
Ayodhya is a city mentioned in the ancient
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
-language texts, including the ''
Ramayana
The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
'' and the ''
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
''. These texts describe it as the capital of the
Ikshvaku kings, including
Rama
Rama (; , , ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the seventh and one of the most popular avatars of Vishnu. In Rama-centric Hindu traditions, he is considered the Supreme Being. Also considered as the ideal man (''maryāda' ...
.
The historicity of this legendary city is of concern to the
Ayodhya dispute. According to one theory, it is same as the present-day Indian city of
Ayodhya
Ayodhya () is a city situated on the banks of the Sarayu river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ayodhya district as well as the Ayodhya division of Uttar Pradesh, India. Ayodhya became th ...
. According to another theory, it is a fictional city, and the present-day Ayodhya (originally called Sākēta) was renamed after it around the 4th or 5th century, during the
Gupta period.
Scriptural references
According to the ''
Ramayana
The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
'', Ayodhya was founded by
Manu, the progenitor of mankind, and measured 12x3 ''
yojanas'' in area. Both the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata'' describe Ayodhya as the capital of the
Ikshvaku dynasty of
Kosala, including
Rama
Rama (; , , ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the seventh and one of the most popular avatars of Vishnu. In Rama-centric Hindu traditions, he is considered the Supreme Being. Also considered as the ideal man (''maryāda' ...
and
Dasharatha. The ''Purana-pancha-lakshana'' also describes the city as the capital of
Ikshvaku kings, including
Harishchandra.
The ''Ramayana'' states that the city was ruled by king
Dasharatha, a descendant of king Ikshvaku. His son Rama was exiled to the forest, and returned to the city after several travails, establishing an ideal rule in the kingdom. According to ''
Uttara Kanda'', a later addition to the ''Ramayana'', Rama divided the kingdom into North and South
Kosala at the end of his reign, with respective capitals at
Shravasti and
Kushavati, and installed his two sons (Lava and Kusha) to rule them. Rama himself entered the waters of the
Sarayu river, along with all the inhabitants of the city, and ascended to heaven. The location where they ascended is ''Gopratara Tirtha'', according to the ''
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
''. Ayodhya was subsequently repopulated by king Rishabha.
Several other literary works based on the story of Rama also mention Ayodhya. These include the ''Abhisheka'' and ''Pratimanataka'' by the poet
Bhāsa (dated 2nd century CE or earlier), and the ''
Raghuvamsha'' of
Kalidasa (c. 5th century CE).
According to the
Jain tradition, five ''
tirthankaras'' were born at Ayodhya, including
Rishabhanatha,
Ajitanatha,
Abhinandananatha,
Sumatinatha, and
Anantanatha.
Historicity
Identification with present-day Ayodhya
Many modern scholars, including
B. B. Lal and
H. D. Sankalia, have identified the legendary Ayodhya with the present-day Ayodhya town, but this theory is not universally accepted.
Arguments cited in favour of this identification include:
* Several ancient texts, including the ''Ramayana'', the ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' (; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam)'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' () or simply ''Bhagavata (Bhāgavata)'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen major Puranas (''Mahapuranas'') and one ...
'', and the ''
Padma Purana
The ''Padma Purana'' (, or ) is one of the eighteen Puranas#Mahapuranas, Major Puranas, a genre of texts in Hinduism. It is an encyclopedic text, named after the lotus in which creator god Brahma appeared, and includes large sections dedic ...
'', mention that the legendary Ayodhya was located on the banks of the Sarayu river, just like the modern Ayodhya.
* The Gupta-era texts, such as Kalidasa's ''
Raghuvamsha'' and the ''
Brahmanda Purana'' use "Ayodhya" as another name for Saketa, which was the ancient name of present-day Ayodhya. This identification also occurs in the later Sanskrit texts, including
Hemachandra
Hemacandra was a 12th century () Śvetāmbara Jaina acharya, ācārya, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, wikt:grammarian, grammarian, Law, law theorist, historian, Lexicography, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and Prosody ...
's ''Abhidhana-Chintamani'' and Yashodhara's commentary on ''
Kamasutra''.
