, popularly known as Faqihul Millat, was born in 1920 in Brahmanbaria, Bangladesh. He was a prominent Islamic scholar and jurist who served as the Grand Mufti of Bangladesh and was known as the "Jurist of the Nation." In 1991, he founded the
Islamic Research Center Bangladesh Islamic Research Center Bangladesh, popularly known as ''Bashundhara Islamic Research Center'', is a higher Islamic research institution situated at Bashundhara, Dhaka. Faqihul Millat Mufti Abdur Rahman was the principal founder of the instituti ...
(IRCB), which was established for advanced research in Islamic jurisprudence and law. Under Chatgami's supervision, ''Fatawa-e Faqihul Millat'' was compiled and published in 2020 by the IRCB. The book is a comprehensive compilation of over 5,000 fatwas on various topics of Islamic law and is significant as it is the first complete fatwa book in the Bengali language. *
Taqi Usmani Muhammad Taqi Usmani (born 3 October 1943) SI, OI, is a Pakistani Islamic jurist and leading scholar in the fields of Qur'an, Hadith, Islamic law, Islamic economics, and comparative religion. He was a member of the Council of Islamic Ideology ...
, born on October 5, 1943, is a renowned scholar of Deobandi movement who specializes in contemporary fiqh issues. He is the son of
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
and is considered a leading authority in the Islamic banking sector worldwide. He is regarded as the intellectual head of the Deobandi School and is also respected outside the school as an important figure in the successful Islamic revivalist initiative known as the Deobandi movement. His views and fatwas carry significant weight among Deobandi scholars globally, including those at the Deoband seminary in India. As a consultant to several international Islamic financial institutions, he has played a pivotal role in establishing interest-free banking and Islamic financial institutions. He is a member of various global organizations, including the Islamic Fiqh Council of the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) based in Jeddah. He presently serves as the Vice-president of
Darul Uloom Karachi Darul Uloom Karachi () is a Madrasa in Karachi, Pakistan. It was founded by Muhammad Shafi in June 1951 at Nanak Wara and later on it transferred to Korangi, Karachi, on 17 March 1957. It continues the tradition of the Darul uloom system ini ...
. *
Khalid Saifullah Rahmani Khalid Saifullah Rahmani (born November 1956) is an Indian Muslim scholar, author and jurist who serves as the fifth president of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He is the general secretary of Islamic Fiqh Academy (India), Islamic Fiqh ...
(born 1956) is another contemporary Deobandi faqih who specializes in Islamic jurisprudence. He currently serves as the General Secretary of the Islamic Fiqh Academy India. Rahmani obtained his degree from Darul Uloom Deoband and is the nephew of Mujahidul Islam Qasmi. Rahmani is a prolific author who has written over 50 books on a wide range of Islamic topics. He established Al-Ma'hadul Ali al-Islami in Hyderabad, where he introduced specialization and super specialization in Islamic education. His broad outlook, ability to provide solutions to modern challenges, and his representation of Islam in the media have earned him widespread respect among all sections of the Muslim community in India.


Literature

Deobandi fiqh literature is a rich and extensive collection of Islamic jurisprudence and an essential part of the Islamic legal tradition. The works of Deobandi scholars have made significant contributions to the field of Islamic jurisprudence, including Fatwa collections,
Principles of Islamic jurisprudence Principles of Islamic jurisprudence () are traditional methodological principles used in Islamic jurisprudence (''fiqh'') for deriving the rulings of Islamic law (''sharia''). Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how the scri ...
(Uṣūl al-fiqh), modern issues, Fiqh al quran, Fiqh al Hadith, and commentary on traditional texts. These works continue to be widely studied and referenced by scholars and students of Islamic law.


