Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

Kaiyuan Tongbao The Kaiyuan Tongbao (), sometimes romanised as ''Kai Yuan Tong Bao'' or using the archaic Wade-Giles spelling ''K'ai Yuan T'ung Pao'', was a Tang dynasty cash coin that was produced from 621 under the reign of Emperor Gaozu and remained in pr ...

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

Wang Mang Wang Mang (45 BCE6 October 23 CE), courtesy name Jujun, officially known as the Shijianguo Emperor (), was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Chinese Xin dynasty. He was originally an official and consort kin of the ...

Xin dynasty The Xin dynasty (; ), also known as Xin Mang () in Chinese historiography, was a short-lived Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty which lasted from 9 to 23 AD, established by the Han dynasty consort kin Wang Mang, who usurped th ...

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

human history Human history or world history is the record of humankind from prehistory to the present. Early modern human, Modern humans evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and initially lived as hunter-gatherers. They Early expansions of hominin ...

millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae. Millets are important crops in the Semi-arid climate, ...

tael Tael ( ),"Tael" entry
at the

San Zhu, or "3 Zhu" cash coins) under the reign of Emperor Emperor Wu. The introduction of the Wu Zhu also fixed the standard exchange between bronze coins and

gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...

as 10,000 bronze Wu Zhu cash coins would be worth 1 ''Jin'' of gold. The first Wu Zhu cash coins had unfiled edges, but the second series issued under the reign of Emperor Wu were filed. In 118 BC the central government of the Han dynasty ordered both the Commanderies () and the Principalities () to cast Wu Zhu coins, so these Wu Zhu coins are referred to as coins which at most have a diameter 33.3 millimetres and a weight of 5.8 grams. A notable feature of Jun Guo Wu Zhu coins is that they have a rim around the square center hole of the reverse side. These rims were added to prevent people from scraping metal off the coins, which would reduce their value. Another notable feature of these early Wu Zhu coins is that they tend to have edges which are unfiled, making these cash coins have rough edges; they are notably also heavier than later cast Wu Zhu coins. In 115 BC Emperor Wu decreed that all Wu Zhu cash coins should be cast with a value of 5 cash coins. These coins are known as or because as they were filed, they gained "red" or "purple" edges that showed as the copper became visible. Another feature of these cash coins is that the "Wu" () character tends to be composed of some rather straight lines. Starting from the year 113 BC, the central government regained the exclusive authority to manufacture coinage. From this point Wu Zhu cash coins started being produced by the Three Offices of Shang Lin (). These Wu Zhu coins had a nominal value of one coin as opposed to the Chi Ze Wu Zhus, which had an unrealistic nominal value of five. The majority of the Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhus contain a raised line above the square center hole on the obverse side of the coin. Under the reign of Emperor Xuan, which lasted from 73 BC until 49 BC, the Wu characters were small in size and notably written with slightly crooked strokes that didn't extend to the horizontal lines of the top and bottom ends. A number of these Western Han dynasty Wu Zhu cash coins also displayed dots, which represent "stars", and crescents, which represent the moon, on the interior rim of the coin as well as other symbols which were considered to be auspicious. These became some of the earliest examples of cash coins used as Chinese amulets and charms. In the 123 years after 118 BCE, when Wu Zhu cash coins were initially introduced, over 28 billion coins were cast for circulation.

Xin dynasty

After

Wang Mang Wang Mang (45 BCE6 October 23 CE), courtesy name Jujun, officially known as the Shijianguo Emperor (), was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Chinese Xin dynasty. He was originally an official and consort kin of the ...

had overthrown the Han dynasty with his own

Xin dynasty The Xin dynasty (; ), also known as Xin Mang () in Chinese historiography, was a short-lived Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty which lasted from 9 to 23 AD, established by the Han dynasty consort kin Wang Mang, who usurped th ...

, he wished to displace the Wu Zhu currency of the Western Han dynasty. This is believed to be part of his prejudice against the "Jin" () radical () in the character of this inscription, which was also a component part of the character Liu (), the family name of the rulers of the House of Han— whose descendant Wang Mang had just dethroned. He introduced a number of currency reforms which met with varying degrees of success. The first reform, in AD 7, retained the Wu Zhu coin, but reintroduced two versions of

knife money Knife money is the name of large, casting, cast, bronze, knife-shaped commodity money produced by various governments and kingdoms in what is now China, approximately 2500 years ago. Knife money circulated in China between 600 and 200 B.C. duri ...

. During a later reform the Wu Zhu cash coins were completely abolished, and Wang Mang placed the

death penalty Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in s ...

on anyone who dared to circulate any Wu Zhu cash coins. However, as the new currency system introduced by Wang Mang was chaotic and confusing, Wu Zhu cash coins kept secretly circulating.

Chengjia

The Iron Wu Zhus of

Chengjia Chengjia (; 25–36 AD), also called the Cheng dynasty or Great Cheng, was a self-proclaimed empire established by Gongsun Shu in 25 AD after the collapse of the Xin dynasty of Chinese history, rivalling the Eastern Han dynasty founded by ...

, which resemble the Western Han dynasty Wu Zhu coin, is attributed to

Gongsun Shu Gongsun Shu (, died 24 December 36 AD) was the founder and only emperor of Chengjia, a state that controlled China's Sichuan Basin from 25 to 36. A successful official of the Western Han and short-lived Xin dynasties, Gongsun was the Administra ...

, who rebelled in

Sichuan Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...

in AD 25, and issued iron coins, two being equal to one ''Jian Wu Wu Zhu'' (). These had the head of the ''zhu'' component rounded, typical of Eastern Han Wu Zhus. In AD 30, a ditty was sung by the youths of Sichuan: "The yellow bull! the white belly! Let Wu Zhu cash coins return". This ridiculed the tokens of Wang Mang and the iron coins of Gongsun Shu, which were withdrawn by the Eastern Han

Emperor Guangwu Emperor Guangwu of Han (; 15 January 5 BC29 March AD 57), born Liu Xiu (), courtesy name Wenshu (), was a Chinese monarch. He served as an emperor of the Han dynasty by restoring the dynasty in AD 25, thus founding the Eastern Han dynasty. He ...

in the 16th year of Jian Wu (AD 40). The Emperor was advised that the foundation of the wealth of a country depends on a good political economy, which was found in the Wu Zhu coinage, and so reissued the Wu Zhu cash coins.

Eastern Han dynasty

After the fall of the Xin dynasty, the production of Wu Zhu cash coins was resumed under

Emperor Guangwu Emperor Guangwu of Han (; 15 January 5 BC29 March AD 57), born Liu Xiu (), courtesy name Wenshu (), was a Chinese monarch. He served as an emperor of the Han dynasty by restoring the dynasty in AD 25, thus founding the Eastern Han dynasty. He ...

who reigned from the year 25 until 56 AD. Under the reign of the warlord

Dong Zhuo Dong Zhuo () (c. 140s – 22 May 192), courtesy name Zhongying, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. At the end of the reign of the Eastern Han, Dong Zhuo was a general and powerful ...

(), the capital of the Han dynasty was moved from

Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...

to the city of

Chang'an Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...

(modern day

Xi'an Xi'an is the list of capitals in China, capital of the Chinese province of Shaanxi. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong plain, the city is the third-most populous city in Western China after Chongqing and Chengdu, as well as the most populou ...

). There, he ordered that the large

Qin dynasty The Qin dynasty ( ) was the first Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China. It is named for its progenitor state of Qin, a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty (256 BC). Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng enga ...

era bronze statues dating back to the reign of Emperor

Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; February 25912 July 210 BC), born Ying Zheng () or Zhao Zheng (), was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of China. He is widely regarded as the first ever supreme leader of a unitary state, unitary d ...

be melted down to make small cash coins. A large quantity of these Wu Zhu coins were so small that they were commonly referred to as "goose eye coins" () or "chicken eye coins" () by the people. As these cash coins were so diminutive in size, only left half of the wu () Chinese character and the right half of the Chinese character fit on these coins. It is also pivotal to clarify that these cash coins are not "chiselled rim coins" (), where regular-size Wu Zhu cash coins had their insides cut out so as to form two separate cash coins. Goose eye/chicken eye coins were actually cast in this diminutive manner, as evidenced by the remnants of the metal sprue from the casting process on their rim's five o'clock position.

The Three Kingdoms

The

Three Kingdoms period The Three Kingdoms of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu dominated China from AD 220 to 280 following the end of the Han dynasty. This period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and followed by the Western Jin dynasty. Academically, the ...

was an era in Chinese history that lasted from 220 until 280 and was characterised by a period of disunity following the collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty. The Kingdom of

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu ( zh, t=蜀, p=Shǔ; Sichuanese Pinyin: ''Su'' < Middle Chinese: *''źjowk'' < Eastern Han Chinese: *''dźok''), was a Dynasties in ...

was founded after

Liu Bei Liu Bei (, ; ; 161 – 10 June 223), courtesy name Xuande (), was a China, Chinese warlord in the late Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty who later became the founding Emperor of China, emperor of Shu Han, one of the Three Kingdoms of ...

seized control of the city of

Chengdu Chengdu; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ; Chinese postal romanization, previously Romanization of Chinese, romanized as Chengtu. is the capital city of the Chinese province of Sichuan. With a ...

