Assassination Of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first president of Bangladesh, was assassinated along with most of his family members during the early hours of 15 August 1975 by a group of Bangladesh Army personnel who invaded his residence as part of a coup d'état. The Minister of Commerce, Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad, immediately took control and proclaimed himself head of an interim government from 15 August to 6 November 1975; he was in turn succeeded by Chief Justice Abu Sayem. The assassination marked the first direct military intervention in Bangladesh's civilian administration. 15 August was annually observed as National Mourning Day under the Sheikh Hasina government.

Background

Mujib's presidency

In the 1970 Pakistani general election, Sheikh Mujib's party, the Awami League (previously known as the Awami Muslim League), won the majority of the seats in the Pakistani National Assembly. They won 160 of the general 162 seats and all 7 women's seats in East Pakistan, which would later become Bangladesh after it seceded from West Pakistan. Despite Pakistan's military government delaying the handover of power, Mujib's residence had become the de facto head of government in East Pakistan by March. At the start of the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, he was placed under house arrest "by Pakistani soldiers on 25 March midnight just after declaring the independence of Bangladesh. On 10 April that year, the provisional government of the Bangladeshi rebellion, popularly known as the Mujibnagar Government, was established with Mujib as its head and as the leader of Bangladeshi armed forces. Following the defeat of Pakistani forces on 16 December 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was released from custody from Pakistan in London on 22 December 1971, from where he flew to India, and then to Bangladesh. Mujib led the government as Prime Minister of Bangladesh for three years after Bangladesh gained independence.

Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini controversy and outrage in the army

The Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini (JRB) was a controversial militia formed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and loyal to him personally. Although it was originally founded as a law enforcing agency to maintain internal security, it became a second national armed-force and served as a political task force for the Awami League. As a result, it found little support among traditional military organisations such as the Mukti Bahini. Its 30,000 troops intimidated and tortured opponents of the Awami League in various ways. The military grew resentful of the level of funding the Rakkhi Bahini received from the Mujib government, with the former's own funding being reduced to 13% in the 1975–76 budget, a considerable decrease from the 50–60% it enjoyed during the Pakistan period.

Allegation of nepotism and corruption within the Mujib-family

Sheikh Fazlul Haque Mani, a politician and one of the nephews of Mujib, was given lucrative positions in the Government formed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. When private trade with India was banned due to slow inflation, Fazlul Haque actively engaged in it with Mujibur Rahman's blessings. This was seen as an attempt by Mujibur Rahman to form a dynasty.

Near the end of 1973, Sheikh Kamal was involved in a shootout in which he suffered gunshot injuries. Multiple claims have been made as to how the shootout occurred. Many people claim that it was during an attempted robbery of a bank by Sheikh Kamal and his friends. However, a retired major general of the Bangladesh Army claimed that it was actually a case of friendly fire. Near the end of 1973, Bangladeshi security forces received intelligence that the left-wing revolutionary activist Siraj Sikder and his insurgents were going to launch coordinated attacks around Dhaka. Police and other security officers were on full alert and patrolling the streets of Dhaka in plainclothes. Sheikh Kamal and his friends were armed and also patrolling the city in a microbus looking for Siraj Sikder. When the microbus was in Dhanmondi, the police mistook Sheikh Kamal and his friends for insurgents and opened fire on them, thus injuring Sheikh Kamal. However, it is also claimed that Sheikh Kamal and his friends were in Dhanmondi to test drive a new car that his friend Iqbal Hasan Mahmud Tuku had bought recently. Since Dhaka was under heavy police patrolling, police special forces under the command of the then city SP Mahamuddin Bir Bikrom opened fire on the car thinking that the passengers were miscreants.

A 1976 issue of the Asia Yearbook stated,
"It was an open secret - that Mujib's brother, Sheikh Nazir, was alleged to have monopolised the smuggling in the southeast; that his wife took a cut in contracting World Bank projects; that his son, Sheikh Kamal, had been involved in thuggery; and that his nephew, Sheikh Moni, was fast accumulating power and wealth."
Abdul Waheed Talukder, in his book "Gonotontrer Onneshay Bangladesh" (গণতন্ত্রের অন্বেষায় বাংলাদেশ, ''Bangladesh in Search of Democracy''), said in the 1976 issue of the Asia Yearbook,

Marcus F. Franda in his book "Bangladesh: The First Decade" says,

S. R. Mirza says in his book "Conversations after the War of Liberation",

Left-wing insurgency

A left-wing insurgency from 1972 to 1975 is widely held to be responsible for creating the conditions that led to the assassination. In 1972, a leftist group named the Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal (JSD) was founded from a split in the Bangladesh Chhatra League, the student wing of the Bangladesh Awami League. The JSD, through its armed wing Gonobahini led by Colonel Abu Taher and politician Hasanul Haq Inu, began a political massacre of government supporters, Awami League members, and police. Their campaign contributed to a breakdown of law and order in the country and paved the way for the assassination of Mujib. Hasanul Huq Inu later held the office of the Minister of Information under Sheikh Hasina's Second and Third cabinets.

Dalim-Mostafa conflict

In 1974, Gazi Golam Mostafa kidnapped Major Shariful Haque Dalim and his wife from the Dhaka Ladies Club after an argument during Dalim's cousin's wedding reception. Dalim's only brother-in-law Bappi (his wife Nimmi's brother) was attending from Canada. Mostafa's son occupied the chair in the row behind Bappi and pulled Bappi's hair from the back. Bappi scolded the boy for his behavior and told him not to sit on the row behind him anymore. Mostafa's sons (who were close friends of Sheikh Kamal) and some associates forcefully abducted Dalim, Nimmi, the groom's mother, and two of Dalim's friends (both of whom were distinguished freedom fighters) in Microbuses owned by the Red Crescent. Mostafa was taking them to the Rakhi Bahini headquarters but later took them to the residence of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Mujib mediated a compromise between them and made Mostafa apologize to Nimmi. When news of the abduction spread, the 1st Bengal Lancers ransacked Mostafa's and took his whole family prisoner. They also set up check posts all over the city searching for Major Dalim and the abductees. Some officers lost their jobs as a result. The officers involved, including Shariful Haque Dalim, were later orchestrators of the coup on 15 August 1975 and the assassination of Sheikh Mujib.