Fatwa collections

Deobandi Fatwa literature comprises compilations of Islamic legal opinions (
fatawa A fatwa (; ; ; ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (sharia) given by a qualified Islamic jurist ('' faqih'') in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a ''mufti'', ...
) issued by scholars of the Deobandi school of thought. These fatawa offer guidance on various aspects of Islamic law, including worship, transactions, marriage, inheritance, and other important issues. Among the most famous works of Deobandi Fatawa literature is '' Fatawa-e-Rashidiya'', written by renowned scholar
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi Rashīd Aḥmad ibn Hidāyat Aḥmad Ayyūbī Anṣārī Gangohī (12 June 182611 August 1905) was a Deobandi Islamic scholar from Indian subcontinent, a leading figure of the Deobandi jurist and scholar of hadith, author of '' Fatawa-e-Rash ...
. This comprehensive collection of legal opinions covers a broad range of topics, including worship, marriage, trade, and inheritance, and is highly respected for its detailed and nuanced analysis of legal issues. Other notable works include ''
Imdad al-Fatawa ''Imdad al-Fatawa'' (), also known as ''Fatawa Ashrafia'', is a collection of fatwas in the Hanafi fiqh compiled by Ashraf Ali Thanwi, a scholar from India who addressed new issues and challenges. The book was refined and arranged by his successo ...
'' by
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
, ''Fatawa Mazahir Uloom'' by
Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri (; December 185213 October 1927) was an Indian Islamic scholar of the Deobandi movement. He authored '' Badhl Al-Majhud Fi Hall Abi Dawud'', an 18-volume commentary on the hadith collection ''Sunan Abi Dawud''. He was ...
, Kifayat al-Mufti by Kifayatullah Dehlawi, and '' Fatawa Darul Uloom Deoband'' and ''Fatawa Imarat-e-Shariyah'', both collections of legal opinions issued by scholars of prestigious Islamic institutions.
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
authored ''Imdad-al-Muftiyyin'' and ''Jawahir al-Fiqh'', both considered his most comprehensive works on the subject. The former is a compilation of his fatwas on various topics, while the latter is a seven-volume collection of his detailed legal opinions. ''Fatawa Mahmoodiyah'' is a multi-volume work by
Mahmood Hasan Gangohi Mahmood Hasan Gangohi (July 1907 – 2 September 1996) was an Indian mufti, Islamic scholar and former Head Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband and Mazahir Uloom, Saharanpur. He was the most senior disciple of Zakariyya Kandhlawi. Among his notable ...
, covering a wide range of topics related to Islamic law. Another notable work is ''Imdad al-Ahkam'' by
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
, which is considered an authoritative reference in the Deobandi school of thought. ''Muntakhabat-e-Nizam al-Fatawa'' is a collection of selected fatwas issued by
Nizamuddin Azami Nizamuddin Azami (; November 1910 – 26 February 2000) was an Islamic scholar who served as the twelfth and last Head Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband. He made contributions in Islamic jurisprudence, and his works include ''Muntakhabat-e-Nizām al- ...
, and ''Ahsan al-Fatawa'' is a comprehensive collection of religious rulings compiled by Rashid Ahmed Ludhianvi. Deobandi Fatwa literature also includes various collections of fatwas authored by prominent scholars of the Deobandi school. These collections include ''Imdad al-Muftiyin'' by Shaft Sahab Usmani Deobandi, ''Fatawa Shaikh-al-Islam'' by
Hussain Ahmad Madani Hussain Ahmad Madani (; 6 October 1879 – 5 December 1957) was an Indian Islamic scholar, serving as the principal of Darul Uloom Deoband. He was among the first recipients of the civilian honour of Padma Bhushan in 1954. ...
, ''Khair al-Fatawa'' by
Khair Muhammad Jalandhari Khair Muhammad Jalandhari (1895–1970) ( Urdu: مولانا خير محمّد جالندھرى) was a Pakistani Islamic scholar, founder and first rector Jamia Khairul Madaris. He served as president and vice-president of Wifaq ul Madaris Al ...
, ''Nizam al-Fatawa'' and ''Fatawa Nizamia'' by
Nizamuddin Azami Nizamuddin Azami (; November 1910 – 26 February 2000) was an Islamic scholar who served as the twelfth and last Head Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband. He made contributions in Islamic jurisprudence, and his works include ''Muntakhabat-e-Nizām al- ...
, ''Fatawa Rahimiya'' by Abdur Rahim Lajpuri, ''Fatawa Haqqaniyah'' by
Abdul Haq Akorwi Abdul Haq (, ; 11 January 19127 September 1988), also known as Abdul Haq Akorwi was a Pakistani Deobandi Islamic scholar and the founder, chancellor, and Shaykh al-Hadith of the Islamic seminary Darul Uloom Haqqania. He also served as vice-pr ...
, ''Fatawa Mufti Mahmud'' by Mufti Mehmood, ''Fatawa Qadi'' by Mujahidul Islam Qasmi, ''Ap ke Masayil awr unka Hal'' by Yusuf Ludhianvi, ''Thaminat al-Fatawa'' by Muhammad Ya'qub Sharodi of Pakistan, ''Fatawa Faridiyah'' by Muhammad Farid Pakistani, ''Fatawa Ihya al-Uloom'' by Yasin Mubarakpuri, ''Jami' al-Fatawa'' by Meharban Ali Barotwi and Ishaq Multani, ''Fatawa Usmani'' by
Taqi Usmani Muhammad Taqi Usmani (born 3 October 1943) SI, OI, is a Pakistani Islamic jurist and leading scholar in the fields of Qur'an, Hadith, Islamic law, Islamic economics, and comparative religion. He was a member of the Council of Islamic Ideology ...
, ''Marghüb al-Fatawa'' by Marghoob Ahmad Lajpuri, ''Mahmud al-Fatawa'' by Ahmad Khanpuri, ''Habib al-Fatawa'' by Habibullah Qasmi, ''Kitab al-Fatawa'' by
Khalid Saifullah Rahmani Khalid Saifullah Rahmani (born November 1956) is an Indian Muslim scholar, author and jurist who serves as the fifth president of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He is the general secretary of Islamic Fiqh Academy (India), Islamic Fiqh ...
, ''Fatawa Habibiya'' by Habibur Rahman Khairabadi, ''Kitab al-Nawazil'' by Muhammad Salman Mansūrpuri, ''Kitab al-Masayil'' by Muhammad Salman Mansūrpuri, ''Fatawa Qasmiya'' by Shabbir Ahmad Qasmi of Morādābād in 26 volumes, ''Din-e-Fitrat: Ap ke Masayil awr unka Hal'' by Azizur Rahman Fatehpuri, ''Fatawa-e Rahmania'' by Mansurul Haq, and ''Fatawa-e Jamia'' by Jamia Islamia Yunusia, ''Fatawa-e Faqihul Millat'' by
Abdur Rahman (scholar) Abdur Rahman (; 1920–2015), also known as Faqihul Millat, was a Bangladeshi Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school. He was born in Imam Nagar, Fatikchhari, Chittagong, in 1920. He was the founder director of the Islamic Research Center Banglade ...
, ''Fatawa-e Darul Uloom Hathazari'' by
Darul Uloom Hathazari Al-Jāmiʿah al-Ahliyyah Dār al-ʿUlūm Muʿīn al-Islām (), popularly known as the Hāṭhazārī Madrasah () or the Great Madrasah (), is a Qawmi institution of Hathazari, located in Bangladesh's Chittagong District. Established in 1901, it ...
, Fatawa o Masail by
Abdus Salam Chatgami Abdus Salam Chatgami (1943 – 8 September 2021) was a Bangladeshi Islamic scholar, educator, writer, and researcher. He served as the Grand Mufti in both Pakistan and Bangladesh. Early life and education Abdus Salam Chatgami was born in 1943, ...
, ''Ahkame-e Zindegi'' by Hemayet Uddin and ''Fatawa Ulama-e-Hind'' by Anisur Rahman Qasmi. In addition to the extensive collection of fatwas, Deobandi scholars have produced countless pieces of literature on both general and specific fiqh topics. One of the most notable works in this tradition is ''Talifat-e-Rashidiya'', a collection of treatises by
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi Rashīd Aḥmad ibn Hidāyat Aḥmad Ayyūbī Anṣārī Gangohī (12 June 182611 August 1905) was a Deobandi Islamic scholar from Indian subcontinent, a leading figure of the Deobandi jurist and scholar of hadith, author of '' Fatawa-e-Rash ...
. Another prominent work is ''Ahsan al-Qira fi Tawziḥ Awthaq al-Ura'', a treatise on the Friday prayer in villages, authored by
Mahmud Hasan Deobandi Mahmud Hasan Deobandi (also known as Shaykh al-Hind; 1851–1920) was an Indian Muslim scholar and an activist of the Indian independence movement, who co-founded the Jamia Millia Islamia University and launched the Silk Letter Movement for ...
. For women, '' Bahishti Zewar'' is a popular book containing fiqh and other issues, written by
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
. The famous series of books for children, ''Talim al-Islam'', is another notable work from the Deobandi tradition. It contains fiqhi issues in a question-and-answer style and is authored by Kifayatullah Dehlawi. ''Kitab al-Faskh wa-al-Tafriq'', a book on the annulment of nikah, is authored by Abd al-Samad Rahmani, and ''Mutid al-Warithin'' is a book on inheritance authored by Asghar Hussain Deobandi. Asghar Hussain Deobandi has also compiled a book of fatwas given by Muhammad in ''Fatawa Muhammadi'', as well as authoring ''Mirath al-Muslimin''. For those undertaking the Hajj, ''Ahkam-e-Hajj'', authored by
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
, is a useful resource. Compendiums of Islamic law regarding Muslim Personal Laws in India include ''Islami Adalat'' by Mujahidul Islam Qasmi and ''Majmu'ah Qawanin-e-Islami'' by
Minnatullah Rahmani Minnatullah Rahmani (7 April 1913 – 20 March 1991) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar who served as the first General Secretary of All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He was an alumnus of Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama and Darul Uloom Deoband, and ...
and others. ''Idah al-Masalik'', a book on different fiqhi issues, is authored by Shabbir Ahmad Moradabadi, while ''Idah al-Manasik'' is a book on rulings of Hajj and Umrah by the same author. Rif'at Qasmi authored ''Masayil Rifat'', a series of books on various topics of Fiqh in seven volumes. Other works on specific issues include ''Masayil Sajdah Saho'' by Habibur Rahman Khairabadi, which addresses rulings related to errors in Salah, and ''Ahkam Luhüm al-Khail'' by Badrul Hasan Qasmi, which discusses rulings related to horse meat. ''Fatawa Tatarkhaniya of Alim Abul Ala al-Dehlawi'', edited by Qādi Sajjad Hussain in five volumes, and ''Fatawa Tatārkhāniya of Alim Abul Ala al-Dehlawi'', edited by Shabbir Ahmad Qasmi in 20 volumes, are both notable works in the Deobandi fatwa literature. ''Mukhtarat al-Nawazil of al-Marghinani'', edited by
Khalid Saifullah Rahmani Khalid Saifullah Rahmani (born November 1956) is an Indian Muslim scholar, author and jurist who serves as the fifth president of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He is the general secretary of Islamic Fiqh Academy (India), Islamic Fiqh ...
and others in four volumes, and ''Qamus al-Fiqh'', a dictionary of Fiqh, by Khalid Saifullah Raḥmāni in five volumes, are also important works. Burhanuddin Sambhali addresses social issues in his book ''Mu'ashrati Masayil''.