. Immediately after the city was taken, Liu Bei had discovered that the treasury was completely empty, which meant that he didn't have the funds for his military expenses. This was paired with a severe shortage of copper, this severe lack of copper was so bad that it is said that in order to manufacture cash coins even the hooks which were used to hang bed curtains were melted as the government desperately needed the metal. To cover the state's expenses, Liu Bei ordered the creation of cash coins which had a nominal value or one hundred regular cash coins. Unlike the earlier coinage of the Xin dynasty, which disastrously failed due to the extreme disparity between the nominal and intrinsic values, the coins of the Kingdom of Shu Han weren't as badly received. These Wu Zhu cash coins produced by Dong Zhuo only weighed around a single gram, previously a cycle plagued Chinese governments trying to set of a fiat coinage system where first the government issued new (fiduciary) cash coins, then the government would set values, usually the people don't accept these set values, and then finally the currency doesn't trade which causes inflation to set in and counterfeiting becomes a prominent problem. Zhi Bai Wu Zhus are usually divided into "thin" and "thick" types depending on the thickness of the cash coin. It is also believed that the Kingdom of Shu Han under the reign of Liu Bei cast a variant of the Wu Zhu cash coin which had a rim around the square hole that is 21.7 millimetres in diameter and has a weight of around 2.3 grams. Due to this association, they are known as the cash coins, but due to later archeological findings this isn't taken with absolute certainty. In the Kingdom of

Cao Wei Wei () was one of the major Dynasties in Chinese history, dynastic states in China during the Three Kingdoms period. The state was established in 220 by Cao Pi based upon the foundations laid by his father Cao Cao during the end of the Han dy ...

which was established by

Cao Cao Cao Cao (; ; ; 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde, was a Chinese statesman, warlord, and poet who rose to power during the end of the Han dynasty (), ultimately taking effective control of the Han central government. He laid the foundation f ...

in 220 it is believed that only Wu Zhu coins were cast. Moulds have been found dating to this period and it is confirmed that Wu Zhu cash coins were cast from the first year of the Taihe period (227) until the second year of Xianxi period (265).

Jin dynasty and the 16 Kingdoms

Under

Sima Yan Emperor Wu of Jin (; 236 – 16 May 290), personal name Sima Yan (), courtesy name Anshi (安世), was a grandson of Sima Yi, nephew of Sima Shi and son of Sima Zhao. He became the first emperor of the Jin dynasty after forcing Cao Huan, ...

, China was reunited for a short period of time under the rule of the

Western Jin dynasty Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US * Western, New York, a town in the US * Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia * Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that ...

ruled from

Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...

. The Chinese economy improved under Jin rule, and although no historical records mention the production of coinage under the Jin, since the quantity of old Wu Zhu cash coins that were still in circulation would not have been sufficient, it is likely that the government would've had to cast a large number of cash coins in order to need the demand coming from the market. The Great Dictionary of Chinese Numismatics claims that Wu Zhu cash coins were being cast in the city of

Chengdu Chengdu; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ; Chinese postal romanization, previously Romanization of Chinese, romanized as Chengtu. is the capital city of the Chinese province of Sichuan. With a ...

in the Shu region of the Western Jin dynasty (which lies in modern-day

Sichuan Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...

). After a family struggle within the Sima family caused a devastating civil war, China was so weakened that the " five barbarian tribes" from the north started conquering territories in China and established their own states starting the sixteen kingdoms period.

Former Liang Kingdom

The Kingdom of

Former Liang The Former Liang (; 301–376) was a dynastic state, and one of the Sixteen Kingdoms, in Chinese history. It was founded by Zhang Shi of the Han Chinese Zhang family. Its territories included present-day Gansu and parts of Ningxia, Shaanxi, Qing ...

started casting Wu Zhu cash coins, which have traditionally been attributed to the Kingdom of Shu known as "Shu Wu Zhu" cash coins. Some of these Wu Zhus have been discovered in the

Hexi Corridor The Hexi Corridor ( ), also known as the Gansu Corridor, is an important historical region located in the modern western Gansu province of China. It refers to a narrow stretch of traversable and relatively arable plain west of the Yellow River's O ...

(in current day

Gansu Gansu is a provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeastern part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibetan Plateau, Ti ...

province), which lead archaeologists to believe that they may have been cast under the reign of

Zhang Gui Zhang Gui (, 255–314) was the governor of Liang province and first Duke of Xiping under the Western Jin. He was the seventeenth generation descendant of King of Changshan Zhang Er from the Chu–Han Contention The Chu–Han Contention () ...

.

The Northern and Southern dynasties

After the Eastern Jin dynasty fell, the

Northern and Southern dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered a ...

period began in the year 420. In the Southern dynasties, it was customary for people to remove the middle part of Wu Zhu cash coins to create two separate coins. The portion cut out of the outer ring of the Wu Zhu is usually referred to as a "thread ring Wu Zhu" (), while the coin cut out of the inner portion is usually referred to as "chiseled rim Wu Zhu" () cash coins or as "cut rim Wu Zhu" () cash coins. Private casting of cash coins also became a common practice during the Northern and Southern dynasties period, which resulted in there being many extremely small, thin, and very fragile bronze cash coins that were cast by these private mints. These cash coins are known as "goose eye" () or "chicken eye" () coins. Peng Xinwei mentions a man called Gu Xuan of the Liang dynasty that was one of the first to write about Chinese numismatics. Peng, Xinwei: A Monetary History of China. vol I. and II. (Translated from the Chinese original Zhongguo Huobi Shi 1965 by Kaplan, Edward H.) 1994 (

Western Washington University Western Washington University (WWU or Western) is a public university in Bellingham, Washington, United States. The northernmost university in the contiguous United States, WWU was founded in 1893 as the state-funded New Whatcom Normal School, s ...

). Pages: 190-194. Gu Xuan wrote about the circulating cash coins of the period, but did not mention any Qi dynasty cash coins. Peng, Xinwei: A Monetary History of China. vol I. and II. (Translated from the Chinese original Zhongguo Huobi Shi 1965 by Kaplan, Edward H.) 1994 (

Western Washington University Western Washington University (WWU or Western) is a public university in Bellingham, Washington, United States. The northernmost university in the contiguous United States, WWU was founded in 1893 as the state-funded New Whatcom Normal School, s ...

). Pages: 194-190. Peng takes this as evidence that the Qi dynasty did not mint any of its own cash coins. The cash coins of this period were of a high artistic standard, especially those produced by the Chen and the Zhou dynasties. All cash coins of this period typically have a narrow rim. However, during this period private minting was way more common in the Southern dynasties than in the Northern dynasties, which is the reason that Wu Zhu cash coins and other coins of the Southern dynasties were more uneven than those of the Northern dynasties. All the coins of the period had the same kind of

seal script Seal script or sigillary script () is a Chinese script styles, style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of bronze script during the Zhou dynasty (1 ...

calligraphy Calligraphy () is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instruments. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an e ...

.

Liang dynasty

Under the reign of Emperor Wu of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...

, there were two types of Wu Zhu cash coins which were being manufactured. Some had an outside rim while others did not. The Wu Zhu cash coins without an outside rim are referred to as "Female coins" (). From the year 523 onwards, the government of the Liang dynasty decided to cast iron Wu Zhu cash coins, since iron was both relatively easy to use and not expensive to acquire in what is today

Sichuan Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...

. The iron cash coins issued by the Liang dynasty are quite distinctive from other iron cash coins, as they have 4 lines that radiate outwards from each corner of the square center hole, giving them the name "four corner coins" (). As it became quite common for people to cast iron cash coins privately, it wasn't long before their quantities increased so drastically that it required cartloads of these iron Wu Zhu cash coins to pay for anything. To this day these Wu Zhus are quite common due to the widespread private production that plagued these iron issues. After them the cash coin was cast under the reign of Emperor Wu. These cash coins were actually believed to be Chinese numismatic charms until recently and were named after the Taiqing period (547–549). In 552 under the reign of Emperor Yuan the capital city was moved to the city of Jiangling. The Jiangling Mint issued Wu Zhu cash coins which had two "stars" (a term used to refer to dots on cash coins) on the obverse of the Wu Zhu. One "star" was situated above the square center hole, and one below and for this reason are commonly known as "Two Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" (). These Wu Zhus were nominally worth ten normal Wu Zhus and are relatively rare today. From the year 557, under the reign of Emperor Jing had Wu Zhu cash coins produced that had one "star" above the square hole and one "star" below on both sides of these Wu Zhus. They are known as "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" () and had a nominal value of 20 normal Wu Zhu cash coins, but merely 10 days after their introduction they were trading at par with regular Wu Zhus. Another variant of these "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" had the "stars" on the left and right sides of the square center hole. Today "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" are extremely rare, with those that have the "stars" above and below the square center hole being the rarest. Another variant of Liang dynasty era Wu Zhus known as the "Three Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" () were produced, however as no historical records mention them it is exactly unknown when they were produced, it is speculated by some Chinese numismatists and Gary Ashkenazy that they were only produced for five days in the year 557 immediately after the production of the "Four Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" to circulate at a value of 10 normal Wu Zhus and had three "stars" to differentiate them from the earlier "Two Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" which had the same exaggerated nominal value. "Three Pillar Wu Zhu cash coins" have one "star" above and one "star" below the obverse square hole, while they have one "star" just to the left and touching the rim that surrounds the square center hole on the reverse side of the coin. These cash coins are extremely rare today due to their extremely short production period. Note that despite their high nominal values, "Two Pillar", "Three Pillar", and "Four Pillar" Wu Zhu cash coins usually weighed less than 2 or 3 grams, this disparity between their nominal and intrinsic values was a contributing factor to the decline of the economy of the Liang dynasty.