Rise and death of Siraj Sikder

Siraj Sikder was contemporary leading Bangladeshi Maoist leader, in Mujib's regime. Born in 1944, he obtained an engineering degree from the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology (now BUET) in 1967. While he was a student he became a member of East Pakistan Student Union. In 1967, he was elected vice-president of the central committee of Student Union and later that year he joined the C & B Department of the government as an engineer. Later he left his job to start a private engineering company. On 8 January 1968, along with like-minded activists, Sikder formed a clandestine organisation named Purba Bangla Sramik Andolon (East Bengal Workers Movement EBWM) with an objective to lead a struggle against the revisionism of the existing "Communist" organisations and to form a revolutionary Communist Party. This initiative brought forward a thesis that East Bengal is a colony of Pakistan and that the principal contradiction in the society is between the bureaucratic bourgeoisie and feudalists of Pakistan on one hand, and the people of East Bengal on the other hand. Only the independence struggle to form an "independent, democratic, peaceful, non-aligned, progressive" People's Republic of East Bengal, free also from the oppression of US imperialism, Soviet social-imperialism and Indian Expansionism could lead the society forward towards socialism and communism. In late 1968, Sikder left the job to establish the Mao Tse Tung Research Center in Dhaka but it was later closed down by the Pakistani government. Sikder became a lecturer at the Technical Training College in Dhaka. In the meantime of Bangladesh War of Independence, at a liberated base area named Pearabagan at Bhimruly in Jhalokati District in the southern part of the country, on 3 June 1971, Sikder founded a new party named Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party (Proletarian Party of East Bengal) by ideology of Marxism and Mao Tsetung Thought (not "Maoism", during the 1960s the followers of Mao-line used to identify their ideology as Marxism-Leninism- Mao Tse-tung Thought). At the beginning of the war, he went to Barisal and he declared that as a free living space and making it his base attempted to initiate his revolution throughout other places. After the Independence of Bangladesh he turned against the Sheikh Mujib government. In April 1973, he formed Purba Banglar Jatiya Mukti Front (East Bengal National Liberation Front) and declared war on Bangladesh Government. Under his leadership, the Sarbahara party carried out attacks against money lenders and landlords. In 1975, Sikder was arrested at Hali Shahar in Chittagong by the intelligence force of the government. He was killed in police custody on 3 January 1975 on his way from Dhaka Airport to the Rakkhi Bahini Camp at Savar. Anthony Mascarenhas narrated in his book '' Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood'' that, Siraj's sister Shamim Sikder blamed Mujib for the killing of her brother.

Famine of 1974

Ever since independence, the possibility of famine started appearing in Bangladesh. Corrupt administration, worsening flood situation, failure to deal with food crisis led to famine in North Bengal in 1974. The death toll from the famine is claimed to be between 27,000 and 15 lakh or approximately 300,000 to 4,500,000 (or 1 to 1.5 million).

According to many analysts, the famine reduced the popularity of the Mujib government and contributed to the circumstances of his assassination.

Corruption, malfunction and BAKSAL

Sheikh Mujib later made himself President of Bangladesh and established a national unity government, the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL), on 7 June 1975 by banning all political parties and independent press. Mujib named the reform as Second Revolution. Although the BAKSAL was intended to bring stability to Bangladesh and uphold law and order, it engendered hostility among the bureaucracy, military, and civil society. Opposition groups, as well as some of Mujib's supporters, challenged Mujib's authoritarian, one-party state. The period of the BAKSAL's one-party rule was marked by widespread censorship and abuse of the judiciary, as well as opposition from the general populace, intellectuals, and all other political groups. Nationalization of industry failed to yield any tangible progress. Not only was the government weak and with no clear goals, but the country was also nearly bankrupt. In the ''Far Eastern Economic Review'', journalist Lawrence Lifschultz wrote in 1974 that "the corruption and malpractices and plunder of national wealth" in Bangladesh were "unprecedented".

Party-partiality against rape-murder case

The army was already dissatisfied with Sheikh Mujib for sidelining them in favor of the JRB. However, in his book '' Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood'', Anthony Mascarenhas cited a specific factor behind the final outcry as influential: Mozammel, a contemporary Awami League youth leader from Tongi and the chairman of Tongi Awami League, seized a car of a newlywed housewife, killed her driver and husband, abducted her and gang-raped her and three days later, her dead body was found in the road near a bridge of Tongi. Mozammel was arrested by a leader of a squadron of the Bengal Lancer named Major Nasser and handed over to the police, but the police released him immediately. He was released from the punishment of that crime with the intervention of Sheikh Mujib. This incident increased the dissatisfaction against Sheikh Mujib in the Army, specially in Major Faruque and acted as one of the prominently last-minute influences behind his assassination.

