In the 19th century, it was observed that the sunlight striking certain materials generates detectable electric current – the

photoelectric effect The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a material caused by electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied in condensed matter physi ...

. This discovery laid the foundation for

solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

s. Solar cells have gone on to be used in many applications. They have historically been used in situations where electrical power from the grid was unavailable. As the invention was brought out it made solar cells as a prominent utilization for power generation for satellites. Satellites orbit the Earth, thus making solar cells a prominent source for power generation through the sunlight falling on them. Solar cells are commonly used in satellites in today's times.

1800s

* 1839 -

Edmond Becquerel Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (; 24 March 1820 – 11 May 1891) was a French physicist who studied the solar spectrum, magnetism, electricity, and optics. In 1839, he discovered the photovoltaic effect, the operating principle of the solar cell, w ...

observes the

photovoltaic effect The photovoltaic effect is the generation of voltage and electric current in a material upon exposure to light. It is a physical phenomenon. The photovoltaic effect is closely related to the photoelectric effect. For both phenomena, light is a ...

via an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light. * 1873 -

Willoughby Smith Willoughby Smith (6 April 1828, in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk – 17 July 1891, in Eastbourne, Sussex) was an English electrical engineer who discovered the photoconductivity of the element selenium. This discovery led to the invention of photoele ...

finds that

selenium Selenium is a chemical element; it has symbol (chemistry), symbol Se and atomic number 34. It has various physical appearances, including a brick-red powder, a vitreous black solid, and a grey metallic-looking form. It seldom occurs in this elem ...

shows

photoconductivity Photoconductivity is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a material becomes more electrically conductive due to the absorption of electromagnetic radiation such as visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared light, or gamma radiation. ...

. * 1874 -

James Clerk Maxwell James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish physicist and mathematician who was responsible for the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, which was the first theory to describe electricity, magnetism an ...

writes to fellow mathematician Peter Tait of his observation that light affects the conductivity of selenium. * 1877 -

William Grylls Adams William Grylls Adams (18 February 1836 in Laneast, Cornwall – 10 April 1915) was professor of Natural Philosophy at King's College, London. He was active in research on subjects ranging from light, magnetism, and astronomy to electrical power ...

and Richard Evans Day observed the

photovoltaic Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. The photovoltaic effect is commercially ...

effect in solidified

, and published a paper on the selenium cell. 'The action of light on selenium,' in "Proceedings of the Royal Society, A25, 113. * 1883 -

Charles Fritts Charles Fritts (1850 – 1903) was an American inventor credited with creating the first working selenium cell in 1883. According to CleanTechnica, the world's first rooftop solar array, using Fritts' selenium cells, was installed in 1884 on a ...

develops a solar cell using selenium on a thin layer of gold to form a device giving less than 1% efficiency. * 1887 -

Heinrich Hertz Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (; ; 22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist who first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves predicted by James Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism. Biography Heinri ...

investigates ultraviolet light photoconductivity and discovers the

* 1887 - James Moser reports dye sensitized photoelectrochemical cell. * 1888 -

Edward Weston Edward Henry Weston (March 24, 1886 – January 1, 1958) was an American photographer. He has been called "one of the most innovative and influential American photographers" and "one of the masters of 20th century photography." Over the course ...

receives patent US389124, "''Solar cell''," and US389125, "''Solar cell''." * 1888–91 -

Aleksandr Stoletov Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov (; 10 August 1839 – 27 May 1896) was a Russian physicist, founder of electrical engineering, and professor in Moscow University. He was the brother of general Nikolai Stoletov. Biography Alexander Stoletov def ...

creates the first

solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

based on the outer

* 1894 - Melvin Severy receives patent US527377, "''Solar cell''," and US527379, "''Solar cell''." * 1897 - Harry Reagan receives patent US588177, "''Solar cell''." * 1899 - Weston Bowser receives patent US598177, "S''olar storage''."