Chen dynasty

The

Chen dynasty The Chen dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Chen (南陳 / 南朝陳) in historiography, was a Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty and the fourth and last of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasties, ...

produced Wu Zhu cash coins which had a nominal value of 10 "Goose Eye Wu Zhus" and/or "Chicken Eye Wu Zhus" and were known as "Tianjia Wu Zhu cash coins" () because they were produced during the Tianjia period of Emperor Wen. However, as not a single specimen exists today, it is unknown what these Tianjia era Wu Zhu coins looked like. It is speculated that these Tianjia era Wu Zhu coins would have been relatively big and had a rim around the square center hole on the obverse side of the coin being overall similar to the Taihuo Liuzhu () cash coins. Wu Zhu cash coins that fit this description historically have been believed to have been produced during the Tianjian era (502–519) in the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...

under the reign of Emperor Wu. As Wu Zhu cash coins also fitting this description have been dug up in

Guanzhong Guanzhong (, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanised as Kwanchung) region, also known as the Guanzhong Basin, Wei River Basin, or uncommonly as the Shaanzhong region, is a historical region of China corresponding to the crescentic graben str ...

,

Shaanxi Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...

it has been proposed that they might've been produced by the

Northern Zhou Zhou (), known in historiography as the Northern Zhou (), was a Xianbei-led Dynasties in Chinese history, dynasty of China that lasted from 557 to 581. One of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Northern dynasties, Northern dynasties of China's ...

dynasty. Under the reign of Emperor Xuan in 579 the Taihuo Liuzhu () cash coins were cast which originally had a nominal value of 10 Wu Zhu coins, but its nominal value was decreased to be equal to the Wu Zhu. Taihuo Liuzhu cash coins are considered to be the "crown jewel" of Southern dynasty coinage due to the quality of its

calligraphy Calligraphy () is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instruments. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an e ...

. As the

seal script Seal script or sigillary script () is a Chinese script styles, style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of bronze script during the Zhou dynasty (1 ...

version of the

Hanzi Chinese characters are logographs used to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represent the only one ...

character for "six" () looked similar to a human being standing akimbo, which inspired the contemporary saying that this symbolised the general people standing in this position before the Emperor and exclaiming that the nominal value of the Taihuo Liuzhu was too high. An extremely rare version of this cash coin exists that only has the inscription Liu Zhu (); this coin is in fact so rare that only a single specimen of it has ever been reported to exist.

Northern Wei dynasty

The

Northern Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei ( zh, c=北魏, p=Běi Wèi), Tuoba Wei ( zh, c=拓跋魏, p=Tuòbá Wèi), Yuan Wei ( zh, c=元魏, p=Yuán Wèi) and Later Wei ( zh, t=後魏, p=Hòu Wèi), was an Dynasties of China, impe ...

dynasty was a

Xianbei The Xianbei (; ) were an ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. The Xianbei were likely not of a single ethnicity, but rather a multiling ...

ruled state under the

Tuoba The Tuoba (Chinese language, Chinese) or Tabgatch (, ''Tabγač''), also known by #Names, other names, was an influential Xianbei clan in early imperial China. During the Sixteen Kingdoms after the fall of Han and the Three Kingdoms, the Tuoba e ...

clan that adopted the administrative system of the

Han Chinese The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...

and even established their capital city at

Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...

, a city which had been the capital city of various preceding Chinese dynasties and mandated that his people adopt both Chinese fashion and

language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and signed language, signed forms, and may also be conveyed through writing syste ...

. During this period Emperor Xiaowen ordered the issuance of the Taihe Wuzhu () as part of this

Sinicisation Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies or groups are acculturated or assimilated into Chinese culture, particularly the language, ...

process. There is one purported version of the Taihe Wuzhu which has the Chinese character "Tai" () written in a calligraphic style akin to that of the "Tai" on the Taihuo Liuzhu () cash coin issued by the

Chen dynasty The Chen dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Chen (南陳 / 南朝陳) in historiography, was a Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty and the fourth and last of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasties, ...

. However, as the only evidence relating to the existence of this cash coin comes from rubbings in old coin catalogues, it is speculated that it might not have been real. Taihe Wuzhu coins tend to be fairly crudely made and vary in size and weight. Larger specimens are typically about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and weigh about 3 grams. Smaller Taihe Wuzhu specimens are typically about 2 centimeters in diameter and weigh 2.3 grams. The

calligraphy Calligraphy () is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instruments. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an e ...

found on its inscription is a mixture of both Chinese

seal script Seal script or sigillary script () is a Chinese script styles, style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of bronze script during the Zhou dynasty (1 ...

and

clerical script The clerical script (), sometimes also chancery script, is a style of Chinese writing that evolved from the late Warring States period to the Qin dynasty. It matured and became dominant in the Han dynasty, and remained in active use through t ...

, which comprises the classic Wei stelae style (). The Taihe Wuzhu cash coins only circulated in the areas around Luoyang and never became the national currency for the entire Northern Wei dynasty as a whole leading to them becoming relatively scarce. The Northern Wei dynasty started issuing regular Wu Zhu () cash coins in 510 but it is currently unknown what special characteristics these Wu Zhu cash coins had to differentiate them from other Wu Zhus. Emperor Xiaozhuang ordered the creation of the Yongan Wuzhu in the year 529 which was during the Yongan period (528–530), despite the fact that the authoritative power government of the Northern Wei dynasty was in trouble as the rebellion of the

Six Frontier Towns The Six Frontier Towns (), also known as the Six Garrisons and the Northern Frontier Towns (), were six military towns located in the Hetao region of the Northern Wei dynasty of China. The government established the towns during the Huangshi and Ya ...

waged on for a decade. After Emperor Xiaowu was forced to flee from Luoyang in the year 534 the country split into the

Western Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Western Wei (), was an imperial dynasty of China that followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei. One of the Northern dynasties during the era of the Northern and Southern dynasties, it ruled the weste ...

dynasty and the

Eastern Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Eastern Wei (), was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei dynasty. One of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Northern dynasties, Nor ...

dynasty, and despite the fact that neither country existed for a long period of time they both continued issuing Yongan Wuzhu cash coins to the point that both large quantities and a large number of varieties exist, as well as the fact that Yongan Wuzhu cash coins are still extremely common today. During this era various nicknames for cash coins were given by the people which include the "Auspicious cash coins" () as well as the "Heavenly Pillar" () cash coins, it is unknown what these cash coins were but it's speculated by Gary Ashkenazy that they were variants of the Yongan Wuzhu cash coins, according to Gary Ashkenazy the "Auspicious cash coins" were very likely to have been Yongan Wuzhu's that had the Hanzi character for "

earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...

" () on the reverse side of the coin above the square center hole. The nickname would then be derived from the fact that the square center hole resembles the Hanzi character "" and as the "" would be above it they together would look like "" meaning "auspicious". According to Gary Ashkenazy the "Heavenly Pillar" cash coin may have also been a variety of the Yongan Wuzhu which has a "dot" (representing "stars" ) in the lower right part of the obverse side of the coin. When the "Heavenly Pillar" cash coin is held upright it would point towards the sky or "heaven" (). The "star" in this particular case can also be referred to as a "pillar" () because it is cylindrically shaped and appears to rise up from the surface () of the Yongan Wuzhu cash coin. Another variant of the Yongan Wuzhu is also known as the "four corner" (si chu ) cash coin because it has 4 diagonal lines thar extend outwards from the corners of the square center hole all the way to the reverse rim of these Yongan Wuzhu coins. There were other cash coins in this era which also had descriptive nicknames assigned to them such as "Yongzhou Green-Red" (), "Liangzhou Born Thick" (), "Tight Cash" (), and "Red Halter" (). These cash coins were mentioned in historical records and may have also been references to specific varieties of Yongan Wuzhu cash coins which currently aren't clearly identified yet.

Western Wei dynasty

The

Western Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Western Wei (), was an imperial dynasty of China that followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei. One of the Northern dynasties during the era of the Northern and Southern dynasties, it ruled the weste ...

dynasty existed briefly from the year 535 until 556, historical records mention that a Wu Zhu cash coin was cast during the Datong period (535–551) which had a calligraphic style akin to that of the earlier Yongan Wuzhu cash coins as well as those of the Sui Wu Zhus. A defining characteristic of these "Datong Wu Zhu cash coins" () is the fact that they have a broad outer rim with an inner rim only by the "Wu" () character to the right side of the square center hole.

Northern Qi dynasty

The

Northern Qi Qi, known as the Northern Qi (), Later Qi (後齊) or Gao Qi (高齊) in historiography, was a Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty and one of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Northern dynasties, Northern dynasties during the ...

dynasty was a country founded by Emperor Wenxuan that existed from the year 550 until 577, from the year 553 the Changping Wuzhu () cash coins were cast.

Sui dynasty

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

was reunified under the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...

