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Skopos Theory
Skopos theory (German: ''Skopostheorie'') is a theory in the field of translation studies that employs the prime principle of a purposeful action that determines a translation strategy. The intentionality of a Skopos theory#Definition, translational action stated in a Skopos theory#Translation brief, translation brief, the Skopos theory#Directives, directives, and the Skopos theory#Rules, rules guide a translator to attain the expected target text Skopos theory#Definition, translatum. Overview Background The theory first appeared in an article published by linguist Hans Vermeer, Hans Josef Vermeer in the German Journal ''Lebende Sprachen'', 1978. As a realisation of James S. Holmes, James Holmes�map of Translation Studies(1972), skopos theory is the core of the four approaches of German functionalist translation theory that emerged around the late twentieth century. They were part of the development of skopos theory contributed by :Translation scholars, scholars of translati ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Translation Studies
Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translation studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation. These include comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. The term “translation studies” was coined by the Amsterdam-based American scholar James S. Holmes in his 1972 paper “The name and nature of translation studies”, which is considered a foundational statement for the discipline. Writers in English occasionally use the term "translatology" (and less commonly "traductology") to refer to translation studies, and the corresponding French term for the discipline is usually (as in the ). In the United States, there is a preference for the term "translation and interpreting studies" (as in the American Translation an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a couple of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to establish language genealogies. Second language acquisition Contrastive analysis was used extensively in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a method of explaining why some features of a target language were more difficult to acquire than others. According to the behaviourist theories prevailing at the time, language learning was a question of habit formation, and this could be reinforced or impeded by existing habits. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain structures in a second language (L2) depended on the difference between the learners' mother language (L1) and the language they were trying to learn. History The theoretical foundations for what became known as the contrastive analysis hypothesis were formulated in Robert Lado's ''Linguistics Acr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cultural Translation
Cultural translation is the practice of translation while respecting and showing cultural differences. This kind of translation solves some issues linked to culture, such as dialects, food or architecture. The main issues that cultural translation must solve consist of translating a text as showing the cultural differences of that text while also respecting the source culture as well. Translation of cultures Cultural translation is studied through cultural anthropology, a field of anthropology focused on cultural issues among humans. This discipline questions translation through cultural differences. Indeed, translation studies are not only based on language issues, but also on cultural contexts between people. An anthropological translator of cultures needs to deal with the issues between the source and the target language, that is to say he must respect at the same time the cultural source of point of view and the target culture. Wilhelm von Humboldt shared this opinion of tra ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bible Translations
The Christian Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. the whole Bible has been translated into 756 languages, the New Testament has been translated into an additional 1,726 languages, and smaller portions of the Bible have been translated into 1,274 other languages. Thus, at least some portions of the Bible have been translated into 3,756 languages. Textual variants in the New Testament include errors, omissions, additions, changes, and alternate translations. In some cases, different translations have been used as evidence for or have been motivated by doctrinal differences. Original text Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. Some of the Deuterocanonical books not accepted in every denomination's canons, such as 2 Maccabees, originated in Koine Greek. In the third and second centuries B.C.E., the Hebr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Domestication And Foreignization
Domestication and foreignization are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture (the culture corresponding to the language in which the translation is made). Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he vi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
New American Standard Bible
The New American Standard Bible (NASB, also simply NAS for "New American Standard") is a translation of the Bible in contemporary English. Published by the Lockman Foundation, the complete NASB was released in 1971. New revisions were published in 1995 and 2020. The NASB relies on recently published critical editions of the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts. It is known for preferring a literal translation style that generally preserves the structure of the original language when possible ( formal equivalence), rather than an idiomatic style that attempts to match natural English usage. Translation philosophy The New American Standard Bible is considered by some sources as the most literally translated of major 20th-century English Bible translations. The NASB is an original translation from the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts. It is an update of the American Standard Version (ASV) of 1901, which itself was a revision of the 1885 Revised Version (RV), which u ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Legal Translation
Legal translation is the translation of language used in legal settings and for legal purposes. Legal translation may also imply that it is a specific type of translation only used in law, which is not always the case. As law is a culture-dependent subject field, legal translation is not necessarily linguistically transparent. Intransparency in translation can be avoided somewhat by use of Latin legal terminology, where possible, but in non-western languages debates are centered on the origins and precedents of specific terms, such as in the use of particular Chinese characters in Japanese legal discussions. Intransparency can lead to expensive misunderstandings in terms of a contract, for example, resulting in avoidable lawsuits. Legal translation is thus usually done by specialized law translators. Conflicts over the legal impact of a translation can be avoided by indicating that the text is "authentic" i.e. legally operative on its own terms or instead is merely a "convenie ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Reception Theory
Reception theory is a version of Reader-response criticism, reader response literary theory that emphasizes each particular reader's reception or interpretation in making meaning from a literary text. Reception theory is generally referred to as audience reception in the analysis of communications models. In literary studies, reception theory originated from the work of Hans-Robert Jauss in the late 1960s, and the most influential work was produced during the 1970s and early 1980s in Germany and the US (Fortier 132), with some notable work done in other Western European countries. A form of reception theory has also been applied to the study of historiography. The cultural theorist Stuart Hall (cultural theorist), Stuart Hall was one of the main proponents of reception theory, first developed in his 1973 essay 'Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse'. His approach, called the encoding/decoding model of communication, is a form of textual analysis that focuses on the scop ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Text Linguistics
Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. Its original aims lay in uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire text. Text linguistics takes into account the form of a text, but also its setting, i. e. the way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the specific communicative context. In general it is an application of discourse analysis at the much broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word. Introduction Reasons for text linguistics Much attention has been given to the sentence as a self-contained unit, and not enough has been give ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