1900–1929

* 1901 -

Philipp von Lenard Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard (; ; 7 June 1862 – 20 May 1947) was a Hungarian-German physicist who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1905 "for his work on cathode rays" and the discovery of many of their properties. One of his most im ...

observes the variation in electron energy with light frequency. * 1904 -

Wilhelm Hallwachs Wilhelm Ludwig Franz Hallwachs (9 July 1859 – 20 June 1922) was a German physicist. He is knownn for the discovery of the photoelectric effect in collaboration with Heinrich Hertz. Life and career Early years Hallwachs was born in 1859 in Dar ...

makes a semiconductor-junction solar cell (

copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...

and

copper oxide Copper oxide is any of several binary compounds composed of the elements copper and oxygen. Two oxides are well known, Cu2O and CuO, corresponding to the minerals cuprite and tenorite, respectively. Paramelaconite () is less well characterized. ...

* 1904 - George Cove develops a solar electric generator. * 1905 -

Albert Einstein Albert Einstein (14 March 187918 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is best known for developing the theory of relativity. Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics. His mass–energy equivalence f ...

publishes a paper explaining the photoelectric effect on a quantum basis. * 1913 -

William Coblentz William Weber Coblentz (November 20, 1873 – September 15, 1962) was an American physicist notable for his contributions to infrared radiometry and spectroscopy. Early life, education, and employment William Coblentz was born in North Lima, Oh ...

receives US1077219, "''Solar cell''." * 1914 -

Sven Ason Berglund Sven is a Scandinavian masculine first name. In Old Norse the meaning was "young man" or "servant" and the original Old Norse spelling was ''sveinn''. Variants such as '' Svend'' are found in Danish and Norwegian. Another variant, '' Svein'' ...

patents "''methods of increasing the capacity of photosensitive cells''." * 1916 -

Robert Millikan Robert Andrews Millikan ( ; March 22, 1868 – December 19, 1953) was an American physicist who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923 "for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect". Millikan gradua ...

conducts experiments and proves the

. * 1918 -

Jan Czochralski Jan Czochralski (; 23 October 1885 – 22 April 1953) was a Polish chemist who invented the Czochralski method, which is used for growing single crystals and in the production of semiconductor wafers. It is still used in over 90 percent of all ...

produces a method to grow single crystals of metal. Decades later, the method is adapted to produce single-crystal

silicon Silicon is a chemical element; it has symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic lustre, and is a tetravalent metalloid (sometimes considered a non-metal) and semiconductor. It is a membe ...

. * 1921 - Einstein awarded the

Nobel Prize in Physics The Nobel Prize in Physics () is an annual award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions to mankind in the field of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the ...

for his work on the photoelectric effect.

1930–1959

* 1932 - Audobert and Stora discover the photovoltaic effect in

Cadmium selenide Cadmium selenide is an inorganic compound with the formula Cd Se. It is a black to red-black solid that is classified as a II-VI semiconductor of the n-type. It is a pigment, but applications are declining because of environmental concerns. ...

(CdSe), a photovoltaic material still used today. * 1935 - Anthony H. Lamb receives patent US2000642, "''Photoelectric device''." * 1946 -

Russell Ohl Russell Shoemaker Ohl (January 30, 1898 – March 20, 1987) was an American scientist who is generally recognized for patenting the modern solar cell (, "Light sensitive device"). Ohl was a notable semiconductor researcher prior to the invention ...

files patent US2402662, "''Light sensitive device''." * 1948 - Gordon Teal and John Little adapt the Czochralski method of crystal growth to produce single-crystalline germanium and, later, silicon. * 1950s -

Bell Labs Nokia Bell Labs, commonly referred to as ''Bell Labs'', is an American industrial research and development company owned by Finnish technology company Nokia. With headquarters located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, Murray Hill, New Jersey, the compa ...

produce solar cells for space activities. * 1953 -

Gerald Pearson Gerald L. Pearson (March 31, 1905 – October 25, 1987) was an American physicist whose work on silicon rectifiers at Bell Labs led to the invention of the solar cell. In 2008, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. Biograph ...

begins research into

lithium Lithium (from , , ) is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard temperature and pressure, standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the ...

photovoltaic cells. * 1954 - On April 25, 1954,

announces the invention of the first practical silicon solar cell. Shortly afterwards, they are shown at the

National Academy of Sciences The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, NGO, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the ...