(581–618). Under this short-lived dynasty, many reforms were initiated that led to the subsequent success of the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

. The only coin associated with the Sui is a Wu Zhu coin. The Sui dynasty only cast one type of coin, a Wu Zhu with wide rim that has been found in excavations that clearly indicated that it belonged to the Sui period. Peng, Xinwei: A Monetary History of China. vol I. and II. (Translated from the Chinese original Zhongguo Huobi Shi 1965 by Kaplan, Edward H.) 1994 (

Western Washington University Western Washington University (WWU or Western) is a public university in Bellingham, Washington, United States. The northernmost university in the contiguous United States, WWU was founded in 1893 as the state-funded New Whatcom Normal School, s ...

). Pages: 194-195. Chinese numismatic researcher Peng Xinwei believed that the Sui dynasty period Wu Zhu was adopted from the Western Wei, because it is said in the history of the Sui, that Wu Zhus already circulated in the first year of the Sui, and that additional new cash coins were minted at the same time. Emperor Wen decreed that Wu Zhu cash coins be produced in the first year of the Kaihuang period (581 in the

Gregorian calendar The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It went into effect in October 1582 following the papal bull issued by Pope Gregory XIII, which introduced it as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian cale ...

), alongside the introduction of this new Wu Zhu cash coin the older currencies were gradually being deprecated and with the conquest of the

Chen dynasty The Chen dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Chen (南陳 / 南朝陳) in historiography, was a Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty and the fourth and last of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasties, ...

the coins now known as "Sui Wu Zhu cash coins" () were the only circulating currency in all of China. The reason why Emperor Wen introduced a new Wu Zhu was because the fiduciary cash coins of the Northern Zhou and Chen dynasties placed the economy in a bad state and the Sui Wu Zhus were set to the original weight of 2 grams. The first Wu Zhus are known as the "Kaihuang Wu Zhu cash coins" () because of their year of introduction, later Emperor Wen allowed the principalities of the Sui dynasty to cast their own Wu Zhus. Additional mints were set up in various prefectures, typically with five furnaces each. Cash was frequently checked for quality by the officials. However, after 605, private coining again caused a deterioration of the coinage. Today these Wu Zhu cash coins are still very common and must have likely been manufactured in immense numbers. The fabric of the Wu Zhus of the Sui dynasty is unlike that of any earlier Chinese cash coins but resemble that of the vast majority of later produced Chinese coins. The rims of these Wu Zhus tend to be broad and flat, while earlier Chinese cash coins usually have thin and rather rounded rims. The basic fabric of a coin is dictated by the minting techniques used to produce it and the Wu Zhus of the Sui dynasty were produced with an entirely new casting technology. Among the varieties of the Sui dynasty era Wu Zhu is one which is particularly well-made composed of what the Chinese call "white copper" () and are therefore known as "Bai Qian Wu Zhu" () cash coins and are believed to have been manufactured in the

Jiangnan Jiangnan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of its delta. The region encompasses the city of Shanghai, the southern part of Jiangsu ...

region. The Chinese character "Wu" () on these coins is slightly more curved where the lines cross. Wu Zhu cash coins from the Sui dynasty are known to be produced in both larger and smaller sizes, the smaller and lighter Wu Zhus were produced later as the country was facing higher expenditures and debased the coinage, the last Wu Zhu cash coins of the Sui dynasty circulated alongside improvised currency such as scraps of iron, paper, and leather.

List of types of Wu Zhu coins

Almost 900 different types and over 1800 varieties of Wu Zhu cash coins and Wu Zhu derivatives are known to exist. List of variants of Wu Zhu cash coins: *Jun Guo Wu Zhu () (118–115 BC) is a large and heavy coin, with the edges unfiled. Sometimes has a rimless reverse. Taken to be the earliest Wu Zhu. According to the History of Han, in 118 BC the Commanderies (''Jun'') and Principalities (''Guo'') were ordered to cast 5 ''zhu'' coins with a circular rim so that it would be impossible to clip them to glean a bit of copper. * Chi Ze Wu Zhu () (115–113 BC) is a lighter coin than the above, with filed edges. The Han records state that in 115 BC the mints in the capital were requested to cast ''Chi Ze'' coins, with one being worth five local coins. Only these were to circulate. ''Chi Ze'' means Red (or Shining) Edge, referring to the red copper showing when the edges were filed smooth. Some examples of this coin were found from the tomb of Liu Sheng, Prince of Zhongshan, who died in 113 BC. *Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhu () (From 113 BC) refers to the Three Offices of Shang Lin Park which were the Office for Coinage, the Office for Sorting Copper, and the Office of Price Equalisation. Minting was now confined to the central authorities. These coins usually have a raised rim on the top of the hole on the obverse. Their quality was so high that forgery became unprofitable except to true artisans, great villains, or thieves. All earlier coins were to be melted down and the copper taken to Shang Lin. * Wu Zhu Coins (AD 25). Even after the end of the Wang Mang regime (see below), the coinage system remained in disarray. Cloth, silk and grain were used as money along with coins. However, cash was the normal measure of wealth and was used in large quantities. When Yang Ping (92–195) was in economic difficulties, he was offered a gift of one million cash. Wu Zhu coins continued to be issued, along with other coins, until the end of the sixth century. Some coins can be attributed to specific reigns or events; many can not. * The Iron Wu Zhu, resembling the W. Han coin, is attributed to Gongsun Shu, who rebelled in

Sichuan Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...

in AD 25, and issued iron coins, two being equal to one ''Jian Wu Wu Zhu'' (). Head of the ''zhu'' component rounded. Typical of Eastern Han Wu Zhus. In AD 30, a ditty was sung by the youths of Sichuan: "The yellow bull! the white belly! Let Wu Zhu coins return". This ridiculed the tokens of Wang Mang and the iron coins of Gongsun Shu, which were withdrawn by the Eastern Han

Emperor Guangwu Emperor Guangwu of Han (; 15 January 5 BC29 March AD 57), born Liu Xiu (), courtesy name Wenshu (), was a Chinese monarch. He served as an emperor of the Han dynasty by restoring the dynasty in AD 25, thus founding the Eastern Han dynasty. He ...

in the 16th year of Jian Wu (AD 40). The Emperor was advised that the foundation of the wealth of a country depends on a good political economy, which was found in the good old Wu Zhu coinage, and so reissued the Wu Zhu coins. * The Si Chu Wu Zhu () has four lines on reverse radiating from the corners of the hole. It is attributed to the Eastern Han Emperor Ling, AD 186. The four lines are said to represent wealth flowing from a ruined city—an omen of the overthrow of the Han dynasty. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which displays a long, prominent horizontal line on the obverse right above the square center hole. The diameter of this particular type of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to be around 20.6 millimeters and their weight generally is around 1.7 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which is distinctive in that it has three slanted lines above, and three slanted lines below, the square center hole. The slanting lines are raised above the surface which means that they had to be a part of the coin mould at the time of their production. The three lines above and the three lines below resemble the symbols on the Western Han dynasty era Ban Liang cash coins. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally tends to have a diameter of 23 millimeters and their weight tends to be around 1.8 grams. *There are several types of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins which have four lines (or possibly elongated dots) to the left of the square center hole on the reverse side of the cash coin. These ancient Chinese symbols are similar to those that appeared on the reverse sides of some Western Han dynasty era Ban Liang cash coins. These types of Wu Zhu cash coins generally tend to have a diameter of 22.6 millimeters and a weight of 1.4 grams. * There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins that has four (4- oblique lines extending outward from each corner of the square center hole to the rim on the reverse side of the cash coin. In

Mandarin Chinese Mandarin ( ; zh, s=, t=, p=Guānhuà, l=Mandarin (bureaucrat), officials' speech) is the largest branch of the Sinitic languages. Mandarin varieties are spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area that stretch ...

, this technique is referred to as "Si Chu" (), "Si" () translates as "four" and "Chu" () translates as "going out". This type of cash coin is also known as a "corner coin" (), and these "corner coins" are generally believed to have been manufactured in the year 186 AD during the reign of Emperor Ling of the Eastern Han dynasty. As cities in ancient China had walls built around them as a means of protection against outside attacks. It is often said that the square center hole of this coin represented the city and that the four lines going out represented wealth flowing out, portending the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty in the year 220 AD. The diameter of this series of Wu Zhu cash coins tends to be around 25 millimeters and their weight tends to generally be around 3.1 grams. * There is another type of "Si Chu" () Wu Zhu cash coins or "corner" Wu Zhu cash coins with four lines radiating outward from the square center hole, this variant is made from iron. This specific type was made in the year 523 AD during the reign of Emperor Wu of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...