Conspiracy

Conspirators

Major Sayed Farooq-ur-Rahman; Khandaker Abdur Rashid; Shariful Haque Dalim; Mohiuddin Ahmed; and Rashed Chowdhury, along with A. K. M. Mohiuddin Ahmed, Mohammad Bazlul Huda, and S. H. M. B. Noor Chowdhury (three majors in the Bangladesh Army), planned to topple the government and establish a military government of their own. They were previously part of the opposition to BAKSAL and viewed the government as too subservient to India and as a threat to Bangladesh's military. According to Anthony Mascarenhas, Faruque offered Major Ziaur Rahman indirectly to take part in the plan and tried to convince him, but Zia cleverly avoided the matter. According to Farooq, Zia's gesture meant: "I'm a senior officer. I cannot be involved in such things. If you junior officers want to do it, go ahead." However, the killer Lt. Col. Khandaker Abdur Rashid's wife and accused Jobaida Rashid said in his deposition, "Criticism was happened among Army officers for providing more facilities by forming Rakkhi Bahini besides the army. I hear these things from Farooq. Major Farooq has been in touch with General Zia since childhood. He was Zia's former acquaintance. Farooq used to roam alone around Sheikh Mujib's house in Dhanmondi area in the mid night wearing a khaki shirt and lungi and hatching the plan to assassinate Sheikh Mujib by observing everything. One night Major Farooq returned from Zia's house and told my husband that Zia wanted to be president if the government changed. Zia said, ''"It is a success to come to me. If it is a failure then do not involve me. It is not possible to change the government by keeping Sheikh Mujib alive".'' Major General (retd) M Khalilur Rahman (then director of BDR) testified, "Some army officers became divided as General Safiullah was not made the army chief despite being a senior on the basis of General Zia's number. I have heard that General Zia will retire from the army and be sent abroad as an ambassador." At one point after the swearing in of the cabinet, Major Rashid introduced me to his wife. I thought Major Rashid was a little proud and said, "She is my wife. My wife is the mastermind behind what we have done." The assassins considered the possible causes of the failure, and for the upcoming after-period after Mujib's assassination, they decided to use a well-wisher from Mujib's Awami League and a person who could be removed in time if desired, in order to curb the possible Indian intervention, the Awami League's vengeful armed opposition, the possible increasing arbitrariness of the anti-Awami League and to temporarily control the situation. After some time of searching, an Awami League cabinet minister under Mujib's government, Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad, agreed to take over the presidency. Mostaq also considered Mujib to be "illiterate" and was known to be jealous of Mujib's popularity. It is alleged that the Chief of Army Staff, Major General Kazi Mohammed Shafiullah, and the Directorate General of Forces Intelligence Air Vice Marshal, Aminul Islam Khan, were aware of the conspiracy. Major Faruque told Anthony Mascarenhas that he carried out the assassination following the direction of Andha Hafiz, a blind saint from Chittagong who was known having supernatural powers and his wife Farida helped him communicate with the saint. The saint entitled as a pir told him to carry out the killing in the interest of Islam, advised him to abandon personal interests and carry out the killing at the right time. However, Andha Hafiz later denied the claim in an interview with the weekly Bichinta.

International connections

Journalist Lawrence Lifschultz paints an alternate picture of the conspiracy, however, that implicates Mostaq and the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). He claimed that the "CIA station chief in Dhaka, Philip Cherry, was actively involved in the killing of the "Father of the Nation"—Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman." His claims largely relied on the testimony of a single anonymous businessman, however. Lifschultz characterized this incident as an outcome of the Cold War between the United States-influenced Pakistan and the Soviet Union-influenced India.

According to US documents, in 1972, Colonel Farooq secretly made an offer to purchase arms at the US embassy.

Warnings by the intelligence

Mujib was warned by many including the Indian and as well as American intelligence about the possible coup.

Indian intelligence

In 1975, Rameshwar Nath Kao was in charge of the Research and Analysis Wing (R) of the Indian Intelligence Service. In 1989, in the April 23–29 article of the English weekly Sunday of the ABP Group of India, while responding to an allegation he referred,

In March 1975, RN Kao again sent a senior officer of the 'RAW' to Bangabandhu. Kao wrote, "He met Sheikh Mujib. He was informed that the infantry and cavalry units of the Bangladesh Army were plotting to assassinate him. But unfortunately Sheikh Mujib ignored all warnings."

American intelligence

In the 1975, Stephen Eisenbraun worked at the US State Department. He claimed that in late July or early August 1975, then US Ambassador Davis Eugene Boster was sent to Sheikh Mujib to warn him. He also claimed that, compared to a head of state, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's security system was very simple. His car used to stop at the traffic signal. He was sometimes seen reading a newspaper with the car window down.

Canada

The then deputy secretary and joint secretary of Ganabhaban Manowarul Islam went to Canada's capital Ottawa as the representative of Bangladesh in the Commonwealth meeting in early 1975. Then Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau also warned him about this. When Manowarul Islam informed Mujib about this, Mujib said, "Sheikh Mujib will stay away from the people under the guard of soldiers and police for fear of his life, where no one will dare to come, I don't want such life."

Others

The then Foreign Secretary Fakhruddin Ahmad wrote, "Two weeks before 15 August, I informed him (Mujib) about a special article published in Sweden. There was mention of discontent in the army and plans for a military coup. He didn't pay attention to my words. He said that he will call Army Chief Safiullah and ask him to look into the matter." Being President, he did not stay in Bangabhaban but stayed in his unguarded house at 32 Dhanmondi.

Assassination attempt on 21 May 1975

An unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Mujib occurred on 21May 1975 during the evening hours. The attempt was made when Mujib was returning to his residence at Dhanmondi after visiting a new TV station on outskirts of Dhaka in Rampura. According to journalists and police accounts, grenades were used. Although Mujib was unharmed, two unidentified persons were injured in the attack. The Deputy Superintendent of Police assigned to the security of President Mujib confirmed this to the Political Associate working at the US Embassy in Dhaka. Apart from this, some journalists also informed this to the information officer of the embassy. However, the state decided not let the people know about this incident. The Information Directorate sent strict instructions to the newspapers not to publish the news.

Prior to this, on March 16, the day before Mujib's birthday, there were bomb attacks in three places in Dhaka. One person was killed and four others injured in an attack at the bar of Hotel Intercontinental. Three people were injured in the attack in Dhaka Newmarket. A total of 12 people were injured in the three incidents. All were discharged from the hospital after initial treatment. Although the attacks were isolated, the US Embassy in Dhaka considered them to be a rehearsal for the attack on Mujib. It was heard that, on 26 March, Major Sayed Farooq-ur-Rahman conspired to attack Mujib in his public meeting at Suhrawardy Udyan on the occasion of Bangladesh's Independence Day, but could not take any initiative due to precautionary measures. When Mujib was informed about the matter he replied, "I know everything about this." Nevertheless, no account or records of the investigations nor arrests made can be found.

Assassination

In the early hours of Friday, 15 August 1975, the conspirators divided into four groups. One group, consisting of members of the Bengal Lancers of the First Armoured Division and 535th Infantry Division under Major Huda, attacked Mujib's residence. The army chief K. M. Shafiullah was caught unaware and failed to stop the coup.