Meeting. These cells have about 6% efficiency. ''

The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...

'' forecasts that solar cells will eventually lead to a source of "limitless energy of the sun". * 1955 -

Western Electric Western Electric Co., Inc. was an American electrical engineering and manufacturing company that operated from 1869 to 1996. A subsidiary of the AT&T Corporation for most of its lifespan, Western Electric was the primary manufacturer, supplier, ...

licences commercial solar cell technologies.

Hoffman Electronics H. Leslie Hoffman (1906 – June 24, 1971) was an American businessman. He was the founder and CEO of Hoffman Radio from 1941 to 1971, which changed its name to Hoffman Radio and Television in 1948. In the 1950s, he formed Hoffman Electronics ...

-Semiconductor Division creates a 2% efficient commercial solar cell for $25/cell or $1,785/watt. * 1956 -

RCA RCA Corporation was a major American electronics company, which was founded in 1919 as the Radio Corporation of America. It was initially a patent pool, patent trust owned by General Electric (GE), Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Westinghou ...

Joseph J. Loferski published a highly-cited paper titled "Theoretical Considerations Governing the Choice of the Optimum Semiconductor for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion" * 1957 - AT&T assignors ( Gerald L. Pearson, Daryl M. Chapin, and Calvin S. Fuller) receive patent US2780765, "''Solar Energy Converting Apparatus''." They refer to it as the "solar

battery Battery or batterie most often refers to: * Electric battery, a device that provides electrical power * Battery (crime), a crime involving unlawful physical contact Battery may also refer to: Energy source * Battery indicator, a device whic ...

". Hoffman Electronics creates an 8% efficient solar cell. * 1957 –

Mohamed M. Atalla Mohamed M. Atalla (; August 4, 1924 – December 30, 2009) was an Egyptian-American engineer, physicist, cryptographer, inventor and entrepreneur. He was a semiconductor pioneer who made important contributions to modern electronics. He is best ...

develops the process of silicon

surface passivation A surface, as the term is most generally used, is the outermost or uppermost layer of a physical object or space. It is the portion or region of the object that can first be perceived by an observer using the senses of sight and touch, and is ...

thermal oxidation In microfabrication, thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide (usually silicon dioxide) on the surface of a wafer. The technique forces an oxidizing agent to diffuse into the wafer at high temperature and react with it. The ra ...

Bell Laboratories Nokia Bell Labs, commonly referred to as ''Bell Labs'', is an American industrial research and development company owned by Finnish technology company Nokia. With headquarters located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, the company operates several lab ...

. The surface passivation process has since been critical to

solar cell efficiency Solar-cell efficiency is the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via photovoltaics into electricity by the solar cell. The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with latitude an ...

* 1958 - T. Mandelkorn, U.S. Signal Corps Laboratories, creates n-on-p silicon solar cells, which are more resistant to radiation damage and are better suited for space. Hoffman Electronics creates 9% efficient solar cells.

Vanguard I Vanguard 1 (Harvard designation: 1958-Beta 2, COSPAR ID: 1958-002B ) is an American satellite that was the fourth artificial Earth-orbiting satellite to be successfully launched, following Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1. It was launche ...

, the first solar-powered satellite, was launched with a 0.1 W, 100 cm² solar panel. * 1959 - Hoffman Electronics creates a 10% efficient commercial solar cell, and introduces the use of a grid contact, reducing the cell's resistance.

1960–1979

* 1960 - Hoffman Electronics creates a 14% efficient solar cell. * 1961 - "Solar Energy in the Developing World" conference is held by the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...