(a country which existed from the year 502 AD until the year 557 AD). This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally tend to have a diameter of 20.5 millimeters and a general weight of 2.6 grams. *Some types of Wu Zhu cash coins contain Chinese characters and/or other ancient Chinese symbols. There is type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins with the Hanzi (Chinese) character "Xiao" (小), which could be translated as "small", just above the square center hole, such characters as these may have indicated the area or limits in which these coins were intended to circulate to prevent them from circulating outside. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally tend to have a diameter of 24.3 mm and their average weight is around 2.1 grams. * There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins produced during the Eastern Han dynasty era that has the Chinese character "Wang" () on the reverse side of the cash coin, rotated ninety (90) degrees, below the square center hole. "Wang" could be translated as "king" but it is also a common family name in China. In this instance the "Wang" Chinese character rises above the field of the cash coin which indicates that it was a designed into the coin mould. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally tend to have a diameter of 22.7 millimeters and an average weight of 2 grams. * There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which have the Chinese character "Gong" () meaning "work" or "industry" written below the square center hole on the obverse side of the cash coin. The "Gong" character is "in relief" () meaning it was engraved into the coin mould in the same way as the other Chinese characters used in its legend or inscription. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally tend to have a diameter which is around 23.7 millimeters and their weight tends to be around 2.3 grams. * There is another type of Wu Zhu cash coins which also display a very distinct "Gong" () Chinese character meaning "work" or "industry", however this type tends to have the "Gong"on the reverse side of the cash coin below the lower left corner of the square center hole. The diameter of this type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally is around 26 millimeters and their weight is generally around 2.8 grams. * There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which display ancient Chinese auspicious symbols, both above and below the square hole are

swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍, ) is a symbol used in various Eurasian religions and cultures, as well as a few Indigenous peoples of Africa, African and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, American cultures. In the Western world, it is widely rec ...

s. In China the swastika represents the Hanzi (Chinese) character "Wan" () which could be translated "ten-thousand". The extended meaning of "Wan" would be "all" such as "the myriad things" as it was used to represent in classic

Taoist Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...

text written by

Laozi Laozi (), also romanized as Lao Tzu #Name, among other ways, was a semi-legendary Chinese philosophy, Chinese philosopher and author of the ''Tao Te Ching'' (''Laozi''), one of the foundational texts of Taoism alongside the ''Zhuangzi (book) ...

the

Tao Te Ching The ''Tao Te Ching'' () or ''Laozi'' is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated por ...

().This type of Wu Zhu cash coins have diameters which is generally around 23.5 millimeters and their weight tends to generally be around 2.3 grams. *Shu Wu Zhu () coins have the word ''Chuan'' () on the obverse, or the numbers 1–32 on the reverse, in incuse characters. They are attributed to the

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu ( zh, t=蜀, p=Shǔ; Sichuanese Pinyin: ''Su'' < Middle Chinese: *''źjowk'' < Eastern Han Chinese: *''dźok''), was a Dynasties in ...

(221–265) by virtue of their find spots in

Gansu Gansu is a provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeastern part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibetan Plateau, Ti ...

. *Shen Lang Wu Zhu () has no ''jin'' component in ''zhu''. They are attributed to Shen Chong of the House of Wu and cast after the foundation of the

Eastern Jin dynasty Eastern or Easterns may refer to: Transportation Airlines *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 192 ...

in 317. Also known as the Shen Chong Wu Zhu (); an old ballad contains the lines: "Elm seeds countless press in sheets, Lord Shen's green cash line town streets." Apparently this means that Lord Shen's cash were small and light. *Dang Liang Wu Zhu () is a large thick coin, with a nominal weight of 8 ''zhu.'' They are attributed to Emperor Wen of the Southern dynasties

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

, who had them cast in 447 as a measure against coining malpractices. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins with the character for "ten" () incused above the square center hole on the obverse side of the cash coin. The "ten" on these cash coins was engraved sometime after it was manufactured. The diameter of this type of Wu Zhu cash coins is generally around 25.9 millimeters and their weight tends to be around 2.8 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins where the Hanzi (Chinese) character "ten" () on the reverse side of the cash coin protrudes above the surface of the cash coin and is located above the square center hole. This series of Wu Zhu cash coins generally have a diameter of 22 millimeters and tend to have a weight of 1.4 grams. *There is a series of Wu Zhu cash coins which has the Hanzi (Chinese) character for "ten" () on its reversed side where is incused above the square hole. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally have a diameter of 24.5 millimeters and a weight of 2 grams. *There are various types of Wu Zhu cash coins that incorporate

counting rods Counting rods (筭) are small bars, typically 3–14 cm (1" to 6") long, that were used by mathematicians for calculation in ancient East Asia. They are placed either horizontally or vertically to represent any integer or rational number. ...

which are also known as "rod numbers" (numerals), this ancient form of writing Chinese numbers that occasionally appear on old Chinese cash coins rod numerals are believed to have been mainly used for doing calculations.. Among the types of Wu Zhu cash coins with rod numerals is one specific type produced under the reign of the Eastern Han dynasty. The distinctive feature of these cash coin is that there are four vertical bars (or lines) incused below the square center hole. "Incuse" means that the lines were cut, engraved or punched into the Wu Zhu cash coin, it is currently still unclear why they sometimes appear on these very old Chinese coins. As seen in the Wu Zhu cash coins that display the Chinese numbers "one" (), "two" () and "three" () consist of one, two and three lines, respectively, one might guess through deduction that the number "four" would consist of four lines which is not the case with modern Chinese but it was the case in the ancient rod numeral system. For this reason it odd believed that the four lines on this type of Wu Zhu cash coins probably represent the number "four" in ancient Chinese rod numerals. The coins with one, two and three lines in actually may also be rod numerals since they are written empirically the same as the characters in modern Chinese. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally has a diameter of 24.5 millimeters and a weight of 2.1 gram. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coin which above the hole of has a short vertical line intersected by a longer horizontal line. This ancient Chinese symbol, which resembles a "T" turned on its side, appears to be the rod number "six" as written in the old Chinese rod numeral system. This series of Wu Zhu cash coins generally have a diameter of 22.6 millimeters and tend to have a weight of 1.9 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins on which there appears to be the ancient Chinese rod numeral "six" below the square center hole the reverse side of the cash coin. The diameter of this series of Wu Zhu cash coins is generally around 23 millimeters and their weight averages out around 1.7 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which above the square center hole appear to have an ancient Chinese rod numeral, this ancient Chinese rod number appears to be protruding above the surface of the cash coin, it is a horizontal line with three vertical lines underneath. This is the ancient Chinese rod numeral symbol for "8" (eight). The series of Wu Zhu cash coins is also unusual because of the two dots (which are meant to represent "stars" on ancient Chinese cash coins) inside the "Wu" () Chinese character to the right of the square center hole. There is one dot (or "star") in the upper half and one dot (or "star") in the lower half of the character. This symbol gives the appearance of two eyes staring at the observer. Which is why this Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coin variety with the "two eyes" is known as . This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally has a diameter of 21 millimeters and a weight of 1.4 grams. *There is a series of Wu Zhu cash coins which has an ancient Chinese symbol above the square center hole which is very similar to a rod numeral. This symbol resembles the Chinese character "Shang" (), which means "up", except that the upper horizontal stroke is on the left instead of the right. Gary Ashkenazy speculates that it is an alternative way of writing "six" in ancient Chinese rod numerals or that it might stand for "seven". Gary Ashkenazy also proposes that it might not be a number at all. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally tend to have a diameter of 23 millimeters and tend to have a weight of 1.7 grams. *Some types of Wu Zhu cash coins have what appear to be lines, among them is a very specific type which on its obverse side has a very prominent vertical line () above, and another very prominent vertical line below the square center hole. This series of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to have a diameter of 22.5 millimeters and a weight of 1.8 grams. *There is a type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins which have a long vertical line above and another below the square center hole on the reverse side. Since in this specific type of Wu Zhu cash coins the lines tend to be raised above the coin's surface, these lines had to have been intentionally included in the casting mould from which the cash coin was manufactured. The diameter of this type of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to be 23 millimeters and their weight is generally around 2 grams. *Tian Jian Wu Zhu has an inner rim on obverse. At the start of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...

