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Archaerhodopsin
Archaerhodopsin proteins are a Protein family, family of retinal-containing receptor protein, photoreceptors found in the archaea genera ''Halobacterium'' and ''Halorubrum''. Like the homologous bacteriorhodopsin (bR) protein, archaerhodopsins harvest energy from sunlight to pump H+ ions out of the cell, establishing a proton motive force that is used for Adenosine triphosphate, ATP synthesis. They have some structural similarities to the mammalian G protein-coupled receptor protein rhodopsin, but are not true homologs. Archaerhodopsins differ from bR in that the claret membrane, in which they are expressed, includes bacterioruberin, a second chromophore thought to protect against photobleaching. Also, bR lacks the omega loop structure observed at the N-terminus of the structures of several archaerhodopsins. Mutants of Archaerhodopsin-3 (AR3) are used as tools in optogenetics for neuroscience research. Etymology The term ''archaerhodopsin'' is a portmanteau of archaea (the doma ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Halorubrum
''Halorubrum'' is a genus in the family Halorubraceae. ''Halorubrum'' species are usually halophilic and can be found in waters with high salt concentration such as the Dead Sea or Lake Zabuye. Genetic exchange A population of the haloarchaea ''Halorubrum'' in its natural high salt concentration environment exchanged genetic information frequently by recombination. This population exhibited a degree of linkage equilibrium approaching that of a sexual population. Species ''Halorubrum ejinorense'' was first isolated from Lake Ejinor in Inner Mongolia, China. ''Halorubrum lacusprofundi'' was first isolated in the 1980s from Deep Lake (Vestfold Hills, Antarctica), Deep Lake, Antarctica. Its genome, whole genome sequencing, sequenced in 2008, consists of two chromosomes (one 2.74 Base pair#Length measurements, Mb and the other 0.53 Mb) and one plasmid (0.43 Mb). Its beta-galactosidase, β-galactosidase enzyme has been extensively studied to understand how proteins function in low-te ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bacteriorhodopsin
Bacteriorhodopsin (Bop) is a protein used by Archaea, most notably by Haloarchaea, a class of the Euryarchaeota. It acts as a proton pump; that is, it captures light energy and uses it to move protons across the membrane out of the cell. The resulting proton gradient is subsequently converted into chemical energy. Function Bacteriorhodopsin is a light-driven H+ ion transporter found in some Haloarchaea, most notably ''Halobacterium salinarum'' (formerly known as syn. ''H. halobium''). The proton-motive force generated by the protein is used by ATP synthase to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). By expressing Bacteriorhodopsin, the archaea cells are able to synthesise ATP in the absence of a carbon source. Structure Bacteriorhodopsin is a 27'' '' kDa integral membrane protein usually found in two-dimensional crystalline patches known as "purple membrane", which can occupy almost 50% of the surface area of the archaeal cell. The repeating element of the hexa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Optogenetics
Optogenetics is a biological technique to control the activity of neurons or other cell types with light. This is achieved by Gene expression, expression of Channelrhodopsin, light-sensitive ion channels, Halorhodopsin, pumps or Photoactivated adenylyl cyclase, enzymes specifically in the target cells. On the level of individual Cell (biology), cells, Photoactivated adenylyl cyclase, light-activated enzymes and transcription factors allow precise control of biochemical signaling pathways. In Neuroscience, systems neuroscience, the ability to control the activity of a genetically defined set of neurons has been used to understand their contribution to decision making, learning, fear memory, mating, addiction, feeding, and locomotion. In a first medical application of optogenetic technology, vision was partially restored in a blind patient with Retinitis pigmentosa. Optogenetic techniques have also been introduced to map the Brain connectivity estimators, functional connectivity of t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Protein Family
A protein family is a group of evolutionarily related proteins. In many cases, a protein family has a corresponding gene family, in which each gene encodes a corresponding protein with a 1:1 relationship. The term "protein family" should not be confused with family as it is used in taxonomy. Proteins in a family descend from a common ancestor and typically have similar three-dimensional structures, functions, and significant sequence similarity. Sequence similarity (usually amino-acid sequence) is one of the most common indicators of homology, or common evolutionary ancestry. Some frameworks for evaluating the significance of similarity between sequences use sequence alignment methods. Proteins that do not share a common ancestor are unlikely to show statistically significant sequence similarity, making sequence alignment a powerful tool for identifying the members of protein families. Families are sometimes grouped together into larger clades called superfamilies based on st ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Western Australia
Western Australia (WA) is the westernmost state of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east, and South Australia to the south-east. Western Australia is Australia's largest state, with a land area of , and is also the List of country subdivisions by area, second-largest subdivision of any country on Earth. Western Australia has a diverse range of climates, including tropical conditions in the Kimberley (Western Australia), Kimberley, deserts in the interior (including the Great Sandy Desert, Little Sandy Desert, Gibson Desert, and Great Victoria Desert) and a Mediterranean climate on the south-west and southern coastal areas. the state has 2.965 million inhabitants—10.9 percent of the national total. Over 90 percent of the state's population live in the South-West Land Division, south-west corner and around 80 percent live in the state capital Perth, leaving the remainder ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mammalian Eye