. * 1962 - The

Telstar Telstar refers to a series of communications satellites. The first two, Telstar 1 and Telstar 2, were experimental and nearly identical. Telstar 1 launched atop of a Thor-Delta rocket on July 10, 1962, successfully relayed the first televisi ...

communications satellite is powered by solar cells. * 1963 -

Sharp Corporation is a Japanese electronics company. It is headquartered in Sakai, Osaka, and was founded by Tokuji Hayakawa in 1912 in Honjo, Tokyo, and established as the Hayakawa Metal Works Institute in Abeno-ku, Osaka, in 1924. Since 2016, it is majority o ...

produces a viable photovoltaic module of silicon solar cells. * 1964 - The satellite Nimbus I is equipped with Sun-tracking solar panels. * 1964 -

Farrington Daniels Farrington Daniels (March 8, 1889 – June 23, 1972) was an American physical chemist who is considered one of the pioneers of the modern direct use of solar energy. Biography Daniels was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota on March 8, 1889. Daniel ...

' landmark book, ''Direct Use of the Sun's Energy'', published by

Yale University Press Yale University Press is the university press of Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day and Clarence Day, grandsons of Benjamin Day, and became a department of Yale University in 1961, but it remains financially and ope ...

. * 1967 -

Soyuz 1 Soyuz 1 (, ''Union 1'') was a crewed spaceflight of the Soviet space program. Launched into orbit on 23 April 1967 carrying cosmonaut colonel Vladimir Komarov, Soyuz 1 was the first crewed flight of the Soyuz spacecraft. The flight was plague ...

is the first ''crewed'' spacecraft to be powered by solar cells * 1967 -

Akira Fujishima is a Japanese chemist and president of Tokyo University of Science. He is known for significant contributions to the discovery and research of photocatalytic and superhydrophilic properties of titanium dioxide (TiO2), which is also known as ...

discovers the Honda-Fujishima effect which is used for

hydrolysis Hydrolysis (; ) is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds. The term is used broadly for substitution reaction, substitution, elimination reaction, elimination, and solvation reactions in which water ...

in the

photoelectrochemical cell A "photoelectrochemical cell" is one of two distinct classes of device. The first produces electrical energy similarly to a dye-sensitized photovoltaic cell, which meets the standard definition of a photovoltaic cell. The second is a photoelect ...

. * 1968 - Roger Riehl introduces the first solar-powered wristwatch. * 1970 - First highly effective

GaAs Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a III-V direct band gap semiconductor with a zinc blende crystal structure. Gallium arsenide is used in the manufacture of devices such as microwave frequency integrated circuits, monolithic microwave integrated circui ...

heterostructure A heterojunction is an interface between two layers or regions of dissimilar semiconductors. These semiconducting materials have unequal band gaps as opposed to a homojunction. It is often advantageous to engineer the electronic energy bands in m ...

solar cells are created by

Zhores Alferov Zhores Ivanovich Alferov ( rus, Жоре́с Ива́нович Алфёров, , ʐɐˈrɛs ɨˈvanəvʲɪtɕ ɐlˈfʲɵrəf}; ; 15 March 19301 March 2019) was a Soviet and Russian physicist and academic who contributed significantly to the cr ...

and his team in the

USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

. * 1971 -

Salyut 1 Salyut 1 (), also known as DOS-1 (Durable Orbital Station 1), was the world's first space station. It was launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Salyut programme, ''Salyut'' program subsequently achieved five m ...

is powered by solar cells. * 1973 -

Skylab Skylab was the United States' first space station, launched by NASA, occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three trios of astronaut crews: Skylab 2, Skylab 3, and Skylab 4. Skylab was constructe ...

is powered by solar cells. * 1974 -

Florida Solar Energy Center The Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) is a research institute of the University of Central Florida, located on a 20-acre (.08 km2) research complex on Florida's Space Coast at UCF's Cocoa, Florida, Cocoa satellite campus. FSEC is the large ...

begins. * 1974 -

J. Baldwin James Tennant Baldwin (May 6, 1933 – March 2, 2018), often known as Jay Baldwin or J. Baldwin, was an American industrial designer and writer. Baldwin was a student of Buckminster Fuller; Baldwin's work was inspired by Fuller's principles and ...