, money was only used around the capital. Elsewhere grain and cloth were used for trade. In the south, everyone used gold and silver. Therefore, in the 1st year of the Tian Jian period (502), the Emperor Wu cast Wu Zhu coins with an outer and inner rim. He also cast another sort without a rim called the female coin. The two sorts circulated together. *Nu Qian () have no outer rim. *An iron Wu Zhu with four lines radiating from the corners of the hole on the reverse. Attributed to Emperor Wu of Liang in 523. By 535, the traders in Sichuan were complaining of the trouble of stringing together such a number of heapcoins, and of the large number of carts needed to transport them. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which has two vertical lines in relief above the square center hole on the reverse side of the cash coin. The two lines allegedly represent the number "two" in Chinese (). These Wu Zhu cash coins tend to have a diameter of 23 millimeters and a weight of 1.7 grams. *There is a type of Han dynasty era Wu Zhu that has three vertical lines above the square center hole. These three lines allegedly represent the Chinese number "three" (). These Wu Zhu cash coins tend to have a diameter that is 25.3 millimeters and their weight tends to be around 2.8 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins that are similar to the type described above except that there are three slanting lines located below the square center hole. The three lines allegedly also represent the Chinese character for "three" (). These Wu Zhu cash coins tend to have a diameter that is 22.5 millimeters and their weight tends to be around 1.6 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins () that has a second "Wu" () Chinese character meaning "five" above the square center hole. This second "Wu" Chinese character is raised above the surface of the Wu Zhu cash coin the same as the Hanzi characters to the right and left of the hole. This means the second "Wu" Chinese character was actually intentionally engraved into the mould in the same manner as the other Chinese characters. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins tends to have a diameter of 23 millimeters and a weight of 2.2 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coin has another "Wu" () Chinese character, meaning "five", located to the left of the square center hole on the reverse side of the Wu Zhu cash coin. Unlike the type mentioned above, this "Wu" character is actually incused. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins has a diameter of 24 millimeters and a weight of 1.8 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins that have the Hanzi character "Liu" (), which means "six", incused at the right of the square center hole and is rotated ninety (90) degrees in the clockwise direction. The incused character was engraved into the coin after it had already been manufactured and was not a feature of the mould itself from which the Wu Zhu cash coin was produced. The diameter of these types of Wu Zhu cash coins 23.5 millimeters and their weight is usually 1.6 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins that has the Hanzi (Chinese) character "Ba" (), which means "eight" on the reverse side of the cash coin, incused above the square center hole. The "Ba" in this is usually upside down. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins generally have a diameter of 22.2 millimeters and a weight of 1.7 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins that has the number "nine" () incused (or carved) right above the square center hole. There is usually also an incused line running vertically through the "Wu" () Chinese character on the right side of this type of Wu Zhus. The diameter of this type of Wu Zhu cash coins is 26.2 millimeters and their weight generally is at 3 grams. *There is a type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins that has a rather large and unusually well made Hanzi (Chinese) character "ten" () below the square center hole. The diameter of this type of Wu Zhu cash coins is generally around 23 millimeters and their weight tends to be around 2.6 grams. *There is a rather unusual type of Wu Zhu cash coins which have the Hanzi (Chinese) character for "ten" () above the square center hole. Below the square center hole are two dots (which represent two "stars"). The dots (or "stars") and the "ten" Chinese character are in relief which means that they protrude above the coin surface and were part of the original design of the mould from which the Wu Zhu cash coins were cast. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to have a diameter of 24.5 millimeters and a weight which is generally around 2.9 grams. *Liang Zhu Wu Zhu () has a dot above and below the hole on the obverse. They are attributed to Emperor Yuan of the Liang dynasty in 552. They were intended to be the equivalent of ten ordinary coins. *Si Zhu Wu Zhu () have two dots on the obverse and reverse. They are attributed to Emperor Jing of the Liang dynasty in 557. They were originally intended to be the equivalent of twenty ordinary coins, they soon became worth one. However, similar coins with dots have been found in tombs of a much earlier date. *Chen Wu Zhu. () has a stout outer rim and no inner rim. The top part of the zhu component is square while the bottom part round. They are attributed to Emperor Wen of the Southern dynasties Chen dynasty and cast from Tian Jia 3 (562). One Chen Wu Zhu was worth ten small goose-eye coins. *There is a type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins that has a short bar or Chinese (Hanzi) character "one" () situated above the character "Wu" () at the right of the square center hole. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins has a diameter of 25.9 millimeters and a weight of 2.8 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins where the "one" () is located below the Chinese character "Wu" () to the right side of the square center hole. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 23.3 millimeters and a weight of 1.8 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins that has on its obverse side (far left) a prominent "one" () located below the character "Wu" (). However, the most distinctive feature or characteristic of this Wu Zhu cash coin is the center hole which is not square in shape unlike the far majority of other Chinese cash coins. Most non-square center holes are actually the result of insufficient molten

bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...

flowing to certain parts of the coin mould. The borders of the holes, in these cases, tend to be very ragged, irregular, and even uneven. This Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coin is actually fairly well-made and has a "number" symbol meaning it received special attention during its casting process. The coin's unusual hole, while not square, is still too regular to have been formed by any form of accident. There are documented reports of similar Wu Zhu cash coins having been found with unusual center holes which appear to probably have been intentionally made. According to Gary Ashkenazy there is an article in the 1987 (seventh issue) of the Chinese periodical " Shaanxi Finance" () which shows rubbings of several wu zhu coins with unusual holes found in a hoard. One Wu Zhu cash coin is indeed very similar to this specific type but has only one, in contrast to two, square-like projections extending beyond the normal border of the center hole. The article also showed illustrations of several cash coins which had triangular-shaped projections extending beyond the border of the inner hole. According to Gary Ashkenazy the author of the article says that the coins did not show any indication that the holes were modified by force in any manner at some time after their casting. The author of the article was unable to propose what these distinctive holes may mean or symbolise as these things remain unknown. These Wu Zhu coins, with their modified square holes, may very well have been the precursor of the Chinese cash coins with "flower" or "rosette" holes () which were to become fairly common by the time of the Song dynasty (960–1279). This type of Wu Zhu cash coins has a diameter of 26.2 millimeters and a weight of 2.5 grams. *Type with the Chinese character (一) meaning "one". But unlike the earlier types, the "one" is above the "Zhu" () Chinese character at the left of the side of the Square center hole. These Wu Zhu cash coins tend to have a diameter of 26.2 millimeters and a weight of 2.4 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins where the character "one" (一) is below the "Zhu" () character at the left side of the square center hole. The diameter of this particular type of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to be around 25.8 millimeters and their weight tends to be around 2.7 grams. *Type with has two long horizontal lines above the square center hole which may or may not represent the Chinese character (Hanzi) for "two" (). The diameter of these Wu Zhu cash coins is 23.9 millimeters and their weight is 2.1 grams. *Type with two short horizontal lines above the "Zhu" () character at the left of the square center hole. These two parallel lines represent the Chinese character (Hanzi) for "two" (). These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 23.3 millimeters and a weight of 1.8 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zu cash coins that was cast during the "Six Dynasties period" in Chinese history, during this time some very refined cash coins were cast, however most cash coins from this period can be described as rather crude and inferior. Among these types of cash coin is a Wu Zhu can coin where the "Zhu" () character to the left of the square center hole has been simplified so that only its right side component of "Zhu" () appears. What is further unusual about this type of Wu Zhu cash coins is that there are two vertical bars incused just above the hole which according to Gary Ashkenazy probably represent the Chinese character for "two" (). This type of Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 22.3 millimeters and a weight of 2.5 grams. *There is a Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins that have a short vertical line or bar above the square center hole. This symbol may or may not represent the Chinese number "one" (一) as the purpose of these marks has yet to be revealed by modern archeologists. This series of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to have a diameter is 25.65 millimeters and a weight of 2.6 grams. *There is a type of Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins that on their obverse side have two vertical lines in relief (known as "" in Mandarin Chinese) above the square center hole. The two lines represent the Chinese number "two" () . The diameter of this type of Wu Zhu cash coins is 23.4 millimeters and their weight is 2.1 grams. *Yong Ping Wu Zhu () have long and thin characters. They are attributed to Emperor Xuan of the

Northern Wei dynasty Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei ( zh, c=北魏, p=Běi Wèi), Tuoba Wei ( zh, c=拓跋魏, p=Tuòbá Wèi), Yuan Wei ( zh, c=元魏, p=Yuán Wèi) and Later Wei ( zh, t=後魏, p=Hòu Wèi), was an imperial dynasty of Chi ...

, during the Yong Ping period (510). *Da Tong Wu Zhu () have a stout outer rim, inner rim only by the ''wu''. Crossing lines of ''wu'' straight. Attributed to Emperor Wen of the

Western Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Western Wei (), was an imperial dynasty of China that followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei. One of the Northern dynasties during the era of the Northern and Southern dynasties, it ruled the weste ...

, Datong period (540). *Western Wei Wu Zhu () have crossing lines of ''wu'' straight. The inner rim is by the ''wu'' only. They were previously attributed to the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...

, however coins of this distinctive type were found within the tomb of HouYi of the Western Wei (535–556). *There is a type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins that is distinguished by having two prominent dots (or "stars") on its obverse side below the square center hole. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 23.3 millimeters and a weight of 1.8 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which are from the Eastern Han dynasty that displays three dots (or "stars", as they represent) below the square center hole on its obverse side. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 23 millimeters and a weight of 1.5 grams. *There is an Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coin which on its reverse side has three "stars" (dot) below the square center hole. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter which is 23 millimeters and a weight which is 2 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which to the left has four large slanting dots (which all represent "stars") on its obverse side above the square hole. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 24.2 millimeters and a weight of 2 grams. *There is a type of Wu Zhu cash coins which were all probably cast during the reign of the Eastern Han dynasty, that appear to have what seems to be a series of four "stars" (or "dots") on its reverse side below the square hole. And to the left of these dots (which represent "stars") is a small crescent (which may or may not represent the "moon"), as is what seems to generally be the case with some the very oldest coins with charm-like symbols, the exact meaning and their intent currently remain unclear. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 24.5 millimeters and a weight of 2.8 grams. *Another type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins has five dots (representing "stars") above the square hole. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 24 millimeters and a weight of 2.8 grams. *Another type not too dissimilar as the Eastern Han dynasty wra Wu Zhu cash coins also have five dots (representing "stars") above the square center hole but these in a different configuration. The diameter of these Wu Zhu cash coins is 25 millimeters and their weight is 2.1 grams. *Another type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins have a series of five dots (representing "stars") below the square center hole on its obverse side. The coin's diameter in this type of Wu Zhu cash coins is 23.7 millimeters and their weight is 2.4 grams. *Soke Wu Zhu cash coins with Circles (representing the "Sun") tend to be rather nicely cast, these Wu Zhu cash coins have a "circle" (representing the "sun") below the square center hole. These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 25.2 millimeters and a weight of 4.1 grams. *Some types of Wu Zhu cash coins contain numbers. Among them is yet another type of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu cash coins. This particular type has one horizontal line, which represents the Hanzi character for "one" (一), below the square center hole. This short line which represents the number "one" was neither cut or engraved into the Wu Zhu cash coin. Instead, the symbol was already designed into the mould and even protrudes above the surface of the coin the same as the Hanzi characters "Wu Zhu" (). These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 26.4 millimeters and a weight of 3.1 grams. *Sui Wu Zhu () is hourglass ''wu'', inner rim by the ''wu'' only. They were first cast by Emperor Wen in 581. After introducing these new coins, the Emperor ordered all the frontiers to hand over 100 cash as samples in 583, and the next year strictly forbade the circulation of old coins and commanded that when this was disobeyed, the responsible officials should be fined half a years salary. 1,000 coins weighed 4 ''jin'' 2 ''liang''. Minting privileges were granted to several imperial princes during this reign. *Bai Qian Wu Zhu () has writing as above. The whitish colour of this coin is due to the addition of lead and tin to the alloy, which was done officially from 585. *Yan Huan Wu Zhu () is a Wu Zhu whose middle has been cut out to make two coins. *Some Wu Zhu cash coins have reversed inscriptions similar to the Ban Liang cash coins, these Wu Zhu can coins were cast with the inscription (legend) reversed. Usually, the "Wu" () is on the right side of the cash coin while the "Zhu" (銖) is on the left. On these "reverse inscription" Wu Zhu coins, however, the "Wu" () is on the left side of the cash coin while the "Zhu" (銖) is on the right. The