K.M. Shafiullah told the court about his last telephone conversation with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman,

Account of Abdur Rahman Sheikh Roma

Abdur Rahman Sheikh Roma joined as Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's domestic worker in 1969. On 15 August 1975 he was present at the house of Sheikh Mujib. He testified in court in Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's assassination case. According to his statement,

On the night of the incident, Bangabandhu (Sheikh Mujibur Rahman), his wife Begum Mujib ( Sheikh Fazilatunnesa Mujib) and their youngest son Sheikh Russel (aged 10 years) were asleep in the same room on the second floor. Sheikh Kamal and his wife Sultana Kamal were asleep on the third floor. Sheikh Jamal and his wife Rozi and Mujib's younger brother Sheikh Naser were asleep on the second floor in their rooms. Domestic workers Roma and Selim both were asleep on the balcony in front of Bangabandhu's bedroom on the second floor. PA Mohitul Islam and other employees were on the ground floor.

Around five o'clock in the morning, Begum Mujib suddenly opened the door of her room and came out and said that miscreants had attacked Abdur Rab Serniabat's house. Upon hearing of Begum Mujib, Roma quickly went to the lake shore and saw some soldiers coming toward Mujib's residence by firing. Bangabandhu went down and was talking to his Mohitul Islam in the reception room of the house then. At that time, Begum Mujib was in the second floor. Roma went to the third floor and informed Sheikh Kamal about the attack. Kamal then went down. Roma and Sultana Kamal came to the second floor. Roma then informed Sheikh Jamal about the attack. Jamal quickly went to Begum Mujib's room. His wife also went with him. There was a lot of firing heard at this time. At one point, Roma heard gunshots with the screams of Sheikh Kamal.

At the same time, Bangabandhu came to the second floor, entered his room and closed the door. Firing stopped. Bangabandhu opened the door and came out again as the assailants surrounded him. He asked, ''"What do you want? Where will you take me?"''...

According to Roma,

Roma was behind the assailants. They asked Roma, ''"What do you do?"'' He replied, ''"Work."'' Then they asked him to go in. Roma went to the bathroom of Begum Mujib's room (Bangabandhu's room) and took shelter. There he informed Begum Mujib that Bangabandhu has been shot. Sheikh Kamal's wife Sultana, Sheikh Jamal and his wife Rosi, Sheikh Russel and Bangabandhu's brother Naser also took shelter in the bathroom. Sheikh Naser was shot in the hand before entering the bathroom, it was bleeding from his hand. Begum Mujib tore a hem of her sari and wiped his blood.

Meanwhile, the assailants came again to the second floor and they were banging on the door. Begum Mujib went to open the door and said, ''"If we die, we will all die together."'' After opening the door, the assailants entered the room and took Sheikh Naser, Sheikh Russel, Begum Mujib and Roma downstairs. While going downstairs, Begum Mujib saw Bangabandhu's body on the stairs and said, ''"I will not go further, kill me here."'' After these words, the assailants took her to the second floor again. Screams and sound of gunshots were then heard.

The assailants brought Naser, Russel and Roma to the residential ground and made them stand in line. There Roma saw the dead body of a plainclothes policeman. An assailant noticed Naser and asked, ''"Who are you?"'' When he introduced himself as Sheikh Naser, he was taken to the bathroom on the ground floor and shot. Sheikh Russel cried, ''"I want to go to my mother."'' Holding PA Mohitul Islam in the line, Russel asked him, ''"Brother, will they kill me?"'', Then an assailant arrived and said, ''"Let's take you to your mother"'' and took him to the second floor. After a while gunshots and screams were heard.

Roma found Selim, DSP Nurul Islam and PA/receptionist Mohitul Islam injured while standing in line. During this time, the assailants, dressed in black, looted the house. Then a tank came in front of Mujib's residence. Some soldiers from the tank descended in and asked the inner soldiers, ''"Who is inside?"'', the inner soldiers in answer said, ''"All are finished"''. After being released at 12pm, Roma moved to his village home in Tungipara.

Other statements

Sheikh Mujib family

A correspondent for ''Anandabazar Patrika'', Sukharanjan Dasgupta, who described the Bangladesh Liberation War in Dhaka until 1974, writes in his book ''Midnight Massacre in Dacca'' that "the exact details of the massacre will always remain shrouded in mystery". He went on to say that the army platoon protecting the president's house offered no resistance. Sheikh Kamal, son of Mujib, was shot at the reception area on the ground floor.

Meanwhile, Mujib was asked to surrender. He telephoned Colonel Jamil Uddin Ahmad, the new Chief of Military Intelligence. When Jamil arrived and ordered the troops back to the barracks, he was gunned down at the gate of the residence. Mujib was shot and killed, after he refused to surrender.: "Reports reveal that, Mujib summoned Colonel Jamil, the new chief of the Military Intelligence over the phone. Colonel Jamil arrived fast and ordered the army to return to the barracks ... Then a rapid burst from machine guns mowed down Jamil right in front of the gate. Mujib was asked to step down from power then."

Other people killed in the attack were Sheikh Fazilatunnesa Mujib, wife of Mujib, who was killed upstairs; Sheikh Nasser, younger brother of Mujib, who was killed in a lavatory; several servants of Mujib, who were also killed in lavatories; Sheikh Jamal, the second son of Mujib and an army officer; ten-year-old Sheikh Russel, the youngest son of Mujib; and two daughters-in-law of Mujib.

Moni and Serniabat family

In Dhanmondi, two other groups of soldiers killed Sheikh Fazlul Haque Mani, Mujib's nephew and a leader of the Awami League along with his pregnant wife, Arzu Moni, and Mujib's brother-in-law, Abdur Rab Serniabat was killed with thirteen of his family members on Mintu Road. He was a minister of the government.

Mohammadpur

At Dhanmondi, an artillery group under Colonel Mohiuddin Ahmed took up a position with mortars on the lake shore south of Mujib's residence. The mortar shells fired from there towards the residence, missed its target and hit Mohammadpur (to the north of Dhanmondi). At this, house number 8 and 9 of Shershah Suri Road and house number 196 and 197 of Shahjahan Road (tinshed slum) caught fire instantly killing 14 and leaving 40 people injured.

Savar

The fourth and most powerful group was sent towards Savar to repel the expected counter-attack by the security forces stationed there. After a brief fight and the loss of eleven men, the security forces surrendered.: " hefourth group, the most powerful of the lot, proceeded towards Savar, near Dacca, to repel the anticipated counter-attack by the Security Forces. It did run against some resistance at Savar. But once the shelling took toll of eleven people, the leaderless Security Force surrendered".