, at Integrated Living Systems, co-develops the world's first building (in New Mexico) heated and otherwise powered by solar and

wind power Wind power is the use of wind energy to generate useful work. Historically, wind power was used by sails, windmills and windpumps, but today it is mostly used to generate electricity. This article deals only with wind power for electricity ge ...

exclusively. * 1976 - David E. Carlson and Christopher Wronski of RCA Laboratories create first amorphous silicon PV cells, which have an efficiency of 2.4%. * 1977 - The Solar Energy Research Institute is established at

Golden, Colorado Golden is a home rule city that is the county seat of Jefferson County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 20,399 at the 2020 United States census. Golden lies along Clear Creek at the base of the Front Range of the Rocky Moun ...

. * 1977 - The world production of photovoltaic cells exceeded 500 kW * 1978 - First solar-powered calculators. * Late 1970s: the "

Energy Crisis An energy crisis or energy shortage is any significant Bottleneck (production), bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an economy. In literature, it often refers to one of the energy sources used at a certain time and place, in particu ...

"; groundswell of public interest in solar energy use:

and active and passive solar, including in architecture and off-grid buildings and home sites.

1980–1999

* 1980 - The Institute of Energy Conversion at University of Delaware develops the first

thin film solar cell Thin-film solar cells are a type of solar cell made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin films or TFs) of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are typically a few nanometers ( nm ...

exceeding 10% efficiency using Cu₂S/CdS technology. * 1981 -

Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE (or Fraunhofer ISE) is an institute of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. Located in Freiburg, Germany, the Institute performs applied scientific and engineering research and development for all a ...

is founded by

Adolf Goetzberger Adolf Goetzberger (29 November 1928 – 24 February 2023) was a German physicist. Life and career Goetzberger studied physics in Munich, Germany. He finished his university studies with a work over ''Über die Kristallisation aufgedampfter Anti ...

in Freiburg, Germany. * 1981 - Isofoton is the first company to mass-produce

bifacial solar cells A bifacial solar cell (BSC) is any photovoltaic solar cell that can produce electrical energy when illuminated on either of its surfaces, front or rear. In contrast, monofacial solar cells produce electrical energy only when photons impinge on ...

based on developments by

Antonio Luque Antonio Luque López (born Málaga, 15 August 1941) is a Spanish scientist and entrepreneur in the field of photovoltaics, photovoltaic solar energy. In 1979 he founded thInstitute of Solar Energyof the Technical University of Madrid (IES-UPM) ...

et al. at the Institute of Solar Energy in Madrid. * 1982 - The first >10%

amorphous silicon Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon used for solar cells and thin-film transistors in LCDs. Used as semiconductor material for a-Si solar cells, or thin-film silicon solar cells, it is deposited in thin films onto ...

thin film solar cell is reported. * 1983 - Worldwide photovoltaic production exceeds 21.3 megawatts, and sales exceed $250 million. * 1984 - 30,000 SF Building-Integrated Photovoltaic I-PVRoof completed for the Intercultural Center of Georgetown University. Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch. took 20th Anniversary Journey by Horseback for Peace and Photovoltaics in 2004 from solar roof to Ground Zero NY World Trade Center to educate public about BI-PV Solar Architecture. Array was still generating an average of one MWh daily as it has since 1984 in the dense urban environment of Washington, DC. * 1985 - 20% efficient silicon cells are created by the Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering at the

University of New South Wales The University of New South Wales (UNSW) is a public research university based in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It was established in 1949. The university comprises seven faculties, through which it offers bachelor's, master's and docto ...

. * 1986 - 'Solar-Voltaic DomeTM' patented by Lt. Colonel Richard T. Headrick of Irvine, California, as an efficient architectural configuration for building-integrated photovoltaics I-PV Hesperia, California field array. * 1988 - The

Dye-sensitized solar cell A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC, DSC, DYSC or Grätzel cell) is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a '' photoelectr ...

is created by

Michael Grätzel Michael Grätzel (born 11 May 1944, in Dorfchemnitz, Saxony, Germany) is a professor at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne where he directs the Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces. He pioneered research on energy and electron tran ...