Mandarin Chinese Mandarin ( ; zh, s=, t=, p=Guānhuà, l=Mandarin (bureaucrat), officials' speech) is the largest branch of the Sinitic languages. Mandarin varieties are spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area that stretch ...

term for this reversal of Chinese characters is ''chuán xíng'' (). Currently, the meaning or significance of reversing the two Chinese characters on these early cash coins is still unknown. *Wu Zhu Coins with Dots or "Stars", Some of these have a very well formed dot or "star" above the upper left corner of the square hole. The "star" (dot) in this variant actually has a small tail which makes it appear similar to a shooting star or a "tadpole lucky cloud". These cash coins generally have a diameter of 25.7 millimeters and a weight of 3.2 grams. *Another type of early Wu Zhu has a dot (or "star") located just above the "Wu" () character at the right of the square center hole. These cash coins tend to have a diameter of 25.8 millimeters and an average weight of 2.4 grams. *Another variant of the Wu Zhu cash coin has a large dot (or "star" in Chinese symbolism) below the character "Wu" () to the right of the square center hole. This type of Wu Zhu cash coins has a diameter of 21.6 millimeters and a weight of 1.4 grams. *There is a Wu Zhu cash coin that has a very large dot (or "star" in Chinese symbolism) just below the square hole, these cash coins notably have no outer rim. For this reason, these cash coin are known as the "Gongshi Nüqian" () and were cast during the Southern dynasties period (which latsted from 420 AD until 589 AD) and were produced in the year 502 AD by Emperor Wu of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...

(a country which existed from the year 502 AD until 557 AD). These cash coins have a diameter of 22.5 millimeters and a weight of 1.4 grams. *During the Eastern Han dynasty (which lasted from 25 AD until 220 AD) a Wu Zhu cash coin with a "star" (represented by a dot) below the square center hole was cast. In certain specimens, however, the dot is not round but

triangular A triangle is a polygon with three corners and three sides, one of the basic shapes in geometry. The corners, also called ''vertices'', are zero-dimensional points while the sides connecting them, also called ''edges'', are one-dimensional ...

in shape. These particular versions of the Wu Zhu cash coin have a diameter of 25.8 millimeters and a weight of 2.7 grams. *There is a Wu Zhu cash coin which on the reverse side has a single "star" (or "dot") located to the left of the square center hole and near the rim of the cash coin. These cash coins have a diameter of 26 millimeters and a weight of 3.1 grams. *There is a Wu Zhu cash coin that has a large triangular dot (or "triangular star") just above the square center hole. Also, it has centered between the lower edge of the square center hole and the rim is a smaller, but well-formed, round dot (or "star"). These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 22 millimeters and a weight of 1.8 grams. *There is a Wu Zhu cash coin that is a well-known variety of Eastern Han dynasty era Wu Zhu coins, which has are two dots inside of the Chinese character "Wu" () on the right side of the Wu Zhu cash coin which gives the appearance of two eyes that are staring right at you. In

Mandarin Chinese Mandarin ( ; zh, s=, t=, p=Guānhuà, l=Mandarin (bureaucrat), officials' speech) is the largest branch of the Sinitic languages. Mandarin varieties are spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area that stretch ...

, this variety is known as the . These Wu Zhu cash coins have a diameter of 23.7 millimeters and a weight of 1.7 grams. *There is a Wu Zhu cash coin that has two very distinct dots (or "stars") on its obverse side above the square center hole. If one were to observe it closely, they would see that this same Wu Zhu cash coin also has two "stars" to the left of the square center hole on its reverse side. This type of Wu Zhu cash coin's diameter is 22.6 millimeters and has a weight of 2.3 grams. *Zao Bian Wu Zhu () is the inner portion of a Wu Zhu whose outer portion has gone to make a thread ring. Surviving moulds show that some Wu Zhus were actually cast like this. *E Yan () or Ji Mu () are the names given to various diminutive Wu Zhu coins. This is a common type with sharp legends which has been found in Western Han tombs of 73–33 BC. * Small coins with no characters. Traditionally ascribed to

Dong Zhuo Dong Zhuo () (c. 140s – 22 May 192), courtesy name Zhongying, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. At the end of the reign of the Eastern Han, Dong Zhuo was a general and powerful ...

(), who in 190 usurped the throne and melted down nine huge

Qin dynasty The Qin dynasty ( ) was the first Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China. It is named for its progenitor state of Qin, a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty (256 BC). Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng enga ...

statues to make coins. Could well have been cast at other times.

Kingdom of Kucha

The Kingdom of

Kucha Kucha or Kuche (also: ''Kuçar'', ''Kuchar''; , Кучар; zh, t= 龜茲, p=Qiūcí, zh, t= 庫車, p=Kùchē; ) was an ancient Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the northern edge of what is now the Taklam ...

was a

Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

state located in present-day Kucha County,

Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...

. It was first recorded during the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

and was later annexed by the Tang. During its time it was a prominent player on the

silk road The Silk Road was a network of Asian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over , it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the ...

. From around the third or fourth century, the Kingdom of Kucha began the manufacture of Wu Zhu cash coins, inspired by the diminutive and devalued Wu Zhus of the post-Han dynasty era in

Chinese history The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...

. There are five known types of Kucha cash coins based on the Chinese Wu Zhus which are usually characterised by the fact that they're diminutive in size, very thin, and tend to have both weak and irregular inscriptions while four of these types tend to have no inscriptions at all. One type of Kucha Wu Zhu cash coin is the "Han Gui bilingual Wu Zhu coin" () which are characterised by the fact that the obverse side resembles Chinese Wu Zhu coins while the reverse sides feature a local Kucha script above and below the square center hole. As the language of the Kingdom of Kucha isn't well preserved in the modern era many hypotheses have been suggested about its meaning including that it is simply a translation of "Wu Zhu" or feature the name of the Kingdom of Kucha in the Kuśiññe language. Cash coins without any inscription cast in this region are generally believed to have been produced between the years 265 and 589, the first variant of these cash coins are round in shape and have a rim around the square centre hole on one side while the other side is rimless, they tend to thin on the outside while they're thick on the inside and weigh between 0.4 grams 1.7 grams, and have a diameter of 9 to 18 millimetres. The second type can be described as similar to the aforementioned type but have no inner rim, these cash coins generally from 8 to 13 millimetres in diameter and have a weight of 0.2 to 0.4 grams. The third type of these cash coins are also completely without rim but are square in shape and have a square centre hole, they tend to be very thin with diameters between 8 and 11 millimetres and weigh between 0.2 and 0.5 grams. The final variant are irregularly shaped, diminutive in size, thin, and are cast of poor workmanship. Some are merely five millimetres in diameter and weigh as little as 0.2 grams. The Buddhist monk

Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...

describes that there are "small bronze coins" in the city of Kucha while he visited there in the year 630 which is mentioned in his work "Great Tang Records on the Western Regions" during the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

. These cash coins are likely to have been the "Han Gui bilingual Wu Zhu coin".

Wu Zhu coins and the emergence of Chinese charms

Wu Zhu cash coins played a central role in the emergence of Chinese numismatic charms, as the Wu Zhu cash coins were cast in enormous quantities during both the

Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring in ...

and the subsequent seven hundred years of its usage not all variants can be directly attributed to every

ruler A ruler, sometimes called a rule, scale, line gauge, or metre/meter stick, is an instrument used to make length measurements, whereby a length is read from a series of markings called "rules" along an edge of the device. Usually, the instr ...

, however "auspicious" symbols such as stars (dots), suns (circles), moons (crescents), numbers,

rod numerals Counting rods (筭) are small bars, typically 3–14 cm (1" to 6") long, that were used by mathematicians for calculation in ancient East Asia. They are placed either horizontally or vertically to represent any integer or rational number. ...