Casualties

The total number of casualties in the coup is still unknown. However, most of the identities have been reported.

Deaths

* Shot dead in Sheikh Mujib's house: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Sheikh Abu Naser, Sheikh Fazilatunnesa Mujib, Sheikh Kamal, Sultana Kamal Khuki, Sheikh Jamal, Parveen Jamal Rosy, Sheikh Russel
* Others: Siddiqur Rahman (police officer), Samsul Haque (police officer), Col. Jamil Uddin Ahmed (newly appointed D.G.F.I. chief)
* Sheikh Moni's house (severely injured in firing and declared dead in hospital): Sheikh Fazlul Haque Moni, Begum Arju Moni (Begum Samsunnesa)
* House of Serniabat (shot dead): Abdur Rab Serniabat, Arif Serniabat, Baby Serniabat, Shaheed Serniabat, Sukanto Abdullah Babu, Naeem Khan Rintu, Potka (domestic worker), Lakshmi's mother (domestic worker)
* House No. 8 and 9 of Sher Shah Suri Road and House No. 196 and 197 of Shahjahan Road in Mohammadpur (died by fire caused by the misfired mortar shells): Rezia Begum, Nasima, Habibur Rahman, Anwara Begum, Anwara Begum (2), Moyful Bibi, Sabera Begum, Abdullah, Rafiqul, Safia Khatun, Shahabuddin, Kasheda, Aminuddin, Hanufa Bibi
* Savar security force station: 11 people

Injuries

* Sheikh Mujib's house (injured in firing): AFM Mohitul Islam ( P.A./receptionist), Nurul Islam ( D.S.P), Md. Salim (domestic worker)
* House of Serniabat (injured in firing): Sheikh Amena Begum, Sahan Ara Abdullah, Beauty Serniabat, Abul Khair Abdullah, Hena Serniabat
* Sher Shah Suri Road and Shahjahan Road in Mohammadpur (injured by fire caused by the misfired mortar shells): 40 people

Aftermath

Curfew was imposed after Mujib's death was announced on Bangladesh Radio nationwide. A 24-hour curfew was imposed on the day of the assassination. However, for Friday prayers at 12:30 p.m. an adjournment was given till 2 o'clock. The next day there was a break in the 24-hour curfew from 9:30 to 12:00. On 17 August there was an adjourned from 6 am to evening. A break was given on 18 August from morning to 10 in the night. Schools, colleges, offices, courts and factories were fully opened from that day.

On the morning of the assassination, the then Lieutenant Colonel Amin Ahmed Chowdhury entered the house of General Ziaur Rahman and found out on the radio that President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman had been assassinated. He described the incident: "General Zia is shaving on one side but not on the other. Came running in the sleeping suit, he asked Shafaat Jamil, "What happened, Shafaat?" Shafaat replied, "Apparently two battalions staged a coup. We don't know yet what happened outside. We hear the announcement on the radio that the president is dead." Then General Zia said, "So what? Let vice-president take over. We have nothing to do with politics. Get your troops ready. Uphold the constitution."

Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad assumed the presidency, and Major General Ziaur Rahman became the new Chief of Army Staff. The leading conspirators were all given high government ranks. They were all later toppled by yet another coup led by Brigadier General Khaled Mosharraf on 3 November 1975. Mosharraf himself was killed during a counter-revolt four days later on 7 November, which freed Major General Ziaur Rahman in power and was brought in to bring law and order.

Four of the founding leaders of the Awami League, first Prime Minister of Bangladesh Tajuddin Ahmed, former Prime Minister Mansur Ali, former Vice President Syed Nazrul Islam, and former Home Minister A. H. M. Qamaruzzaman, were arrested. Three months later, on 3 November 1975, they were murdered in Dhaka Central Jail.

Major Sayed Farooq-ur-Rahman, Rashid, and the other army officers were promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Nevertheless, they were exiled to Libya, China, Rhodesia, Canada, and other countries, although they were given several diplomatic posts in Bangladeshi missions abroad. Lieutenant Colonel (Rtd.) Sayed Farooq-ur-Rahman later returned and founded the Bangladesh Freedom Party in 1985 and took part in the presidential election in 1987 against the military ruler Lieutenant General Hussain Mohammad Ershad but lost that election in a landslide.

Mujib's two daughters, Sheikh Hasina and Sheikh Rehana, were in West Germany at the time of his assassination. After the coup, they were barred from returning to Bangladesh and were granted asylum by India. Sheikh Hasina lived in New Delhi in exile before returning to Bangladesh on 17 May 1981.

Protests, revolt and counter coup

Students and public protests

The assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, culminated in protests that took place beginning in Barguna. Freedom fighter Motaleb Mridha Barguna SDO Siraj Uddin Ahmed led BLA president Jahangir Kabir Nanak with 10-15 BLA workers in a procession. Later, leaders and workers of the Awami League, Jubo League and Chhatra League of Barguna joined in the protest. On the morning of 15 August, protests were held in several places including Kishoreganj, Bhairab, Khulna, Jessore, Faridganj in Chandpur, Mohanganj in Netrakona, and Gafargaon in Mymensingh. The military patrol was strengthened when the students tried to held a protest rally in the Dhaka University area.

On the day of the assassination, Mufti Nurullah protested it in the Friday prayer sermon at Brahmanbaria Jameh Mosque. On 20 August 1975, Mohammed Shahabuddin, the 22nd President of Bangladesh was arrested and imprisoned for 3 years due to protest against the assassination. There, he was subjected to physical torture and reprimand.

In August, Chittagong City College students held a protest march, which was dispersed by the police. Freedom fighter commander Maulvi Syed, student leader ABM Mohiuddin Chowdhury and later Awami League leader S.M. Yusuf began to resist. A case was filled by the military junta against the protestors and resisters termed 'Chittagong Conspiracy'. Maulvi Syed was arrested and later died while imprisoned. It is claimed that he died due to torture by the army.