and Brian O'Regan. These photoelectrochemical cells work from an organic dye compound inside the cell and cost half as much as silicon solar cells. * 1988–1991 AMOCO/Enron used Solarex patents to sue ARCO Solar out of the business of a-Si (see Solarex Corp.(Enron/Amoco) v.Arco Solar, Inc.Ddel, 805 Fsupp 252 Fed Digest.) * 1989 - Reflective solar concentrators are first used with solar cells. * 1990 - The

Magdeburg Cathedral Magdeburg Cathedral (), officially called the Cathedral of Saints Maurice and Catherine (), is a Protestant Church in Germany, Lutheran cathedral in Germany and the oldest Gothic architecture, Gothic cathedral in the country. It is the proto-cat ...

installs solar cells on the roof, marking the first installation on a church in East Germany. * 1991 - Efficient

photoelectrochemical cells A "photoelectrochemical cell" is one of two distinct classes of device. The first electricity generation, produces electrical energy similarly to a dye-sensitized solar cell, dye-sensitized photovoltaic cell, which meets the standard definition of ...

are developed * 1991 - President

George H. W. Bush George Herbert Walker BushBefore the outcome of the 2000 United States presidential election, he was usually referred to simply as "George Bush" but became more commonly known as "George H. W. Bush", "Bush Senior," "Bush 41," and even "Bush th ...

directs the

U.S. Department of Energy The United States Department of Energy (DOE) is an executive department of the U.S. federal government that oversees U.S. national energy policy and energy production, the research and development of nuclear power, the military's nuclear we ...

to establish the

National Renewable Energy Laboratory The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in the US specializes in the research and development of renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy systems integration, and sustainable transportation. NREL is a federally funded research and ...

(transferring the existing Solar Energy Research Institute). * 1992 - The PV Pioneer Program started at Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD). It was the first broad based commercialization of distributed, grid-connected PV system ("roof-top solar") It became the model for the later CA Million Solar Roofs Program. * 1992 - University of South Florida fabricates a 15.89% efficient thin-film cell. * 1993 - The

's (NREL) Solar Energy Research Facility is established. * 1994 - NREL develops a GaInP/GaAs two-terminal concentrator cell (180 suns) which becomes the first solar cell to exceed 30% conversion efficiency. * 1996 - The National Center for Photovoltaics is established. Graetzel,

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne The École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (, EPFL) is a public university, public research university in Lausanne, Switzerland, founded in 1969 with the mission to "train talented engineers in Switzerland". Like its sister institution E ...

Lausanne Lausanne ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest List of towns in Switzerland, city of the Swiss French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland, canton of Vaud, in Switzerland. It is a hilly city situated on the shores of Lake Geneva, about halfway bet ...

, Switzerland achieves 11% efficient energy conversion with dye-sensitized cells that use a photoelectrochemical effect. * 1999 - Total worldwide installed photovoltaic power reaches 1,000 megawatts.

2000–2019

* 2003 - George Bush has a 9 kW PV system and a solar thermal systems installed on grounds keeping building at the White House * 2004 - California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger proposed Solar Roofs Initiative for one million solar roofs in California by 2017. * 2004 - Kansas Governor Kathleen Sebelius issued a mandate for 1,000 MWp renewable electricity in Kansas by 2015 per Executive Order 04-05. * 2006 -

Polysilicon Polycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline silicon, also called polysilicon, poly-Si, or mc-Si, is a high purity, polycrystalline form of silicon, used as a raw material by the solar photovoltaic and electronics industry. Polysilicon is produ ...

use in

photovoltaics Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. The photovoltaic effect is commerciall ...

exceeds all other polysilicon use for the first time. * 2006 - California Public Utilities Commission approved the California Solar Initiative (CSI), a comprehensive $2.8 billion program that provides incentives toward solar development over 11 years. * 2006 - New World Record Achieved in Solar Cell Technology - New Solar Cell Breaks the "40 Percent Efficient" Sunlight-to-Electricity Barrier. * 2007 - Construction of Nellis Solar Power Plant, a 15 MW PPA installation. * 2007 - The Vatican announced that in order to conserve Earth's resources they would be installing solar panels on some buildings, in "a comprehensive energy project that will pay for itself in a few years." * 2007 - University of Delaware claims to achieve new world record in Solar Cell Technology without independent confirmation: 42.8% efficiency. * 2007 -

