''Yayue'' () was a form of
classical music
Classical music generally refers to the art music of the Western world, considered to be #Relationship to other music traditions, distinct from Western folk music or popular music traditions. It is sometimes distinguished as Western classical mu ...
and
dance
Dance is an The arts, art form, consisting of sequences of body movements with aesthetic and often Symbol, symbolic value, either improvised or purposefully selected. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoir ...
performed at the royal court and temples in ancient China. The basic conventions of ''yayue'' were established in the
Western Zhou
The Western Zhou ( zh, c=西周, p=Xīzhōu; 771 BC) was a period of Chinese history corresponding roughly to the first half of the Zhou dynasty. It began when King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye and ended in 77 ...
. Together with
law
Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...
and
rite
Rite may refer to:
Religion
* Ritual, an established ceremonious act
* Rite (Christianity), sacred rituals in the Christian religion
* Ritual family, Christian liturgical traditions; often also called ''liturgical rites''
* Catholic particular ch ...
s, it formed the formal representation of
aristocratic
Aristocracy (; ) is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats.
Across Europe, the aristocracy exercised immense economic, political, and social influence. In Western Christian co ...
political power.
The word ''ya'' () was used during the Zhou dynasty to refer to a form of song-texts used in court and collected in ''
Shijing''.
The term ''yayue'' itself appeared in Confucius's ''
Analects
The ''Analects'', also known as the ''Sayings of Confucius'', is an ancient Chinese philosophical text composed of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers. ...
'',
[ where ''yayue'' was considered by ]Confucius
Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...
to be the kind of music that is good and beneficial, in contrast to the popular music originated from the state of Zheng which he judged to be decadent and corrupting. ''Yayue'' is therefore regarded in the Confucian system as the proper form of music that is refined, improving, and essential for self-cultivation, and one that can symbolize good and stable governance. It means the kind of solemn ceremonial music used in court, as well as ritual music in temples including those used in Confucian rites. In a broader sense, ''yayue'' can also mean a form of Chinese music that is distinguishable from the popular form of music termed ' (俗樂) or "uncultivated music", and can therefore also include music of the literati such as '' qin'' music.
Although the court ''yayue'' declined after the end of the Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
and largely disappeared from public eye in China, modern attempts at its reconstruction and revivals had begun during the end of the 20th century. In Taiwan ''yayue'' is still performed as part of a Confucian ceremony, and in China a revived form are performed at cultural events and also serves as entertainment for tourists. Other forms of ''yayue'' are still found in parts of East Asia, notably the ''gagaku
is a type of Japanese classical music that was historically used for imperial court music and dances. was developed as court music of the Kyoto Imperial Palace, and its near-current form was established in the Heian period (794–1185) arou ...
'' in Japan, '' aak'' in Korea, and '' nhã nhạc'' in Vietnam. Although the same word is used in these countries (but pronounced differently), the music does not necessarily correspond to Chinese ''yayue''. The Korean ''aak'', however, preserved elements of Song dynasty ''yayue''.
History
According to tradition, ''yayue'' was created by the Duke of Zhou
Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou, commonly known as the Duke of Zhou, was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting as ...
under commission from King Wu of Zhou, shortly after the latter's conquest of Shang. Incorporated within ''yayue'' were elements of shaman
Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into ...
istic or religious traditions, as well as early Chinese folk music
Folk music is a music genre that includes #Traditional folk music, traditional folk music and the Contemporary folk music, contemporary genre that evolved from the former during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be ca ...
. Dance
Dance is an The arts, art form, consisting of sequences of body movements with aesthetic and often Symbol, symbolic value, either improvised or purposefully selected. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoir ...
was also closely associated with ''yayue'' music, each ''yayue'' pieces may have a ceremonial or ritual dance associated with it. The most important ''yayue'' piece of the Zhou dynasty were the Six Great Dances, each associated with a legendary or historical figure – ''Yunmen Dajuan'' (雲門大卷), ''Daxian'' ( 大咸), ''Daqing'' (大磬, or ''Dashao'' 大韶), ''Daxia'' ( 大夏), and ''Dahu'' (大濩), ''Dawu'' ( 大武).