Uṣūl al-fiqh

Uṣūl al-fiqh is a foundational area of Islamic jurisprudence that studies the principles and methodology behind the derivation of Islamic legal rulings. Deobandi scholars have authored numerous valuable works on Uṣūl al-fiqh. Some examples of the works written by Deobandi scholars on Uṣūl al-fiqh include ''Fusool al-Hawashi'' by Maulavi Ainullah, which is an explanatory commentary on the famous book of Hanafi Fiqh, ''
Al-Hidayah ''Al-Hidayah fi Sharh Bidayat al-Mubtadi'' (d. 593 AH/1197 CE) (, ''al-Hidāyah fī Sharḥ Bidāyat al-Mubtadī''), commonly referred to as ''al-Hidayah'' (lit. "the guidance", also spelled ''Hedaya'' Charles Hamilton (trans.) ''The Hedaya: Comm ...
''. ''Qawaed al-Fiqh'' by
Khalid Saifullah Rahmani Khalid Saifullah Rahmani (born November 1956) is an Indian Muslim scholar, author and jurist who serves as the fifth president of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He is the general secretary of Islamic Fiqh Academy (India), Islamic Fiqh ...
is an introduction to the principles of Islamic jurisprudence that covers topics such as the sources of Islamic law, the different types of evidence used in Islamic legal reasoning, and the principles used to derive legal rulings from the sources. ''Fiqh-e-Hanafi K-e-Usool Wa Zawabit'' by
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
covers the principles and rules of Hanafi Fiqh, providing a detailed explanation of the methodology used in Hanafi Fiqh and the principles that govern its legal rulings. ''Uṣūl al-fiqh'' by Manazir Ahsan Gilani is a detailed introduction to the principles of Islamic jurisprudence that covers topics such as the sources of Islamic law, the different types of evidence used in Islamic legal reasoning, and the principles used to derive legal rulings from the sources. ''Tasheel al-Uṣūl'' by Riyasat Ali Bijnori and Saeed Ahmad Palanpuri is a concise introduction to the principles of Islamic jurisprudence that covers the sources of Islamic law, the different types of evidence used in Islamic legal reasoning, and the principles used to derive legal rulings from the sources. ''Uṣūl al-fiqh'' by Obaidullah Asadi is a classic text on the principles of Islamic jurisprudence that provides a comprehensive and systematic explanation of the foundational principles of Islamic law. ''A'san Uṣūl al-fiqh'' by Khalid Saifullah Rahmani is a concise and informative overview of Uṣūl al-fiqh that provides an easy-to-understand explanation of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence, and ''Al-Qawaed al-Fiqhiya al-Mahmoodia'' by Abul Kalam Shafeeque is a valuable book that discusses all areas of the principles of jurisprudence in a comprehensive and detailed manner. ''Imdad al Fiqh'' by Mehraban Ali Barotvi is a short yet comprehensive book that aims to simplify the memorization of terms related to Uṣūl al-fiqh, providing a list of the terms used in Islamic jurisprudence, their definitions, and their usage. ''Islami Adalat'' by Mujahidul Islam Qasmi is a book that exclusively deals with the matter of Islamic verdicts in the Islamic court, shedding light on the history of the Islamic judiciary and discussing the necessary conditions of deduction and inference. '' Usul al-Ifta wa Adabuhu'' is a comprehensive guide to the principles and etiquette of issuing fatwas in Islamic law, authored by
Taqi Usmani Muhammad Taqi Usmani (born 3 October 1943) SI, OI, is a Pakistani Islamic jurist and leading scholar in the fields of Qur'an, Hadith, Islamic law, Islamic economics, and comparative religion. He was a member of the Council of Islamic Ideology ...
. Another example of Deobandi works on Uṣūl al-fiqh includes Ijtihad awr Taqlid ka Akhiri Faisala by
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
, compiled by Zaid Mazahiri, which discusses the final decision on following an Imam and making an independent interpretation. ''Muqaddimah Nur al-Idah'' by
Izaz Ali Amrohi Izaz Ali Amrohi (; November 1882 – 1955) was an Indian Islamic scholar who served as the second and ninth Head Mufti of the Darul Uloom Deoband. His book ''Nafahtul Arab'' is taught in madrassas including the Darul Uloom Deoband. Biography I ...
is the preface of the fiqhi textbook ''Nur al-Idah''. ''Tadwin-e-Fiqh'' by
Zafeeruddin Miftahi Zafeeruddin Miftāhi (7 March 1926 – 31 March 2011) was an Indian Muslim scholar and jurist who served as a Mufti of Darul Uloom Deoband and the second president of Islamic Fiqh Academy. He compiled the religious verdicts of Azizur Rahman U ...
is the preface of ''Fatawa Darul Uloom Deoband''. ''Ijma awr Qiyas ki Hujjiyat'' by Jamil Ahmad Sikrodwi talks about the authenticity of consensus and analogy. These works provide a detailed explanation of the methodology used in Islamic jurisprudence and the principles that govern its legal rulings.
Dars-i Nizami Dars-i Nizami () is a study curriculum or system used in many Islamic institutions ( madrassas) and Darul Ulooms, which originated in the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century and can now also be found in parts of South Africa, Canada, the Unite ...
is predominantly followed in Deobandi madrasas, and includes various texts on Fiqh that have attracted the attention of Deobandi scholars. Many of these texts have been accompanied by notes, translations, or commentaries authored by these scholars. One such text that has been extensively commented upon is ''
Al-Hidayah ''Al-Hidayah fi Sharh Bidayat al-Mubtadi'' (d. 593 AH/1197 CE) (, ''al-Hidāyah fī Sharḥ Bidāyat al-Mubtadī''), commonly referred to as ''al-Hidayah'' (lit. "the guidance", also spelled ''Hedaya'' Charles Hamilton (trans.) ''The Hedaya: Comm ...
'', with several renowned scholars having authored detailed commentaries on it, including the 16-volume ''Ashraf al-Hidayah'' by Jamil Ahmad Sikrodawi.