, Hanzi characters, lines, and others started to be used after the Eastern Han dynasty, the reason for the earlier uniformity was the usage of bronze moulds which last for a long time, these moulds continued to be used over and over again by subsequent dynasties. However, as other techniques such as mother coins started to be used some mints started adding these "auspicious" symbols which became the inspiration for later Chinese charms and amulets. Although the usage of some these symbols were already used on the earlier Ban Liang cash coins, they became more common on the Wu Zhu. It unclear why exactly these symbols started being added in large quantities during the

Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

and later but the first Chinese charms and amulets started emulating their design. Some of these early Wu Zhu coins also had the precursors to the "flower" or "rosette" holes found on later cash coins as such coins were discussed in an article in the 1987 (7th issue) of the Chinese periodical "Shaanxi Finance" () which shows rubbings of several Wu Zhu cash coins with unusual center holes found in a hoard.

Wu Zhu charms

Chinese numismatic charms based on Wu Zhu cash coins tend to feature the same "auspicious symbolism" as contemporary Wu Zhu cash coins had themselves including crescents representing the moon, circles representing the sun, and dots representing the stars, in fact to an untrained eye Wu Zhu charms can be interchangeable with regular Wu Zhu coins. Other than these features it's also not uncommon for Wu Zhu charms to feature wholly original iconography from various aspects of

Chinese culture Chinese culture () is one of the Cradle of civilization#Ancient China, world's earliest cultures, said to originate five thousand years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia called the Sinosphere as a whole ...

such as a

dragon A dragon is a Magic (supernatural), magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but European dragon, dragons in Western cultures since the Hi ...

and a

fisherman A fisherman or fisher is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish. Worldwide, there are about 38 million Commercial fishing, commercial and Artisan fishing, subsistence fishers and Fish farming, fi ...

. Other than simply having the inscription "Wu Zhu" some Wu Zhu charms are also based on other variants of the Wu Zhu cash coins with four character inscriptions that incorporate the legend "Wu Zhu". Wu Zhu cash coins are sometimes Integrated into other types of charms and amulets, as there is a variant

Daruma doll A is a hollow, round, Japanese traditional dolls, Japanese traditional doll modeled after Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen tradition of Buddhism. These dolls, though typically red and depicting the Indian monk, Bodhidharma, vary greatly in c ...

which features

Bodhidharma Bodhidharma was a semi-legendary Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th or 6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China, and is regarded as its first Chinese Lineage (Buddhism), patriarch. ...

, the founder of

Zen Buddhism Zen (; from Chinese: '' Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka ph ...

, holding a Northern Wei dynasty period Taihe Wuzhu cash coin.

Wu Zhu coin moulds (gallery)

Image:Bronze wushu coin mould, Han Dynasty.JPG, Photograph by Professor Gary Lee Todd (Professor of History,

SIAS International University Sias University (Sias, ), transliterated Zhengzhou Sias College, and formerly known as Sias International University (), is a privately owned, for-profit post-secondary school in Central China. Formerly affiliated with Zhengzhou University, it is ...

, Xinzheng,

Henan Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...

,

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

) Image:Coin Mould in Shanghai Museum 03 2014-07.JPG,

Shanghai Museum The Shanghai Museum is a municipal public museum of ancient Chinese art, situated on the People's Square in the Huangpu District, Shanghai, Huangpu District of Shanghai, China. It is funded by thShanghai Municipal Culture and Tourism Bureau Reb ...

. Image:Coin Mould in Shanghai Museum 04 2014-07.JPG, Shanghai Museum. Image:Coin Mould in Shanghai Museum 05 2014-07.JPG, Shanghai Museum. Image:Coin Mould in Shanghai Museum 06 2014-07.JPG, Shanghai Museum.

Hoards of Wu Zhu cash coins

In the modern era

hoard A hoard or "wealth deposit" is an archaeological term for a collection of valuable objects or artifacts, sometimes purposely buried in the ground, in which case it is sometimes also known as a cache. This would usually be with the intention of ...

s of Wu Zhu cash coins tend to be very common in China as these coins were produced in large quantities. * In 1980, a golden Wu Zhu cash coin was unearthed in the prefecture-level city of

Xianyang Xianyang ( zh, s=咸阳 , p=Xiányáng) is a prefecture-level city in central Shaanxi province, situated on the Wei River a few kilometers upstream (west) from the provincial capital of Xi'an. Once the capital of the Qin dynasty, it is now int ...

in province of

Shaanxi Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...

. This golden cash coin is 2.6 cm in diameter and was cast during the

Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring in ...

period. * In 2000 at the archeological site of

So Kwun Wat So Kwun Wat, commonly pronounced So Kwun Fat, is an area on the south coast of the western mainland New Territories in Hong Kong. The proper So Kwun Wat is a populated area in the valley between Siu Lam and Sam Shing Hui. It includes So Kwun Ta ...

,

Tuen Mun Tuen Mun () or Castle Peak is an area near the mouth of Tuen Mun River and Castle Peak Bay in the New Territories, Hong Kong. It was one of the earliest settlements in what is now Hong Kong and can be dated to the Neolithic period. In the mo ...

in the special administrative region of

Hong Kong Hong Kong)., Legally Hong Kong, China in international treaties and organizations. is a special administrative region of China. With 7.5 million residents in a territory, Hong Kong is the fourth most densely populated region in the wor ...

over sixty Han dynasty era bronze cash coins were unearthed which included both Ban Liang () and Wu Zhu () cash coins, among the hoard were also pieces of linen and bamboo mats. * In January 2006 during the construction of a plaza in Pingli County,

Shaanxi Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...

a Han dynasty era tomb was uncovered, during its excavation archeologists found 259 Wu Zhu cash coins, 1 tripod made from iron, a pottery kitchen range as well as 3 pottery urns. * On 16 July 2012 a large cache of 14,000 ancient Chinese coins was found in Kuqa,

Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...

which included

Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

era Wu Zhu () and "Chiseled rim Wu Zhu" () cash coins,

Xin dynasty The Xin dynasty (; ), also known as Xin Mang () in Chinese historiography, was a short-lived Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty which lasted from 9 to 23 AD, established by the Han dynasty consort kin Wang Mang, who usurped th ...

era Huo Quan () and Daquan Wushi () cash coins, a

Three Kingdoms period The Three Kingdoms of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu dominated China from AD 220 to 280 following the end of the Han dynasty. This period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and followed by the Western Jin dynasty. Academically, the ...

Taiping Baiqian () cash coins, as well as native cash coins. Alongside the cash coins were shards of pottery as well as fragments of human bones which lead the archeologists believe that this was an old cemetery. * In August 2012 a large hoard of Wu Zhu cash coins and Xin dynasty era cash coins was found in the city of Huoluochaideng,

Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...

. The hoard included 3500 kg of Chinese cash coins and around 150 clay moulds used to manufacture coins from the Xin dynasty. According to archeologists the site might've been a mint that was in operation since the reign of Emperor Wu until Emperor

Wang Mang Wang Mang (45 BCE6 October 23 CE), courtesy name Jujun, officially known as the Shijianguo Emperor (), was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Chinese Xin dynasty. He was originally an official and consort kin of the ...

. * In 2015 Chinese archeologists uncovered 10 tonnes of

bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...

Wu Zhu cash coins from the

Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring in ...

(or around 2 million coins) alongside over ten thousand of other iron, bronze, and gold items in the Haihunhou cemetery near

Nanchang Nanchang is the capital of Jiangxi, China. Located in the north-central part of the province and in the hinterland of Poyang Lake Plain, it is bounded on the west by the Jiuling Mountains, and on the east by Poyang Lake. Because of its strate ...

,

Jiangxi ; Gan: ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = , translit_lang1_type3 = , translit_lang1_info3 = , image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_caption = Location ...

, among the other uncovered items were

bamboo slip Bamboo and wooden strips ( zh, s=简牍, t=簡牘, first=t, p=jiǎndú) are long, narrow strips of wood or bamboo, each typically holding a single column of several dozen brush-written characters. They were the main media for writing documents ...

s, wood tablets, as well as jade objects. As these Wu Zhu cash coins were strung in strings of 1000 pieces this proved that the practice of stringing cash coins per 1000 didn't first happen during the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

as was previously thought but actually six hundred years earlier. * In 2018 in

South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the southern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and borders North Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone, with the Yellow Sea to the west and t ...

26 Wu Zhu cash coins were unearthed in a tomb in Kyongsan,

North Gyeongsang North Gyeongsang Province (, ) is a province in eastern South Korea, and with an area of , it is the largest province in the Korean peninsula. The province was formed in 1896 from the northern half of the former Gyeongsang province, and remaine ...

.

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* {{Chinese currency and coinage Coins of ancient China Economy of China Chinese numismatics Cash coins by inscription

History

Western Han dynasty

Xin dynasty

Chengjia

Eastern Han dynasty

The Three Kingdoms

Jin dynasty and the 16 Kingdoms

Former Liang Kingdom

The Northern and Southern dynasties

Liang dynasty

Chen dynasty

Northern Wei dynasty

Western Wei dynasty

Northern Qi dynasty

Sui dynasty

List of types of Wu Zhu coins

Kingdom of Kucha

Wu Zhu coins and the emergence of Chinese charms

Wu Zhu charms

Wu Zhu coin moulds (gallery)

Hoards of Wu Zhu cash coins

See also

Explanatory notes

References

Sources