The '' Book of Rites'' records a number of situations where ''yayue'' might be performed. These included ceremonies in honour of Heaven and Earth, the gods or the ancestors. There were also detailed rules on the way they were to be performed at diplomatic meetings. ''Yayue'' was also used in outdoor activities, such as aristocratic archery
Archery is the sport, practice, or skill of using a Bow and arrow, bow to shooting, shoot arrows.Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 17 The word comes from the Latin ''arcus'', meaning bow. Historically, archery has been used for hunting ...
contests, during hunting
Hunting is the Human activity, human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, and killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to obtain the animal's body for meat and useful animal products (fur/hide (sk ...
expeditions, and after the conclusion of a successful military campaign. ''Yayue'' was characterised by its rigidity of form. When performed, it was stately and formal, serving to distinguish the aristocratic classes. It was sometimes also accompanied by lyrics
Lyrics are words that make up a song, usually consisting of verses and choruses. The writer of lyrics is a lyricist. The words to an extended musical composition such as an opera are, however, usually known as a "libretto" and their writer, ...
. Some of these are preserved in the '' Book of Songs''.
With the decline of the importance ceremony in the interstate relations of the Spring and Autumn period
The Spring and Autumn period () was a period in History of China, Chinese history corresponding roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou (256 BCE), characterized by the gradual erosion of royal power as local lords nominally subject t ...
, so did ''yayue''. Confucius
Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...
famously lamented the decline of classical music and the rites. Marquess Wen of Wei
Marquess Wen of Wei (died 396 BCE), personal name Wei Si, was the founding marquess of the Wei state. He belonged to the Wei clan, one of the noble houses that dominated Jin politics in the 5th and 6th centuries BC.
He became the leader of ...
was said to prefer the popular music of Wey and Zheng to the ancient court music, listening to which he may fall asleep.
Much of the ''yayue'' of the Zhou dynasty continued into the Qin dynasty
The Qin dynasty ( ) was the first Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China. It is named for its progenitor state of Qin, a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty (256 BC). Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng enga ...
. However, some pieces appeared to have been lost or were no longer performed by the Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
, and the content and form of ''yayue'' was modified in this as well as the succeeding dynasties. For example, the terrace ensemble (''dengge'') in ''yayue'' involved singings but not string instruments in the Han dynasty, and in Sui dynasty, singers and string instruments were added to the court ensembles. During the Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
components of popular music were added to ''yayue''. However, the dominant form of music in the Sui and Tang court was the entertainment music for banquets called ''yanyue'' (燕樂), and the term ''yayue'' became reserved for the music of Confucian rituals used in temples of the imperial family and the nobility as well as in Confucian temples.
During the Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
, with Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) i ...
becoming the new orthodoxy, ''yayue'' was again in ascendancy with major development, and a ''yayue'' orchestra in this era consisted of over 200 instrumentalists with many instruments added to the orchestra. Two important texts from the Song dynasty describing ''yayue'' performances are Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi ( zh, c=朱熹; ; October 18, 1130April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese philosopher, historian, politician, poet, and calligrapher of the Southern Song dynasty. As a leading figure in the development of Neo-Confuci ...
's ''Complete Explanation of the Classic of Etiquette and Its Commentary'' (儀禮經傳通解) and ''Collection of Music'' (樂書) by Chen Yang (陳暘). In 1116, a gift of 428 ''yayue'' instruments as well as 572 costumes and dance objects was given to Korea by Emperor Huizong upon request by the Emperor Yejong of Goryeo
Yejong (11 February 1079 – 15 May 1122), personal name Wang U, was the 16th king of the Korean Goryeo dynasty. He was the eldest son of King Sukjong and Queen Myeongui, and succeeded to the throne upon his father's death. His reign is usu ...
. As a result, elements of Song dynasty ''yayue'' music such as melodies are still preserved in Korea.