Nanosolar Nanosolar was a developer of solar power technology. Based in San Jose, CA, Nanosolar developed and briefly commercialized a low-cost printable solar cell manufacturing process. The company started selling thin-film CIGS panels mid-December 20 ...

ships the first commercial printed CIGS, claiming that they will eventually ship for less than $1/

watt The watt (symbol: W) is the unit of Power (physics), power or radiant flux in the International System of Units (SI), equal to 1 joule per second or 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−3. It is used to quantification (science), quantify the rate of Work ...

. However, the company does not publicly disclose the technical specifications or current selling price of the modules. * 2008 - New record achieved in solar cell efficiency. Scientists at the

(NREL) have set a world record in solar cell efficiency with a photovoltaic device that converts 40.8% of the light that hits it into electricity. However, it was only under the concentrated energy of 326 suns that this was achieved. The inverted metamorphic

triple-junction solar cell Multi-junction (MJ) solar cells are solar cells with multiple p–n junctions made of different semiconductor materials. Each material's p–n junction will produce electric current in response to different wavelengths of light. The use of mult ...

was designed, fabricated and independently measured at NREL. * 2010 −

IKAROS IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun) is a Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) experimental spacecraft. The spacecraft was launched on 20 May 2010, aboard an H-IIA rocket, together with the ''Akatsuki'' (V ...

becomes the first spacecraft to successfully demonstrate

solar sail Solar sails (also known as lightsails, light sails, and photon sails) are a method of spacecraft propulsion using radiation pressure exerted by sunlight on large surfaces. A number of spaceflight missions to test solar propulsion and navigati ...

technology in interplanetary space. * 2010 - US President

Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...

orders installation of additional solar panels and a solar water heater at the

White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest (Washington, D.C.), NW in Washington, D.C., it has served as the residence of every U.S. president ...

* 2011 - Fast-growing factories in China push manufacturing costs down to about $1.25 per watt for silicon photovoltaic modules. Installations double worldwide. * 2013 - After three years, the solar panels ordered by

President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...

Barack Obama were installed on the White House. Worldwide Photovoltaic Deployment in Watts per Capita by Country

* 2016 -

engineers established a new world record for unfocused sunlight conversion to electricity with an efficiency increase to 34.5

The record was set by UNSW's Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP) using a 28 cm² four-junction mini-module – embedded in a Prism (optics), prism – that extracts the maximum energy from sunlight. It does this by splitting the incoming rays into four bands, using a four-junction receiver to squeeze even more electricity from each beam of sunlight. * 2016 -

First Solar First Solar, Inc. is a publicly traded American manufacturer of solar panels, and provider of utility-scale PV power plants, supporting services that include finance, construction, maintenance and end-of-life panel recycling. First Solar uses ...

says it has converted 22.1 percent of the energy in sunlight into electricity using experimental cells made from cadmium telluride—a technology that today represents around 5 percent of the worldwide solar power market. * 2018 -

Alta Devices Alta Devices was a US-based specialty gallium arsenide (GaAs) PV manufacturer, which claimed to have achieved a solar cell conversion efficiency record of 29.1%, as certified by Germany's Fraunhofer ISE CalLab. The company has ceased operation ...

, a US-based specialty

gallium arsenide Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a III-V direct band gap semiconductor with a Zincblende (crystal structure), zinc blende crystal structure. Gallium arsenide is used in the manufacture of devices such as microwave frequency integrated circuits, monoli ...