On 18 October, the Student League and Student Union protested by writing posters and writing on the walls of Dhaka University. A protest rally was held on 20 October. Meanwhile, some students who distributed protest leaflets in Dhaka were arrested. The protest rally on 21 October was stopped by the police

On 4 November, the students of Dhaka University held a protest rally in front of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's residence at 32 Dhanmondi. A half-day strike was called from 6 am to 12 pm in Dhaka on November 5 to protest the killing of the four national leaders and Mujib. There was another protest the next day.

Revolt

Abdul Kader Siddique later divided 17,000 Mujib fighters into 7 fronts and waged a revolt against the military junta for 22 months. 104 fighters were killed and hundreds were injured. Among them, the rebellion and struggle of 500 protesters including veterans of the Bangladesh Liberation War of Sherpur Sadar, Sreebardi, Jhenaigati and Nakla upazilas was most discussed. Kamrul Alam Khan Khasru, film actor and the guerrilla commander of Dhaka region during the Bangladesh Liberation War, was shot and hospitalized while protesting the assassination. After being recovered, he left the country and later returned.

On 18 August 1976, 5 freedom fighters Javed Ali, Nikhil Dutt, Subodh Dhar, Dipal Das, Mofiz Uddin were killed in an army operation for protesting. The surviving youth fighter, Biswajit Nandi, was arrested and sentenced to be executed by hanging after being found guilty by a military court on 18 May 1977. Influenced by influential world leaders including Indira Gandhi, Biswajit received a commutation of his death sentence to life imprisonment. He was released in 1989.

Counter coup

On 19 August 1975, the army chief KM Safiullah organized a meeting at the army headquarters to seek clarification on the situation that arose after the assassination. In the meeting Colonel Shafayat Jamil, the brigade commander of 46th Independent Infantry Brigade based in Dhaka addressed the assassin majors,

"You all are liars, mutineers and deserters. You are all murderers. Tell your Mustaque that he is an usurper and conspirator. He is not my President. In my first opportunity I shall dislodge him and you all will be tried for your crimes."

On 3 November 1975, Brigadier General Khaled Mosharraf launched a successful coup with the support of Colonel Shafayat Jamil to remove the assassins from power and Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad from the Presidency.

Mushtaq Ahmad was ousted from power and jailed on 6 November following the coup led by Brigadier Khaled Mosharraf and Colonel Shafat Jamil among others. However, prior to this, on 4 November the junior officers involved in the assassination were provided safe passage to Bangkok, after they killed the imprisoned 4 national leaders also at Dhaka Central Jail on 3 November. Khaled Mosharraf also ordered the arrests of K.M. Obaidur Rahman, Nurul Islam Manzur, Shah Moazzam Hossain, and Taheruddin Thakur, who were Bangladesh Awami League politicians who had aligned themselves with Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad.

Remarking the assassination on 15 August, KM Safiullah said,

Trial and judgments

The military decided not to court-martial the military officers who masterminded and participated in the coup. AFM Mohitul Islam, personal assistant to Sheikh Mujib and a survivor of the attack on his house, attempted to file a case against the military officers, but the police slapped him in the face and refused to file the report. On 18 September 1980, a commission of inquiry was formed by four British jurists in the United Kingdom on the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, his family and four national leaders. It was led by Sir Thomas Williams titled "''Sheikh Mujib Murder Inquiry''". However, they were not allowed to investigate in Bangladesh by the then Bangladesh government. Unable to come to Bangladesh, the commission published its preliminary investigation report on 20 March 1982, in London. In the report, the government of Bangladesh is blamed for not allowing the law to take its own course and emphasis is placed on removing impunity and opening the way to trial. The assassination conspirators could not be tried in a court of law because of the Indemnity Act passed by the government under President Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad. When the Awami League, led by Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina, won elections in 1996, the act was repealed. The Bangabandhu murder trial began with the case filing by Mohitul Islam.

Investigation and arrests

Colonel (Rtd.) Sayed Farooq-ur-Rahman was arrested from his Dhaka home, and Colonel (Rtd.) Mohammad Bazlul Huda was brought back from Bangkok, where he was serving a prison sentence for shoplifting as part of a criminal exchange program between Thailand and Bangladesh. Lieutenant Colonel Mohiuddin Ahmed was in active military service when he was arrested. Colonel (Rtd.) Sultan Shahriar Rashid Khan had been appointed to active diplomatic service by previous Prime Minister of Bangladesh Begum Khaleda Zia, but he returned to Bangladesh and was arrested when he was recalled by the foreign ministry. Colonel (Rtd.) Abdur Rashid and other accused individuals had already left Bangladesh, however. They believed that the upcoming 1996 general election would be an Awami League victory, which would result in the repealing of the Indemnity Act and their subsequent arrest. Colonel (Rtd.) Rashid now reportedly shuttles between Pakistan and Libya. All these men were also involved in Jail Killing on 3 November 1975, when four Awami League officials were assassinated.

Trial and sentencing: lower court

The first trial ended on 8 November 1998. The District and Session Judge of Dhaka, Mohammad Golam Rasul, ordered the death sentence by firing squad to fifteen out of the twenty accused of conspiring in the assassination. The sentences were not carried out immediately, because five of the convicts sought to file appeals in the high court division of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh. The Supreme Court, consisting of Justice Mohammad Ruhul Amin and Justice A. B. M. Khairul Haque, who was the former Chief Justice of Bangladesh, gave a divisive verdict. Senior Justice Amin acquitted five out of the original fifteen accused, whereas Junior Justice Haque upheld the lower court's verdict. A verdict from a third judge became necessary. Later, Justice Mohammad Fazlul Karim condemned twelve out of original fifteen, including two acquitted in Justice Amin's verdict. One of the convicts, Major (Rtd.) Aziz Pasha died in Zimbabwe on 2 June 2001.

Appeal: high court

The five accused appealed to the appellate division of the Supreme Court, their decision remained pending from August 2001. Several judges refused to hear the case, which meant the government lacked the three judges required to hold a hearing session. On 18 June 2007, one of the conspirators who had been sentenced to death, Major (Rtd.) A. K. M. Mohiuddin Ahmed was extradited to Bangladesh from the United States following a series of failed attempts to gain asylum or permanent residency in the United States. On 7 August 2007, the murder case hearings resumed after a six-year delay. The appellate division of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh gave its verdict on 19 November 2009, after a five-member special bench, headed by Justice Mahammad Tafazzal Islam, spent 29 days hearing the petition filed by the convicted.