Fiqh al-Quran

According to scholars, there are approximately 500 verses in the Quran that relate to Islamic rulings. Fiqh al-Quran is a branch of Islamic jurisprudence that deals with instructions and rulings for Muslims in the Quran. Ahkam al-Quran, written by Al-Jassas and
Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi (; –1148) was a Muslim judge and scholar of Maliki law from al-Andalus. Like Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, Ibn al-Arabi was forced to migrate to Morocco during the reign of the Almoravids. It is reported that he was a student o ...
respectively, are two renowned works on this topic. Deobandi scholars have also contributed significantly to this field, including the compilation of a lengthy and voluminous collection of a book entitled ''Ahkam al-Quran'', by
Zafar Ahmad Usmani Zafar Ahmad Usmani (also known as Zafar Ahmad Thanwi) () (4 October 1892 – 1974), was a 20th Century Sunni Muslim Jurist who became an influential figure of the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence's Deobandi Movement. He also was a prom ...
,
Muhammad Idris Kandhlawi Idris Kandhlawi (; 20 August 1899 – 28 July 1974) was a Pakistani Sunni scholar during the mid-twentieth century, widely recognized for his contributions to various fields of Islamic studies, including hadith, Quranic studies, Islamic jurisprud ...
,
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
, and Jameel Ahmad Thanwi. Ashraf Ali Thanwi's ''Masael al-Sulook'' is another important work on the subject, which discusses the rulings and etiquettes of Sufism and spirituality.
Tafsir Tafsir ( ; ) refers to an exegesis, or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a ''tafsir'' is a ' (; plural: ). A Quranic ''tafsir'' attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding ...
books written by Deobandi scholars also deal with the subject of Fiqh al-Quran, with
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
's ''
Ma'ariful Qur'an Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi movement, Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, h ...
'' being one of the most prominent works that elaborates on the verses pertaining to fiqhi issues and explains them in detail.


Fiqh al-Hadith

Fiqh al-Hadith is the study of Islamic jurisprudence based on Hadith literature. Deobandi scholars have made significant contributions in this field. They published '' I'la al-Sunan'', an encyclopedia of Hadiths related to fiqhi rulings, and edited and published many old books written by earlier Hanafi scholars, such as ''Bughyat al-Alma'i fi Takhrij al-Zaila'i, Al-Hujjah 'ala Ahl al-Madīnah, Sharh Kitab al-Athar, Fath al-Rahman fi Ithbat Madhhab al-Nu'man'', and ''Rasool-e-Akram Ka Tariqa-e-Namaz''. Deobandi scholars' Hadith commentaries generally contain jurisprudential material, such as '' Awjaz al-Masalik'' by
Zakariyya Kandhlawi Zakariyya Kandhlawi (; 3 February 1898 – 24 May 1982) was a mid-twentieth-century traditionalist Sunni scholar and an authority in the study of hadith, also known as Sheikh al-Hadith, hailing from India. He was an influential member and ideol ...
, '' Fayd al-Bari'' by
Anwar Shah Kashmiri Anwar Shah Kashmiri (; 26 November 1875 – 28 May 1933) was an Islamic scholar from Kashmir in the early twentieth century, best known for his expertise in the study of hadith, a strong memory, and a unique approach to interpreting traditions, ...
, '' Fath al-Mulhim'' by
Shabbir Ahmad Usmani Shabbir Ahmad Usmani (11 October 188713 December 1949) was an Islamic scholar and an activist of the Pakistan Movement, who served as the of Pakistan in 1949. He was the first to demand that Pakistan become an Islamic state. He was a religio ...
, '' Badhl al-Majhud'' by
Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri (; December 185213 October 1927) was an Indian Islamic scholar of the Deobandi movement. He authored '' Badhl Al-Majhud Fi Hall Abi Dawud'', an 18-volume commentary on the hadith collection ''Sunan Abi Dawud''. He was ...
, and '' Maarif al-Sunan sharh Sunan al-Tirmidhi'' by Yusuf Banuri. One of the important works on Fiqh al-Hadith is ''Fath al-Rahman Fi Isbat-e-Mazhab al-Noman'', authored by 'Abd al-Haqq al-Dehlawi and edited by Nizam-uddin.