Some forms of yayue survived for imperial ceremonies and rituals until the fall of the Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
when the imperial period of China came to an end. ''Yayue'' however was still performed as part of a Confucian ritual in China until the Communist takeover in 1949, where it disappeared as a practice. There has been a revival in ''yayue'' in Confucian ritual in Taiwan since the late 1960s, and in mainland China since the 1990s. A major research and modern reconstruction of ''yayue'' of the imperial court was initiated in Taiwan in the 1990s, and in mainland China a performance of ''yayue'' music in 2009 by Nanhua University's ''yayue'' music ensemble in Beijing
Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
also spurred interest in this form of music. There are however questions over the authenticity of these revived and recreated ''yayue'' music and dances, especially the use of modern forms of instruments and various substitutions rather than the more ancient and original forms, nonetheless some argued that such music and dances have always changed over time through succeeding dynasties, and that any changes introduced in the modern era should be seen in this light.
Performance
The court ''yayue'' orchestra may be divided into two separate ensembles that may represent the yin and yang
Originating in Chinese philosophy, yin and yang (, ), also yinyang or yin-yang, is the concept of opposite cosmic principles or forces that interact, interconnect, and perpetuate each other. Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary an ...
, a smaller one (the ''yin'') that was meant to play on the terraces of a building and called ''dengge'' (登歌), and a larger one (the ''yang'') that performed in the courtyard called ''gongxian'' (宮懸). The smaller ensemble consisted of mainly chordophones (such as '' qin'' and '' se'' zithers) and aerophones (such as the dizi and xiao flutes, and panpipes), as well as singers. The larger ensemble was primarily instrumental and contained all the categories of musical instruments with the musicians arranged in five directions (four points of the compass and the center) in the courtyard. The wind instruments occupied the center, and the bronze bells and stone chimes (known collectively as ''yuexuan'' 樂悬) at the four sides, while the drums occupied the four corners. At the front were two wooden instruments, used to mark the start and end of a piece. The "outside" music in the courtyard was meant for the praise of heaven, and the size and disposition of the orchestra varied with the importance of the occasion, while the "inside" music was used to extol the virtue of the emperors and their ancestors.
The music is typically slow and stately, and monophonic with little rhythmic variety. When sung, there may be four to eight beats per phrase depending on the number of words in the text. The music performed in the courtyard are accompanied by dances, and the number of dancers varies strictly according to the rank and social status of the patron. The emperor may have the largest number of musicians and dancers (64 dancers in eight rows of eight), while a noble or chief minister may have a smaller ensemble and 36 dancers (six rows of six), and a lesser officer even fewer (four by four or two by two). In Confucian rituals the six row dance (六佾舞) was originally performed as appropriate for the status of Confucius, later the eight row dance (八佾舞) was also performed as Confucius had been granted various posthumous regal titles, for example the title of King Wenxuan (文宣王) that was granted by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (; 8 September 685 – 3 May 762), personal name Li Longji, was an Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 44 years was the longest during the Tang dynasty. Throu ...
dynasty. The dances are divided into two types: civil dance and military dance. In civil dance, the dancers hold a ''yue'' flute (籥) in their left hands and a feather plume (羽) in their right, while in military dance the dancer may hold a shield (干) in their left hands and a battleaxe (戚) in their right hands.[
]
Instruments used
''Yayue'' music does not use just any kind of traditional Chinese musical instruments, but instead includes only a small selection, taken from the oldest ones, according to the eight categories of materials used in their construction.
Silk (絲)
* Gǔqín (古琴) – Seven-stringed fretless zither
* Sè (瑟) – 25 stringed zither with moveable bridges (ancient sources say 13, 25 or 50 strings)
Bamboo (竹)
* Dízi (笛子) – Transverse bamboo flute
* Xiāo (簫) – End-blown flute
* Páixiāo () – Pan pipes
A pan flute (also known as panpipes or syrinx) is a musical instrument based on the principle of the closed tube, consisting of multiple pipes of gradually increasing length (and occasionally girth). Multiple varieties of pan flutes have been ...
* Chí (篪) – Ancient Chinese flute
Wood (木)
* Zhù (柷) – A wooden box that tapers from the bottom, played by hitting a stick on the inside, used to mark beats or sections
* Yǔ (敔) – A wooden percussion instrument carved in the shape of a tiger with a serrated back, played by running a stick across it and to mark the ends of sections
Stone (石)
* Biānqìng () – A rack of 16 hung stone tablets (usually Nephrite) struck using a mallet
Metal (金)
* Biānzhōng (編鐘) – 16 gilt bronze bells hung on a rack, struck using a mallet
* Fāngxiǎng () – A set of tuned metal slabs (metallophone
A metallophone is any musical instrument in which the sound-producing body is a piece of metal (other than a metal string), such as tuned metal bars, tubes, rods, bowls, or plates. Most frequently the metal body is struck to produce sound, usual ...