The appeal of the convicts was rejected, and the death sentence was upheld. Before the verdict, approximately 12,000 extra policemen were deployed to guard strategic buildings, including the Supreme Court building, to prevent disruption of the proceedings by the convicted men's supporters. Nevertheless, they were blamed by the government for a grenade attack on one of the prosecution lawyers in October 2009, although no one has been charged yet.

Captain (Rtd.) Qismet Hashem, Captain (Rtd.) Nazmul Hossain Ansar, and Major (Rtd.) Sharful Hossain were acquitted through the high court division and appellate division verdicts and now lives in Canada. Taheruddin Thakur, former Information Minister and one of the suspects, was cleared during the Hasina Government, acquitted in trial, and released. He died of natural causes in 2009.

Executions

The hanged were Sultan Shahriar Rashid Khan, A. K. M. Mohiuddin Ahmed, Mohiuddin Ahmed, Sayed Farooq-ur-Rahman, and Mohammad Bazlul Huda.

On 7 April 2020, Captain Abdul Majed who was hiding in Kolkata, was arrested at Mirpur by the Counter Terrorism and Transnational Crime unit of the Dhaka Metropolitan Police. He was sent to Dhaka Central Jail, Keraniganj, and was executed by hanging a few days later on the 12 April 2020.

Fugitives

Six individuals: S. H. M. B. Noor Chowdhury, Rashed Chowdhury, Abdul Aziz Pasha, Khandaker Abdur Rashid, Shariful Haque Dalim, and Moslemuddin, were tried in absentia for the assassination, and currently remain fugitives in Bangladesh, despite extensive efforts to have them extradited.

Abdul Aziz Pasha died in Harare, Zimbabwe, on June 2, 2001.

Khandaker Abdur Rashid and Rashed Chowdhury currently live in the United States, after applying for asylum.

S. H. M. B. Noor Chowdhury, applied for asylum in Canada, and currently lives in the Etobicoke neighborhood of Toronto. He was the subject on the CBC television series '' The Fifth Estate'', on an episode titled " The Assassin Next Door", detailing his role as the assassin, and his life in Toronto.

The whereabouts of Shariful Haque Dalim and Moslemuddin are unknown. It is claimed that Dalim has a Kenyan passport, and currently lives in Pakistan.

Tributes

The assassination changed the course of politics in Bangladesh, and the ramifications of which are still being felt across South Asia. Many world leaders, eminent personalities, at that time, expressed their shock and condemned the heinous act of killing.

Fidel Castro, leader and the prime minister of Cuba, said,
Henry Kissinger, American diplomat and politician, said,
Willy Brandt, politician and chancellor of Germany, said,
Yasser Arafat, the president of Palestine, said
Indira Gandhi, the prime minister of India, said,
Saddam Hussein, the president of Iraq, said,
Mark Tully, the bureau chief of BBC, said,
Fenner Brockway, member of the UK House of Lords, said,
Kenneth Kaunda, the president of Zambia, said,
British Minister James Lamond said,
According to the ''Financial Times'',
In one of the articles on 5 April 1982, the ''Time magazine'' mentioned,

Mujib was buried next to his parents in his birthplace Tungipara after his funeral there. Others were buried in the Banani graveyard of Dhaka. Special services and prayers were held in several places including Baitul Mukarram National Mosque. Thousands of people along with the students of Dhaka University joined the mass procession and prayer in Dhaka on 4 November 1975.

Literary interpretation of the assassination

The literary texts regarding the impact of the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman are categorized into three sections: (1) the literature which explains the background of the assassination; (2) the literature which describes the assassination incidences detailed or implied; and (3) the political polarization after the incidences.

Literary background

The literature ranges from the year of the incident to recent works explaining the causes behind the assassination. Some literature that highlights the causes of the military coup include the books: ''Empires at war: a short history of modern Asia since World War II,'' ''A Political and Economic Dictionary of South Asia,'' and ''Cascades of Violence: War, Crime and Peacebuilding Across South Asia''. A sect of literature highlight the rise of paramilitary groups such as the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini and the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party. Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood is the book which knits the web of these factional elements and their operations in the decade of 70's. The economic meltdown, the flood in 1974 and the preceding famine are also discussed as factors in ''Democracy and Famine''.

Military resentment

The 15 August 1975 Mujibur assassination marks the first direct military intervention in the then administration- centric Bangladesh politics. There are references on the condensation of the political misunderstanding among the " Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini" founded in 1972 by the patronization of Mujib, Mukti Bahini founded during the war time, and the military. It is reported that the military would receive 50-60% funding during the Pakistani period that the Muijb government reduced it to 13% that raised a tacit resentment among the military.

Rise of factional groups

The Liberation war ended. The occupied forces surrendered and left the country. Bangladesh then had to face a second-level of factionalism among the people in the country that literature portrays. '' The Good Muslim'' by Tahmima Anam presents the ravages of war, the confrontation with religious fundamentalism and the socio-political disharmony interplaying in the war torn country. The cover page of the book reads:

Set in Bangladesh at a time when Islamic fundamentalism is on the rise, '' The Good Muslim'' is an epic story about faith, family and the long shadow of war. Tahmima Anam, the prize-winning author of A Golden Age, offers a moving portrait of a sister and brother who struggle with the competing loyalties of love and belief as they cope with the lasting ravages of war and confront the deeply intimate roots of religious extremism. Echoing the intensity and humanity of Thrity Umrigar's The Space Between Us, Abraham Verghese's Cutting for Stone, and Kiran Desai's The Inheritance of Loss, Anam's "accomplished and gripping novel", in the words of author Pankaj Mishra, "describes not only the tumult of a great historical event, but also the small but heroic struggles of individuals living in the shadow of revolution and war

/blockquote>The period 1971-1975 experienced the changes of role among the veterans due to their new orientation on the socio-economic-political scenarios. Siraj Sikder, Siraj Sikdar was one of them who was one of the front line freedom fighters; yet he had to change his political aesthetics around 1973 and indulged in militancy by the name of "Proletarian Party". Antony Mascarenhas has commented in the " Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood" (1986) that Shamim Shikder, sister of Siraj Sikder, blames the government for the death of him in the police custody on 3 January 1975.