Modern issues

Modern fiqh literature covers a range of contemporary issues, such as
technology Technology is the application of Conceptual model, conceptual knowledge to achieve practical goals, especially in a reproducible way. The word ''technology'' can also mean the products resulting from such efforts, including both tangible too ...
,
medical ethics Medical ethics is an applied branch of ethics which analyzes the practice of clinical medicine and related scientific research. Medical ethics is based on a set of values that professionals can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict. T ...
,
family planning Family planning is the consideration of the number of children a person wishes to have, including the choice to have no children, and the age at which they wish to have them. Things that may play a role on family planning decisions include marit ...
, and modern economic systems, with the aim of providing a comprehensive understanding of Islamic law and its relevance to modern life. The Ulama of Deoband have contributed significantly to this field by exploring the old fiqh literature and compiling unprecedented classical fiqh literature. Their works have become one of the most important sources of modern fiqh literature. For example,
Muhammad Shafi Muhammad Shafi (24 January 1897 – 6 October 1976), often referred to as Mufti Muhammad Shafi, was a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar of the Deobandi school, a Hanafi jurist and mufti, he was also an authority on shari'ah, hadith, Qur'anic ...
wrote ''Alat-e-Jadida ke Shar'i Ahkam'' (Shari'ah rulings of modern tools), which explores the Islamic perspective on modern technology. Other notable works of modern fiqh literature include
Minnatullah Rahmani Minnatullah Rahmani (7 April 1913 – 20 March 1991) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar who served as the first General Secretary of All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He was an alumnus of Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama and Darul Uloom Deoband, and ...
's ''Islam awr Family Planning'', which discusses the Islamic approach to family planning. Muhammad Taqi Amini wrote ''Islām aur Jadid Daur ke Masayil'' (Islam and the Issues of the Modern Age), which explores a range of modern issues from an Islamic perspective. Taqi Usmani's '' Fiqhi Maqalat'' is a collection of research papers on different modern issues of Fiqh, compiled in six volumes. Taqi Usmani wrote several works on modern economic issues, including ''Islam awr Jadid Ma'ishat w Tijarat'' (Islam and Modern Economy) in seven volumes and ''Islam awr Jadid Ma'ashi Masayil'' (Islam and Modern Economic Issues) in eight volumes. He also wrote ''Fiqh al-Buyu'' (Fiqhi Rulings of Business) in two volumes. Badrul Hasan Qasmi's ''Asr-e-Hadir ke Jadid Masayil'' (Modern Contemporary Issues) discusses the challenges of modern times from an Islamic perspective. Other notable works of modern fiqh literature include ''Halal-o-Haram'' (Lawful and Unlawful) by
Khalid Saifullah Rahmani Khalid Saifullah Rahmani (born November 1956) is an Indian Muslim scholar, author and jurist who serves as the fifth president of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He is the general secretary of Islamic Fiqh Academy (India), Islamic Fiqh ...
and ''Islami Bankari ki Bunyadein'' (Foundations of Islamic Banking) by Taqi Usmani. Ubaidullah Asadi's ''Al-Riba'' (Usury and Interest) explores the Islamic perspective on interest, while his ''Taḥdid Nasl awr Islami Ta'limat'' (Family Planning and Islamic Teachings) discusses family planning in light of Islamic teachings. Burhanuddin Sambhali's ''Maujūda Masayil ka Shar'i Ḥal'' provides a Shari'ah-compliant solution to modern economic issues, while his ''Jadid Medical Masayil'' tackles modern medical issues. Sambhali's ''Bank Insurance awr Sarkari Qarde'' offers insights into Islamic financial principles related to bank insurance and government loans. Khalid Saifullah Rahmani's ''Jadid Fiqhi Masayil'' comprise a five-volume collection of modern Fiqhi rulings, while Shabbir Ahmad Qasmi's ''Idah al-Masayil'' and ''Iḍāḥ al-Nawadir'' are collections of research papers on Fiqhi and modern issues, respectively. Mujahidul Islam Qasmi has edited several collections of research papers, including ''Shares awr Company, Darurat-o-Hajat, Jadīd Tijarati Shaklain, Awqaf'', and ''Mabāḥith-e-Fiqhiya'', which cover topics ranging from endowments to modern business modes. Zainul Islam Qasmi's ''Chand Aham Aşri Masayil'' is a two-volume work on some of the most important Fiqhi rulings of the modern era.


Encyclopedia

Deobandi scholars also make noteworthy contributions to the field of Islamic jurisprudence through the authoring of comprehensive
encyclopedic An encyclopedia is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge, either general or special, in a particular field or discipline. Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries that are arranged alphabetically by artic ...
books. Inamul Haque Qasmi is one such scholar who has authored several such works, including ''Hajj Wa Umrah ke Masail Ka Encyclopedia'', a four-volume book that covers all aspects of the pilgrimage of
Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
and
Umrah The Umrah () is an Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, the holiest city for Muslims, located in the Hejazi region of Saudi Arabia. It can be undertaken at any time of the year, in contrast to the '' Ḥajj'' (; "pilgrimage"), which has specific d ...
, ''Qurbani Ke Masail Ka Encyclopedia'', a comprehensive book that deals with sacrificial-related matters, ''Zakat Ke Masail Ka Encyclopedia'', an encyclopedic book that covers all common and sophisticated issues related to the most valued act of
Zakat Zakat (or Zakāh زكاة) is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Zakat is the Arabic word for "Giving to Charity" or "Giving to the Needy". Zakat is a form of almsgiving, often collected by the Muslim Ummah. It is considered in Islam a relig ...
, ''Namaz Ke Masail Ka Encyclopedia'', a book that delves into various contemporary issues related to daily prayers, and ''Safar Ke Masail Ka Encyclopedia'', a book that encompasses a wide range of rulings related to traveling.


Fiqh manuscript

Deobandi scholars have also been involved in working on Fiqh manuscripts, including the publication of '' Fatawa Tatarkhaniya'', a comprehensive thirty-volume collection of Islamic jurisprudence that was edited by Shabbir Ahmad Qasmi of Madrasa Shahi in 23 thick volumes. Additionally, there is ''Sinwan al-Qaza Wa Unwan al-Ifta'', a book on judicature written by Qazi Emadudeen, which was published in four volumes by the Kuwait Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs. Another work is ''Fiqh al-Nawazil'', an old book on Islamic issues that was revived by
Khalid Saifullah Rahmani Khalid Saifullah Rahmani (born November 1956) is an Indian Muslim scholar, author and jurist who serves as the fifth president of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. He is the general secretary of Islamic Fiqh Academy (India), Islamic Fiqh ...
and annotated with footnotes.


Fatwas

A
fatwa A fatwa (; ; ; ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (sharia) given by a qualified Islamic jurist ('' faqih'') in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a ''mufti'', ...
is a legal opinion given by a qualified Islamic scholar, or mufti, regarding a specific issue based on their interpretation of Islamic law, or sharia. Fatwas can cover a wide range of topics, including religious practices, personal conduct, social issues, and political matters. In the Muslim community, fatwas carry significant weight, as they are considered authoritative guidance on Islamic law and are often sought by individuals seeking specific answers or guidance on particular issues. The Deobandi school of Islamic thought is well-known for its extensive issuance of legal opinions, or fatwas, on various topics. These fatwas have been highly influential in shaping the beliefs and practices of Muslims who follow the Deobandi school of thought, both in India and around the world. Notable fatwas issued by Deobandi scholars have covered various issues, such as education, social life, terrorism, and banking.


Education

During the period of British colonial rule in India, there was a debate among Muslims over the permissibility of Western English education. The Deobandi scholars permitted the learning of English but with certain conditions.
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi Rashīd Aḥmad ibn Hidāyat Aḥmad Ayyūbī Anṣārī Gangohī (12 June 182611 August 1905) was a Deobandi Islamic scholar from Indian subcontinent, a leading figure of the Deobandi jurist and scholar of hadith, author of '' Fatawa-e-Rash ...
, a leading Deobandi scholar, allowed the learning of English on the condition that it does not result in any sinful actions or harm to religion. Another influential scholar,
Ashraf Ali Thanwi Ashraf Ali Thanwi (often referred as Hakimul Ummat and Mujaddidul Millat; 19 August 1863 – 20 July 1943) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, thinker, reformist and a revivor of classical Sufi in the Indian subcontinent during the Briti ...
, issued a fatwa on the topic, acknowledging that while English, like any other language, is not inherently evil, the circumstances surrounding its learning should be taken into account. Thanwi noted that if a Muslim can avoid the potential harms of learning English, such as exposure to non-Islamic sciences or irreligious individuals, and if the intention is to earn a lawful livelihood, then it is permissible. However, if the potential harms outweigh the benefits or if the learning of English is likely to lead to sinful actions or intentions, then it may be prohibited. Ultimately, Thanwi concluded that the permissibility of learning English depends on the situation and circumstances surrounding it.