* Several ancient texts, including the ''
Vishnu Smriti'' and the ''
Matsya Purana'' mention Ayodhya as a place of pilgrimage (''
tirtha''). The 1092 CE Chandrawati inscription of the
Gahadavala king
Chandradeva mentions that he took bath on the Svarga-dvara ''tirtha'' situated on the confluence of the Sarayau and the
Ghaghra rivers at Ayodhya.
* The epics describe the legendary Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala. A
1st century BCE inscription issued by Dhanadeva, who describes himself as the lord of Kosala, has been found at present-day Ayodhya. Several later inscriptions also mention the city of Ayodhya.
Identification as a legendary city
A section of scholars have argued that the legendary Ayodhya of ''Ramayana'' is a purely mythical city, and is not same as the present-day Ayodhya. These scholars include
M. C. Joshi,
Hans T. Bakker, and a group of 25 historians from the
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), among others. According to these scholars, the process of identifying the legendary Ayodhya with Saketa (an ancient name of present-day Ayodhya) began in the early centuries CE, and was completed during the
Gupta period.
The various arguments made in favour of identifying the legendary Ayodhya as a fictional city include the following:
Lack of archaeological evidence
The JNU historians argue that according to the archaeological evidence, the earliest possible settlements at Ayodhya can be dated to c. 8th century BCE, while the ''Ramayana'' is set much earlier. The ''Ramayana'' depicts Ayodhya as an urban centre with palaces and buildings, while the excavations at present-day Ayodhya indicate a primitive life.
Hans T. Bakker notes that no place called Ayodhya is attested by any epigraphic or other archaeological evidence before the 2nd century CE. The earliest extant inscriptions mentioning a place called Ayodhya are from the Gupta period. For example, a 436 CE inscription describes a donation to Brahmins hailing from Ayodhya. A 533–534 CE inscription mentions a nobleman from Ayodhya. The Gaya inscription, said to be issued by
Samudragupta (4th century CE), but possibly an 8th century fabrication according to modern historians, describes Ayodhya as a garrison town.
Lack of ancient literary evidence
Early Buddhist and Jain texts mention
Shravasti and Saketa, not Ayodhya, as the major cities of the
Kosala region. The later texts such as the
Puranas, which mention Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala, simply follow the legendary ''
Ramayana
The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
''.
According to
Hans T. Bakker's analysis, the Sanskrit sources that mention Ayodhya but not Saketa are predominantly fictional in nature: these texts include ''Mahabharata'', ''Ramayana'', and ''Purana-pancha-lakshana''. On the other hand, the Sanskrit sources that mention Saketa but not Ayodhya are of "semi-scientific or factual nature". The Buddhist Pali-language texts name a city called Ayojjha or Ayujjha (Pali for Ayodhya), but suggest that it was located on the banks of the Ganges river (
see below). In the early Jain canonical literature, "Aujjha" (a Prakrit form of "Ayodhya") is mentioned only once: the ''Thana Sutta'' describes it as the capital of Gandhilavati, a district of the "largely mythological" Mahavideha country. This indicates that the Ayodhya of Sanskrit epic literature is a fictional city.
Among the Sanskrit sources, the identification of Ayodhya with Saketa first appears in texts from the Gupta period, including the ''
Brahmanda Purana'' and Kalidasa's ''
Raghuvamsha''. The Jain text Paumachariya (dated before 4th century CE) first incorporates the Rama legend into Jain mythology. During this period, the Jains linked the mythology of the Ikshvaku dynasty with their
tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (; ) is a saviour and supreme preacher of the ''Dharma (Jainism), dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a ''Tirtha (Jainism), tirtha'', a fordable passage across ''Saṃsā ...
s and
chakravartins. For example, the first tirthankara
Rishabha is said to have been born in Ikkhagabhumi (according to ''Kalpasutra'') or Viniya (according to ''Jambu-dvipa-prajnapati''), which are identified as Ayodhya (Aojhha) or Saketa. In the 19th century,
Alexander Cunningham
Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham (23 January 1814 – 28 November 1893) was a British Army engineer with the Bengal Sappers who later took an interest in the history and archaeology of India. In 1861, he was appointed to the newly crea ...
of
Archaeological Survey of India believed that ''Ramayana'' also identifies Ayodhya with a Saketa, based on a verse that supposedly describes Dasharatha as the king of "Saketa-nagara". However, this verse was fabricated by a
Brahmin
Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
of
Lucknow
Lucknow () is the List of state and union territory capitals in India, capital and the largest city of the List of state and union territory capitals in India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and it is the administrative headquarters of the epon ...