Economic meltdown

Olivier Rubin in his book ''Democracy and Famine'' has remarked that one-party state is a reality if the famine engulfs the fragile democratic society. He pointed out the 1974 famine in Bangladesh as a case study. As a new independent country, Bangladesh had to experience economic crisis. The flood in July and August, 1974 triggered the crisis exponentially. Thus, food scarcity, improper distribution of leftover food reported to have 1 to 1.5 million of death in Bangladesh. This led the then Mujib government in question. And these critical atmospheres led to the assassination of the Father of the nation according to the case study of Olivier Rubin.

Incidents reflected in the literature

Apart from the news of electronic and print media; the novels, poetry, and performing arts draw the harrowing pictures of the assassination.

Novels

'' Deyal'' (Walls) is a novel by Humayun Ahmed that narrates the assassination of the father of the nation. This is the only novel that takes the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as the background, though the novel raised some contradictions on the factual inconsistencies in some cases, and eventually the court declared ruling against the publication of the book without correction.

Critics say that Colonel Farooq, the killer of Bangabandhu, has been shown in this novel as a little great. However, Dr. Syed Manzoorul Islam has a distinct opinion that Humayun Ahmed had allowed him to read the draft copy of the wall. The opinion tells,

''Deyal'' may be contradictory on the political ground; but it brings the legacy of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman that implicates the killing was a remarkable moment in the History of Bangladesh.

In popular culture

Poetry

The first literary piece on the remembrance of Bangabandhu at his assassination was an elegy. It is reported and well documented that Moulovi Sheikh Abdul Halim, a village imam, at Tungipara  was the first composer of the elegy in the memory of the death of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. He was the man who laid down the assassinated man in the grave and conducted all the funeral rites. He wrote in emotion: Poetry exceeded in numbers in comparison to other literary media to highlight the aftereffect of the assassination on 15 August 1975 and afterwards linked to the assassination of the founder of the nation. Nirmalendu Goon, Syed Shamsul Haque, Shamsur Rahman, Mahadev Saha were remarkable poets whose pen raised concern for the death of the father of the nation.

Khondakar Ashraf Hossain, who describes Goon as "the most political poet among us", says the assassination profoundly moved Goon and was a turning point in his poetry, which became marked by an "abhorrence of the world". He couldn't understand why his countrymen accepted the killing. Hossain calls Goon's reading at a Bangla Academy event of his "An elegy for Hasan", written after the death of his friend Abul Hasan in November 1975, the "first public protest" against the assassination.

The poet, Nurul Huda directly hinted to the loss of the country that Bangladesh had on 15 August 1975. His poem ''Fifteen August'' speaks;

The poets of the West Bengal were likely moved by this incidents and they had to write elegiac notes, and eulogy for Bangabandhu. The poet and essayist Annada Shankar Roy writes, in his poem, ''Bangabandhu'', that Shamsur Rahman had political and historical conscience and he could duly reflect them in his poetry. The being of Bangladesh and its struggle against tyranny is visible in the lines. Bangabandhu covered a great spaces in his writings related to the liberation war, political upheavals and even the assassination taken place in 1975. The poems referred highlight the loss, repentance, agony, and anger for the perpetrators who grasped the statue of freedom to vandalize it:  

* ('Bangladesh Dreams')
* ('The Successful Man')
* ('Name')
* ('An Enlightened Man')
* ('Revolution Is Thy Name')
* ('A History of Golden Statue')

The writer did not stop here only with the drops of tears. He dreamed of the revenge for this. Here ''"The Song of Electra" (Electrar Gaan)'' in the poetry ''"The Sky of Ikarus" (Ikraser Akash) (1982)'' reveals the motif of vengeance with the allusion of the mythical story of Electra who had intention to avenge for the killing of her father "Agamemnon". She reveals "My heat burns as a Red Hibiscus with the fire of Vengeance" (64).

Films

After the carnage happened on 15 August 1975; several coup d'états took place and 3 November 1975 killing of the four national leaders in the custody was second in importance. Yet, few grand literatures are written in these clamorous times of Bangladeshi history. However, '' August 1975'', a film directed by Selim Khan is a memorable contribution in the case of performing art. This film portrays the dusky situations prevailing after the assassination of Mujibur Rahman.

The 2007 television film '' Palashi Theke Dhanmondi (From Palashi to Dhanmondi)'', depicts the conspiracy behind the assassination of Mujib and his family, comparing it with the defeat of Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the conspiracy behind his death.

The 2024 film ''570'', portrays the 36-hour timeline from the assassination until Mujib's burial.

Songs

A song that creates an eternal appeal is " Jodi Raat Pohale Shona Jeto" (If the dawn spread the resurrection).

If the dawn spread the resurrection

Of Bangabandhu,

If the highways became crowdy with procession

That 'We want His freedom';

The world could have a great leader

The Bangalee could get their father.  

The man never bowed down like a coward,

Before the tyrants and miscreants,

He rather snatched back our freedom

From the clutches of heinous occupants.

No one is so great a Bangalee

That the history repeats someday,

You can never cover up the truth

That will peep out of the fake.

Hasan Matiur Raham is the songwriter; Moloy Kumar Ganguly is the music composer and the singer for this song. In 1990, Matiur Rahman wrote this song and Moloy Kumar, the singer for the Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra composed the music. He expressed that it took 15 minutes for him to make it as a song. This song first recorded in the production company of Hasan Matiur Rahman in 1991 for the election campaign of Bangladesh Awami League. This song is made to sing by Sabina Yasmin in 1997 and Farid Ahmed arranged the music for this remake.

See also

* Assassination of Khaled Mosharraf
* Bangabandhu Memorial Museum
* Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood
* Civil–military relations
* Deyal
* Invasion of Banu Qaynuqa
* Jail Killing Day
* List of assassinated and executed heads of state and government
* Military coups in Bangladesh
* National Revolution and Solidarity Day
* Trojan War

References

Further reading

*

External links

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Mujibur Rahman, Sheikh

1975 mass shootings in Asia
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