Terrorism

In 2008, the Islamic scholars of Darul Uloom Deoband issued a historic Fatwa against
terrorism Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violence during peacetime or in the context of war aga ...
. Backed by over 6,000 Islamic scholars, the Fatwa declared that terrorism is anti-Islamic and that killing of innocent people, regardless of their religion or community, is against the principles of Islam. The Fatwa was issued at a conference attended by thousands of Islamic scholars and was seen as a significant move in the fight against
terrorism in India Terrorism in India, according to the Home Ministry, poses a significant threat to the people of India. Compared to other countries, India faces a wide range of terror groups. Terrorism found in India includes Islamist terrorism, ultranat ...
and around the world. The Deoband Fatwa against Terrorism was welcomed as a positive step towards countering the misuse of religion to promote violence and emphasized that the true teachings of Islam advocate peace, compassion, and non-violence. It continues to serve as a beacon of hope and inspiration for all those who seek to promote peace and understanding between different communities and cultures. Another notable Deobandi fatwa against terrorism, named ''
Fatwa of Peace for Humanity ''Fatwa of Peace for Humanity against terrorism and extremism signed by one hundred thousand Muftis, Ulamas and Imams'' () was issued by Bangladesh Jamiyatul Ulama under the leadership of Farid Uddin Masood. The fatwa unanimously declares that ...
'', was issued by
Farid Uddin Masood Farid Uddin Masood (; born 7 March 1950) is an Islamic scholar in Bangladesh known for his role as the Imam of Sholakia National Eidgah, Chairman of the National Religious Madrasa Education Board of Bangladesh, President of Bangladesh Jamiyatu ...
, the chairman of Bangladesh Jamiatul Ulama, a prominent Islamic organization in Bangladesh. Under his leadership, in 2016, over 100,000 Islamic scholars from Bangladesh endorsed a fatwa declaring terrorism as "haram" or forbidden, based on Islamic scripture and tradition. The fatwa emphasized that terrorism was a violation of the fundamental values of Islam and called on Muslims to work towards eradicating it. In a country that has experienced a number of high-profile terrorist attacks in recent years, the fatwa was seen as an important step towards countering extremist ideology and promoting a message of peace and tolerance.


Islamic banking and finance

Islamic finance was first introduced in the 1970s as an interest-free banking system. Its primary objective is to ensure that financial transactions comply with Islamic law or shariah, which means avoiding interest-based transactions, excessive uncertainty or risk, and unethical practices.
Islamic banking and finance Islamic banking, Islamic finance ( ''masrifiyya 'islamia''), or Sharia-compliant finance is banking or Finance, financing activity that complies with Sharia (Islamic law) and its practical application through the development of Islamic economi ...
have received mixed reactions from Muslims. While some have accepted Islamic finance as being in accordance with Islamic law, many ulama view it as equivalent to
riba ''Riba'' (, or , ) is an Arabic word used in Islamic law and roughly translated as " usury": unjust, exploitative gains made in trade or business. ''Riba'' is mentioned and condemned in several different verses in the Qur'an3:130
and therefore prohibited in Islam. Prominent Deobandi scholars, such as
Taqi Usmani Muhammad Taqi Usmani (born 3 October 1943) SI, OI, is a Pakistani Islamic jurist and leading scholar in the fields of Qur'an, Hadith, Islamic law, Islamic economics, and comparative religion. He was a member of the Council of Islamic Ideology ...
, have engaged globally in articulating Islamic finance theory and overseeing its implementation, authoring many books including '' An Introduction to Islamic Finance''. However, some Deobandi scholars have raised concerns that modern Islamic banking and finance fall short of the minimum requirements needed to make it truly Islamic. They have produced a detailed critique of Islamic banking in a work titled ''Murawwaja Islami Bankari''. In response, Taqi Usmani wrote ''Ghayr Sudi Bankari'', addressing each point made against Islamic banking. The intra-Deobandi debate on Islamic banking has been ongoing for several decades, and there is no consensus among Deobandi scholars on the issue.


Fatwa against Shia Islam

In 1979, Iran experienced a
Shiite Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...
Iranian Revolution The Iranian Revolution (, ), also known as the 1979 Revolution, or the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (, ) was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. The revolution led to the replacement of the Impe ...
, which led to the publication of ''Irani Inqilaab Imam Khumaini Aur Sheeyat'' by Manzoor Nomani in 1984. The book, prefaced by
Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi Syed Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi (also known as Ali Miyan; 5 December 1913 – 31 December 1999) was a leading Indian Islamic scholar, thinker, writer, preacher, reformer and a Muslim public intellectual of 20th century India and the author of ...
, aimed to dispel misunderstandings held by Shiites from an Islamic perspective and called for vigilance against them. However, in December 1987, Nomani issued a fatwa branding Shias as
Kafir ''Kāfir'' (; , , or ; ; or ) is an Arabic-language term used by Muslims to refer to a non-Muslim, more specifically referring to someone who disbelieves in the Islamic God, denies his authority, and rejects the message of Islam as ...
or non-believers. This declaration was endorsed by hundreds of prominent Deobandi scholars in India and Pakistan, including Wali Hasan Tonki, the Grand Mufti of Pakistan, who issued a separate fatwa to the same effect.


Digitalisation

The digitization of fatwas reflects the current
digital age The Information Age is a History by period, historical period that began in the mid-20th century. It is characterized by a rapid shift from traditional industries, as established during the Industrial Revolution, to an economy centered on info ...
, offering scholars a new platform to provide guidance to a global audience. With the widespread availability and accessibility of the
internet The Internet (or internet) is the Global network, global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a internetworking, network of networks ...
, this trend has become increasingly prevalent. Many adherents of Deobandi fiqh use online platforms to disseminate their fatwas. To preserve historical records of the seminary and make them more accessible to scholars and researchers,
Darul Uloom Deoband Darul Uloom Deoband is an Islamic university and seminary ( darul uloom) in Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, India, at which the Sunni Deobandi Islamic movement began. Established in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi, Fazlur Rahman Usmani, Sayy ...
has decided to digitize hundreds of thousands of fatwas that have been issued since 1866. In 2002, Darul Uloom Deoband started its website journey, named Darulifta-Deoband.com, and established an Online Fatwa Department in 2005. By 2016, it had become the world's largest bilingual fatwa website. Notably, in 2010, almost 40% of the fatwas were issued online. Askimam, founded by South African Islamic scholar and jurist Ebrahim Desai in 2000, is another example of the digitalization of Deobandi fiqh. It has been lauded for being more influential, wide-ranging, and comprehensive than the web resources of
Al-Azhar University The Al-Azhar University ( ; , , ) is a public university in Cairo, Egypt. Associated with Al-Azhar Al-Sharif in Islamic Cairo, it is Egypt's oldest degree-granting university and is known as one of the most prestigious universities for Islamic ...
and its supporters combined. The Askimam website reflects the Deobandi Hanafi school of thought's outlook and recommends that people following other Sunni schools of thought seek guidance from their respective scholars.