: it is not found in the original ''Ramayana'' text.
Local Vikramaditya legend
A local oral tradition of Ayodhya, first recorded in writing by
Robert Montgomery Martin in 1838, mentions that the city was deserted after the death of Rama's descendant
Brihadbala. It remained deserted for several centuries until King
Vikrama (or Vikramaditya) of
Ujjain came searching for it. On the advice of a sage, Vikrama determined that the site of ancient Ayodhya as the place where the milk would flow from the udder of a calf. He cut down the forests that had covered the ancient ruins, established a new city, erected the Ramgar fort, and built 360 temples.
According to the JNU historians, this myth of "re-discovery" seems to recognize that modern Ayodhya is not same as the ancient Ayodhya, and appears to be an attempt to impart the modern town a religious sanctity that it originally lacked. These historians theorize that the 5th century emperor
Skandagupta (who adopted the title Vikramditya) moved his residence to Saketa, and renamed it to Ayodhya, probably to associate himself with the legendary
solar dynasty
The Solar dynasty or (; ), also called the Ikshvaku dynasty, is a legendary Indian dynasty said to have been founded by Ikshvaku. In Hindu texts, Hindu literature, it ruled the Kosala Kingdom, with its capital at Ayodhya (Ramayana), Ayodhya, ...
. According to Bakker, the Guptas moved their capital to Saketa either during the reign of Kumaragupta I or Skandagupta, and this event is possibly alluded to in the ''Raghuvamsha''.
Kishore Kunal argues that there is no historical evidence to support the theory that Saketa was renamed as "Ayodhya" by Skandagupta. He notes that the
Kalidasa's ''
Raghuvamsha'' clearly refers to the same city by the names "Saketa" and "Ayodhya", while narrating the legend of Rama. Historian
Gyanendra Pandey argues that Kalidasa's mention of "Saketa" and "Ayodhya" do not prove any connection between the legendary Ayodhya and the present-day Ayodhya, as he lived in the Gupta period (c. 5th century CE), presumably after the Guptas had changed the name of Saketa to "Ayodhya".
Relatively recent association with Rama
The rise of the modern Ayodhya town as a centre of Rama worship is relatively recent, dating back to the 13th century, when the
Ramanandi sect started gaining prominence. Several inscriptions dated between 5th and 8th centuries mention the town, but do not mention its association with Rama. The writings of Xuanzang (c. 602–664 CE) associate the town with Buddhism. It has also been an important Jain pilgrimage centre, and an ancient Jain figure (dated 4th-3rd century BCE) has been found here. The 11th century texts refer to Gopataru
tirtha in Ayodhya, but do not refer to the birthplace of Rama.
Bakker notes that the legend of Rama was not always connected with Ayodhya: for example, the Buddhist ''Dasaratha-jataka'' mentions Varanasi, not Ayodhya, as the capital of Dasharatha and Rama. Thus, the association of Rama with Ayodhya may be a result the claim that he was a member of the Ikshvaku family, and this family's association with Ayodhya.
Analysis of Ramayana
According to
M. C. Joshi, "a critical examination of the geographical data available in Valmiki's narratives does not justify the commonly accepted identification of the ancient city with the modern one". For example, in the ''Ayodhya Kanda'' of the Ramayana, Bharata takes a geographically "non-sensical" route while traveling to Ayodhya from the kingdom of his uncle Kekeya (located in the extreme west of the Indian subcontinent). During this journey, he passes through places located in present-day
Odisha
Odisha (), formerly Orissa (List of renamed places in India, the official name until 2011), is a States and union territories of India, state located in East India, Eastern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by ar ...
and
Assam
Assam (, , ) is a state in Northeast India, northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra Valley, Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . It is the second largest state in Northeast India, nor ...