)
Clay (土)
* Xūn ( 塤) – Ocarina made of baked clay
Gourd (匏)
* Shēng (笙) – A free reed mouth organ consisting of varying number of bamboo pipes inserted into a gourd chamber with finger holes
* Yú (竽) – An ancient free reed mouth organ similar to the sheng but generally larger
Hide (革)
* Gǔ – (鼓) – Drum
Yayue in East Asia
In Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, the Chinese characters ''yayue'' ('雅樂) are pronounced differently. The form and content of ''yayue'' in these countries may differ in significant aspects.
Japan
Gagaku is a type of Japanese classical music that has been performed at the Imperial court for several centuries. It differs in form and content from the Chinese ''yayue'', and consists of native Shinto
, also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
religious music
Religious music (also sacred music) is a type of music that is performed or composed for Religion, religious use or through religious influence. It may overlap with ritual music, which is music, sacred or not, performed or composed for or as a ri ...
and folk music
Folk music is a music genre that includes #Traditional folk music, traditional folk music and the Contemporary folk music, contemporary genre that evolved from the former during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be ca ...
, a Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) (; ; Old Korean: Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo (; ; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''kwòwlyéy''), was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korea, Korean Peninsula an ...
and Manchurian form, called '' komagaku'', and a Chinese and South Asian form, called '' togaku''.
Korea
In Korean, ''Yayue'' is called '아악' ( Aak — 아=雅, 악=樂). It was brought to Korea in the 12th century and it still preserves some of the music of the Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
.
Vietnam
In Vietnam, ''Yayue'' is pronounced ' Nhã nhạc' (Nhã=雅, nhạc=樂). It was brought to Vietnam around the Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
and was mainly influenced later by the Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
court of China. This began to flourish even more after the Lê dynasty
The Lê dynasty, also known in historiography as the Later Lê dynasty (, chữ Hán: 朝後黎, chữ Nôm: 茹後黎), officially Đại Việt (; Chữ Hán: 大越), was the longest-ruling List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, h ...
through to the Nguyễn dynasty
The Nguyễn dynasty (, chữ Nôm: 茹阮, chữ Hán: 朝阮) was the last List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, preceded by the Nguyễn lords and ruling unified Vietnam independently from 1802 until French protectorate in 1883 ...
, which ended in the 20th century. It is still being performed in the city of Huế
Huế (formerly Thừa Thiên Huế province) is the southernmost coastal Municipalities of Vietnam, city in the North Central Coast region, the Central Vietnam, Central of Vietnam, approximately in the center of the country. It borders Quảng ...
.
See also
* Beiguan music (北管)
* Dance in China
*Dangak
''Dangak'' () is a genre of traditional Korean court music. The name means " Tang music", and the style was first adapted from Tang Dynasty Chinese music during the Unified Silla period in the late first millennium. It was continued through t ...
*Guoyue
''Guoyue'' ( 國 樂; literally "national music"; also ''minyue'' (民乐), ''huayue'' (華樂) or ''zhongyue'' (中樂)), refers to the music composed for Chinese musical instruments, which is an extension of the Chinese traditional music. I ...
(國樂)
* History of Chinese dance
*List of Chinese musical instruments
Chinese musical instruments are traditionally grouped into eight categories (classified by the material from which the instruments were made) known as (). The eight categories are silk, bamboo, wood, stone, metal, clay, gourd and skin; other instr ...
*Music of China
The music of China consists of many distinct traditions, often specifically originating with one of the country's various Ethnic groups in China, ethnic groups. It is produced within and without the country, involving either people of Chinese or ...
*Nanguan music
Nanguan (; also ''nanyin'', ''nanyue'', ''xianguan'', or ''nanqu'') is a style of Chinese classical music, Chinese chamber music from the southern Chinese province of Fujian. Nanguan was first brought to Taiwan during the Ming dynasty by the Han ...
(南管)
* Taoist music
References
{{reflist, 2
Chinese traditional music
Chinese music history
Classical and art music traditions
ja:雅楽