Implementation in different countries

The implementation of Deobandi fiqh in the
Khanate of Kalat The Khanate of Kalat, also known as the Brahui Confederacy, was a Brahui Khanate that originated in the modern-day Kalat region of Pakistan. Formed in 1666 due to the threat of Mughal expansion in the region,"Baluchistan" ''Imperial Gazet ...
is one of the earliest examples of its use. In 1939, ruler
Ahmad of Kalat Mir Ahmad Yar Khan Ahmedzai (1902–1979), commonly referred to as Ahmad Yar Khan, was the last Khan of Kalat, a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India and the Dominion of Pakistan, serving from 10 September 1933 to 14 Octo ...
requested that scholars from
Darul Uloom Deoband Darul Uloom Deoband is an Islamic university and seminary ( darul uloom) in Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, India, at which the Sunni Deobandi Islamic movement began. Established in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi, Fazlur Rahman Usmani, Sayy ...
be sent to Kalat to draft laws and create unity in
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; , ), also spelled as Baluchistan or Baluchestan, is a historical region in West and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. This arid region o ...
. Two scholars, Qari Muhammad Tayyib and Shamsul Haq Afghani, were dispatched to Kalat and after drafting laws, Shamsul Haq Afghani remained in Balochistan to take charge of the administration of religious affairs. Baloch youth went to Deobandi madrasas and Ahmad of Kalat founded a madrasa called Jamia Nasiriya to educate Baloch students. In 1942, the governor of Kalat instructed the head of Jamia Nasiriya to select thirty academically advanced students to send to Darul Uloom Deoband for further study. After completing their studies, the scholars returned to Balochistan and influenced the religious beliefs, customs, culture, and appearance of the Baloch people. Some of the Deobandi scholars served as judges in Balochistan, and some reached the highest judicial positions, namely Qazi-ul-Quzat ( Chief justice). The Deobandi fiqh is extensively practiced in Afghanistan's judicial system. Additionally, this fiqh is also utilized in several countries for implementing Muslim personal law, issuing halal certificates, and in various other fields, through organizations such as the All Ceylon Jamiyyathul Ulama in Sri Lanka and the Muslim Judicial Council in South Africa.


Afghanistan

The
Taliban , leader1_title = Supreme Leader of Afghanistan, Supreme leaders , leader1_name = {{indented plainlist, * Mullah Omar{{Natural Causes{{nbsp(1994–2013) * Akhtar Mansour{{Assassinated (2015–2016) * Hibatullah Akhundzada (2016–present) ...
is an Islamic militant group that emerged in Afghanistan in the early 1990s. Their interpretation of Islamic law, known as Sharia, is central to their ideology and political program. They gained control of Afghanistan in the mid-1990s and ruled the country until 2001, when they were ousted by a US-led coalition following the
9/11 attacks The September 11 attacks, also known as 9/11, were four coordinated Islamist terrorist suicide attacks by al-Qaeda against the United States in 2001. Nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners, crashing the first two into ...
. After 20 years of war and a negotiated peace agreement with the US, the Taliban regained control of Afghanistan in August 2021, following the withdrawal of American troops. Since then, they have announced that they intend to establish an Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and that Sharia law will be the basis for their governance. The Taliban's interpretation of Islamic law is largely based on the Deobandi school of Islamic jurisprudence and the Taliban's leadership includes many individuals who were educated in Deobandi madrasas (religious schools) in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Taliban's interpretation of Deobandi fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) is notable for its strict enforcement of Islamic law, including harsh punishments for crimes such as adultery, theft, and murder. The Taliban have also enforced strict dress codes for women, and have banned many forms of entertainment, such as music and television.


Pakistan

The Deobandi school of thought has the majority following in Pakistan.
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (12 August 192417 August 1988) was a Pakistani military officer and statesman who served as the sixth president of Pakistan from 1978 until Death of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, his death in an airplane crash in 1988. He also se ...
, who himself followed the Deobandi school of thought, gave priority to implementing Sunni policies and laws that were in line with Deobandi fiqh during his efforts to Islamize Pakistan. As President of Pakistan from 1977 to 1988, Zia-ul-Haq introduced several measures to create a more Islamic society. These included the
Hudud Ordinances The Hudud Ordinances are laws in Pakistan enacted in 1979 as part of the Islamization of Pakistan by Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the sixth president of Pakistan. It replaced parts of the British-era Pakistan Penal Code, adding new criminal offences o ...
, which criminalized certain offenses according to Islamic law; the Zakat and Ushr Ordinance, which made it mandatory for Muslims to pay a tax on their wealth to support the poor and needy; and the Ramazan Ordinances, which made it illegal for Muslims to eat, drink, or smoke in public during the month of Ramadan. He also appointed
Sami-ul-Haq Sami ul Haq (, ''Samī'u’l-Ḥaq''; 18 December 1937 – 2 November 2018) was a Pakistani religious scholar and senator. He was known as the ''Father of Taliban'' for the role his seminary Darul Uloom Haqqania played in the graduation of mo ...
, a prominent Deobandi scholar known as the father of the
Taliban , leader1_title = Supreme Leader of Afghanistan, Supreme leaders , leader1_name = {{indented plainlist, * Mullah Omar{{Natural Causes{{nbsp(1994–2013) * Akhtar Mansour{{Assassinated (2015–2016) * Hibatullah Akhundzada (2016–present) ...
, as a
Senator A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or Legislative chamber, chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the Ancient Rome, ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior ...
. Zia-ul-Haq reactivated the
Council of Islamic Ideology Council of Islamic Ideology (CII; () is a constitutional body of Pakistan, responsible for giving legal advice on Islamic issues to the government and the Parliament. This body was founded in 1962 under the government of Ayub Khan. Functions ...
and established the
Federal Shariat Court The Federal Shariat Court (FSC) is a constitutional islamic religious court of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, which has the power to examine and determine whether the laws of the country comply with Sharia law. The court was established in ...
and Shariat Appellate Bench to ensure that all laws were in accordance with Islamic principles. Leading Deobandi scholars, such as Muhammad Khan Sherani and
Muhammad Hanif Jalandhari Muhammad Hanif Jalandhari (born; 8 November 1963) محمد حنیف جالندھری) is a Pakistani Islamic scholar, incumbent General Secretary of Wifaq ul Madaris Al-Arabia, Pakistan the rector of Jamia Khairul Madaris since 1981. and Chairm ...
, have served as members of the Council of Islamic Ideology.
Taqi Usmani Muhammad Taqi Usmani (born 3 October 1943) SI, OI, is a Pakistani Islamic jurist and leading scholar in the fields of Qur'an, Hadith, Islamic law, Islamic economics, and comparative religion. He was a member of the Council of Islamic Ideology ...
and Khalid Mahmud, who are also prominent Deobandi figures, have acted as leading judges on the Federal Shariat Court and Shariat Appellate Bench.