Mammals normally have a pair of eyes. Although mammalian vision is not as excellent as bird vision, it is at least dichromatic for most of mammalian species, with certain families (such as Hominidae) possessing a trichromatic color perception. The dimensions of the eyeball vary only 1–2 mm among humans. The vertical axis is 24 mm, while the transverse is larger. At birth it is generally 16–17 mm, enlarging to 22.5–23 mm by three years of age. Between birth and age 13 the eye attains its mature size. It weighs 7.5 grams and its volume is roughly 6.5 ml. Along a line through the nodal (central) point of the eye is the optic axis, which is at a slight slant of five degrees toward the nose from the visual axis (i.e., the section going towards the focused point of the fovea). Three layers The structure of the mammalian eye has a laminar organization that can be divided into three main layers or ''tunics'' whose names reflect their basic functi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek Dark Ages, Dark Ages (), the Archaic Greece, Archaic or Homeric Greek, Homeric period (), and the Classical Greece, Classical period (). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athens, fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and Ancient Greek philosophy, philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Homeric Greek, Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period (), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek, which is regar ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Halobacterium Salinarum
''Halobacterium salinarum'', formerly known as ''Halobacterium cutirubrum'' or ''Halobacterium halobium'', is an extremely halophile, halophilic ocean, marine obligate aerobic archaeon. Despite its name, this is not a bacteria, bacterium, but a member of the domain Archaea. It is found in salted fish, Hide (skin), hides, Hypersaline lake, hypersaline lakes, and salterns. As these salterns reach the minimum salinity limits for extreme halophiles, their waters become purple or reddish color due to the high densities of halophilic Archaea. ''H. salinarum'' has also been found in high-salt food such as salt pork, marine fish, and sausages. The ability of ''H. salinarum'' to live at such high salt concentrations has led to its classification as an extremophile. Cell morphology and metabolism Halobacteria are single-celled, rod-shaped microorganisms that are among the most ancient forms of life and appeared on Earth billions of years ago. The membrane consists of a single lipid bilaye ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Osaka University
The , abbreviated as UOsaka or , is a List of national universities in Japan, national research university in Osaka, Japan. The university traces its roots back to Edo period, Edo-era institutions Tekijuku (1838) and Kaitokudō, Kaitokudo (1724), and was officially established in 1931 as the sixth of the Imperial Universities in Japan, with two faculties: science and medicine. Following the Educational reform in occupied Japan, post-war educational reform, it merged with three pre-war Higher school (Japan), higher schools, reorganizing as a comprehensive university with five faculties: science, medicine, letters, law and economics, and engineering. After the merger with Osaka University of Foreign Studies in 2007, UOsaka became the largest national university in Japan by undergraduate enrollment. The official name of the university in English has been changed from "Osaka University" to "The University of Osaka (UOsaka)" as of April 2025. UOsaka is one of the most productive researc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nagoya University
, abbreviated to or NU, is a Japanese national research university located in Chikusa-ku, Nagoya. It was established in 1939 as the last of the nine Imperial Universities in the then Empire of Japan, and is now a Designated National University. The university is the birthplace of the Sakata School of physics and the Hirata School of chemistry. As of 2021, seven Nobel Prize winners have been associated with Nagoya University, the third most in Japan and Asia behind Kyoto University and the University of Tokyo. History Nagoya Imperial University was established as the last of the Imperial Universities in 1939 and was later renamed Nagoya University in 1947. Although relatively new as a university, it can trace its roots back to a Temporary Medical School/Public Hospital opened in 1871. Renowned for its contributions in physics and chemistry, the university has been the birthplace of notable scientific advancements such as the Sakata model, the PMNS matrix, the Okazak ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
X-ray Crystallography
X-ray crystallography is the experimental science of determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to Diffraction, diffract in specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of the X-ray diffraction, a crystallography, crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal and the positions of the atoms, as well as their chemical bonds, crystallographic disorder, and other information. X-ray crystallography has been fundamental in the development of many scientific fields. In its first decades of use, this method determined the size of atoms, the lengths and types of chemical bonds, and the atomic-scale differences between various materials, especially minerals and alloys. The method has also revealed the structure and function of many biological molecules, including vitamins, drugs, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA. X-ray crystall ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Domain (biology)
In biological taxonomy, a domain ( or ) (Latin: ''regio''), also dominion, superkingdom, realm, or empire, is the highest taxonomic rank of all organisms taken together. It was introduced in the three-domain system of taxonomy devised by Carl Woese, Otto Kandler and Mark Wheelis in 1990. According to the domain system, the tree of life consists of either three domains, Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya, or two domains, Archaea and Bacteria, with Eukarya included in Archaea. In the three-domain model, the first two are prokaryotes, single-celled microorganisms without a membrane-bound nucleus. All organisms that have a cell nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles are included in Eukarya and called eukaryotes. Non-cellular life, most notably the viruses, is not included in this system. Alternatives to the three-domain system include the earlier two-empire system (with the empires Prokaryota and Eukaryota), and the eocyte hypothesis (with two domains of Bacteria and A ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