.
Location on the banks of the Ganges
According to
Hans T. Bakker, the older parts of ''Mahabharata'' and ''Purana-pancha-lakshana'' mention Ayodhya as the capital of the Ikshvaku kings, but do not state that it was situated on the banks of the Sarayu river. The older parts of ''Ramayana'' only ''suggest'' that it was located in the vicinity of the Sarayu river. For example, Ramayana 2.70.19 states that the funeral processions of Dasharatha traveled from the city to Sarayu using
palanquins and chariots, which according to Bakker, suggests that Sarayu was located at some distance from the city. According to Bakker, only the newer (5th century and later) parts of Ramayana explicitly describe Ayodhya as located on the banks of the Sarayu river.
The JNU historians agree that an ancient historical city called "Ayodhya" (Pali: Ayojjha or Ayujjha) existed, but argue that it was not same as the modern Ayodhya, or the legendary city described in the Ramayana. This theory is based on the fact that according to the ancient Buddhist texts, the ancient Ayodhya town was located on the banks of the river Ganga (Ganges), not Sarayu. For example, the ''
Samyutta Nikaya'' states "Once Lord Buddha was walking in Ayodhya on the bank of the Ganga river".
Buddhaghosha's commentary on the ''Samyutta Nikaya'' mentions that the citizens of Ayodhya (Ayujjha-pura) built a
vihara for the Buddha "in a curve of the river Ganga".
Kishore Kunal argues that the word "Ganga" is also used as common noun for a holy river in Sanskrit. In his support, he presents another verse from ''Samyutta Nikaya'' (4.35.241.205), which states "Once Lord Buddha was walking in
Kaushambi on the bank of the Ganga river". The ancient city of Kaushambi was actually located on the banks of the river
Yamuna
The Yamuna (; ) is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of about on the southwestern slopes of Bandarpunch peaks of the Low ...
, not Ganga. S. N. Arya similarly points out that the 7th century Chinese Buddhist traveler
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
states that he reached Ayodhya ("A-yu-te") after crossing the Ganga river, while traveling southwards (Ayodhya is actually located to the north of the Ganges river). Xuanzang seems to have used the term Ganga to describe "a long affluent of the great river".
''Taittiriya Aranyaka'' and ''Atharvaveda'' description
M. C. Joshi asserted that Ayodhya is mentioned in a ''
Taittiriya Aranyaka'' verse, which is also found with some variations in the ''
Atharvaveda
The Atharvaveda or Atharva Veda (, , from ''wikt:अथर्वन्, अथर्वन्'', "priest" and ''wikt:वेद, वेद'', "knowledge") or is the "knowledge storehouse of ''wikt:अथर्वन्, atharvans'', the proced ...
'':
Joshi argues that the Ayodhya city, as described in the ''Taittiriya Aranyaka'' (and ''Atharvaveda''), is obviously a mythical city, because it is said to be surrounded by a pool of nectar, and is described as the location of "the golden treasure-dome of the celestial world". According to Joshi, this Ayodhya is similar to the mythical places such as Samavasarana and Nandishvaradvipa, which appear in the
Jain mythology.
According to other scholars, such as
B. B. Lal, the word ''ayodhya'' in this context is not a proper noun (the name of a city), but an adjective, meaning "impregnable". The verse describes the human body (''pur'') as having eight
chakra
A chakra (; ; ) is one of the various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, part of the inner traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism.
The concept of the chakra arose in Hinduism. B ...
s and nine
orifices:
Lal points out that two cognate forms ''ayodhyena'' and ''ayodhyaḥ'' appear in Atharvaveda 19.13.3 and 19.13.7 respectively, in similar sense of "invincible". The 14th century commentator
Sayana also confirms this meaning of the word. the later text ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...
'' also describes the human body as a city with nine doors, in which the soul resides. This confirms that the ''Atharvaveda'' uses "ayodhya" as an adjective, not as the name of a city.
References
Bibliography
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{{refend
Places in the Ramayana
Mythological populated places
Ayodhya