India

Although India is a
secular state is an idea pertaining to secularity, whereby a state is or purports to be officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion. A secular state claims to treat all its citizens equally regardless of relig ...
with a Muslim minority, the country has a separate set of laws known as the
Muslim Personal Law All the Muslims in India are governed by the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937. This law deals with marriage, succession, inheritance and charities among Muslims. The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 deals with the cir ...
, which dates back to the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937. This law pertains to matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance for Muslims. The
All India Muslim Personal Law Board All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) is a non-governmental organisation (NGO) in India that represents the interests of Muslims in matters of personal law. It was formed in 1973 with the objective of protecting and promoting the appli ...
(AIMPLB) is a non-governmental organization founded in 1973 to protect and defend the Muslim Personal Law in India. The organization was established in response to growing concerns among Indian Muslims regarding the potential erosion of their personal law, and to ensure their right to practice their religion and follow Islamic law. Founded by
Darul Uloom Deoband Darul Uloom Deoband is an Islamic university and seminary ( darul uloom) in Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, India, at which the Sunni Deobandi Islamic movement began. Established in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi, Fazlur Rahman Usmani, Sayy ...
's rector Qari Muhammad Tayyib, this Deobandi-dominated organization has a long history of advocating for the Muslim Personal Law in India. The AIMPLB's stance was brought into question during the landmark
Shah Bano case ''Mohd. Ahmad Khan v. Shah Bano Begum'' 985 commonly referred to as the Shah Bano case, was a controversial maintenance lawsuit in India, in which the Supreme Court delivered a judgment in favour of providing maintenance to an aggrieved divorce ...
of 1985. The organization opposed granting maintenance to Shah Bano, a divorced Muslim woman, on the grounds that it would violate the Islamic Personal Law. This case generated a great deal of controversy and led to a heated debate about the role of Islamic law in India. It also highlighted the tensions between the AIMPLB and the Indian state, particularly the Congress government led by
Rajiv Gandhi Rajiv Gandhi (20 August 1944 – 21 May 1991) was an Indian statesman and pilot who served as the prime minister of India from 1984 to 1989. He took office after the Assassination of Indira Gandhi, assassination of his mother, then–prime ...
, which sought to introduce reforms in the Muslim Personal Law. In response, the government passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986, which overturned the Supreme Court's decision in the Shah Bano case and restricted the payment of maintenance to a limited period after divorce. The AIMPLB has also opposed attempts to introduce a uniform civil code, which would provide a single code of law for all citizens regardless of religion. In 2018, The AIMPLB proposed the establishment of Sharia courts, known as Darul Qaza, in every district of India to offer Muslims an alternative dispute resolution mechanism. However, the proposal sparked controversy as some critics raised concerns that it could undermine the authority of the Indian legal system and potentially result in the imposition of severe punishments that violate human rights. Despite criticism from some quarters, the AIMPLB continues to play a significant role in shaping the discourse on the Muslim Personal Law in India. Another notable Deobandi organization in India is Imarat Shariah, which operates in the states of
Bihar Bihar ( ) is a states and union territories of India, state in Eastern India. It is the list of states and union territories of India by population, second largest state by population, the List of states and union territories of India by are ...
,
Odisha Odisha (), formerly Orissa (List of renamed places in India, the official name until 2011), is a States and union territories of India, state located in East India, Eastern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by ar ...
, and
Jharkhand Jharkhand (; ) is a States and union territories of India, state in East India, eastern India. The state shares its border with the states of West Bengal to the east, Chhattisgarh to the west, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Bihar to the north ...
, with its headquarters located in the city of
Patna Patna (; , ISO 15919, ISO: ''Paṭanā''), historically known as Pataliputra, Pāṭaliputra, is the List of state and union territory capitals in India, capital and largest city of the state of Bihar in India. According to the United Nations, ...
, Bihar. Founded in 1921, it is considered one of the most prominent Islamic institutions in India. One of the services offered by Imarat-e-Shariah is Darul Qaza, which are Sharia courts operating within the institution to resolve disputes within the Muslim community according to Islamic law or Sharia. Although the decisions made by Darul Qaza are not legally binding, they are seen as a means for Muslims to resolve disputes in a manner that is consistent with their religious beliefs.


Bangladesh

In January 2001, the
High Court of Bangladesh The High Court Division, Supreme Court of Bangladesh (), popularly known as High Court, is one of the two divisions of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh, the other division being the Appellate Division. It consists of the Chief Justice of Banglad ...
issued a verdict banning all types of fatwas. This decision sparked the formation of the "Fatwa Protection Movement" in Bangladesh, led by
Fazlul Haque Amini Fazlul Hoque Amini () (194512 December 2012) was an Islamic scholar and politician from Bangladesh. He served as an MP in the Parliament of Bangladesh from 2002 to 2007. He was an expert in the fields of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), hadith and ...
. Ten years later, in 2011, an appeal was heard in the Appellate Division, resulting in a new verdict announced on May 12, 2011. The Appellate Division invalidated the High Court's ruling, citing the fact that the existing law did not fully consider all aspects related to individuals, families, and social life. As a result, the Appellate Division acknowledged the potential need for fatwas in certain circumstances and issued a ruling permitting appropriately authorized individuals to issue them. In response, the "National Fatwa Board" was proposed with the cooperation of the top local muftis in Bangladesh. However, the proposal was put on hold when a committee on fatwas was established under the authority of the
Al-Haiatul Ulya Lil-Jamiatil Qawmia Bangladesh Al-Hayʼat al-ʿUlyā lil-Jāmiʿāt al-Qawmiyyah Bangladesh () is the government-recognized combined Qawmi Madrasah Education Board of Bangladesh, having the authority to arrange central examinations and to issue certificates. It consists of si ...
. The committee included prominent muftis such as Mizanur Rahman Sayed and Muhammad Abdul Malek.


See also

* Index of Deobandi movement–related articles


References

{{Deobandi movement Deobandi fiqh Islamic jurisprudence Law schools Hanafi Schools of Sunni jurisprudence