(GaAs) PV manufacturer, claimed to have achieved a

solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

conversion efficiency Energy conversion efficiency (''η'') is the ratio between the useful output of an energy conversion machine and the input, in energy terms. The input, as well as the useful output may be chemical, electric power, mechanical work, light (radia ...

record of 29.1%, as certified by Germany's Fraunhofer ISE CalLab. * 2018 - The first dedicated solar panel recycling plant in Europe and "possibly in the world" is opened in France. * 2019 – The world record for

at 47.1% was achieved by using multi-junction

concentrator In telecommunications, the term concentrator has the following meanings: * In data transmission, a functional unit that permits a common path to handle more data sources than there are channels currently available within the path. A concentrator ...

solar cells, developed at National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, USA. This is above the standard rating of 37% for polycrystalline photovoltaic or thin-film solar cells as of 2018. It was reported in a study published in 2020. NREL PV Cell Record Efficiency Chart

2020s

2020

Solar cell efficiency Solar-cell efficiency is the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via photovoltaics into electricity by the solar cell. The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with latitude an ...

perovskite solar cell A perovskite solar cell (PSC) is a type of solar cell that includes a perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic–inorganic lead or tin halide-based material as the light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials, such a ...

s have increased from 3.8% in 2009 to 25.2% in 2020 in single-junction architectures, and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.1%, exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells. * 6 March – Scientists show that adding a layer of

perovskite Perovskite (pronunciation: ) is a calcium titanium oxide mineral composed of calcium titanate (chemical formula ). Its name is also applied to the class of compounds which have the same type of crystal structure as , known as the perovskite (stru ...

crystals on top of textured or planar silicon to create a tandem solar cell enhances its performance up to a power conversion efficiency of 26%. This could be a low cost way to increase efficiency of

solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

s. * 13 July – The first global assessment into promising approaches of solar photovoltaic modules recycling is published. Scientists recommend "research and development to reduce recycling costs and environmental impacts compared to disposal while maximizing material recovery" as well as facilitation and use of techno–economic analyses. * 3 July – Scientists show that adding an organic-based ionic solid into

perovskites A perovskite is a crystalline material of formula ABX3 with a crystal structure similar to that of Perovskite, the mineral perovskite, this latter consisting of calcium titanium oxide (CaTiO3). The mineral was first discovered in the Ural Moun ...

can result in substantial improvement in

solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

performance and stability. The study also reveals a complex degradation route that is responsible for failures in aged

s. The understanding could help the future development of

technologies with industrially relevant longevity.

2021

* 12 April – Scientists develop a prototype and

design A design is the concept or proposal for an object, process, or system. The word ''design'' refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, and is sometimes used to refer to the inherent nature of something ...

rules for both-sides-contacted

solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

s with conversion efficiencies of 26% and above, Earth's highest for this type of solar cell. * 7 May – Researchers address a key problem of

s by increasing their stability and long-term reliability with a form of "molecular glue". * 21 May – The first industrial commercial production line of perovskite solar panels, using an inkjet printing procedure, is launched in Poland. * 13 December – Researchers report the development of a database and analysis tool about

s which systematically integrates over 15,000 publications, in particular device-data about over 42,400 of such photovoltaic devices. * 16 December – ML System from Jasionka, Poland, opens first quantum glass production line. The factory started the production of windows integrating a transparent quantum-dots layer that can produce electricity while also capable of cooling buildings.

2022

* 30 May - A team at Fraunhofer ISE led by Frank Dimroth developed a 4-junction solar cell with an efficiency of 47.6% - a new world record for solar energy conversion. * 13 July – Researchers report the development of semitransparent solar cells that are as large as windows, after team members achieved record efficiency with high transparency in 2020. On 4 July, researchers report the fabrication of solar cells with a record average visible transparency of 79%, being nearly invisible. *9 December – Researchers report the development of 3D-printed flexible paper-thin organic photovoltaics. *19 December – A new world record

for a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell is achieved, with a German team of scientists converting 32.5% of sunlight into electrical energy.

2024

* 12 March – Scientists demonstrate the first monolithically integrated tandem solar cell using

as the photoabsorbing layer in the top cell, and

as the photoabsorbing layer in the bottom cell.

2025

References

External links

* "
Solar Resources
'". SunPower Corporation, 2004. * "
History: Photovoltaics Timeline
'". About, Inc., 2005. * Lenardic, Denis, "
Photovoltaics - Historical Development
'". PVResources.com, 2015. * Perlin, John, "'". Rahus Institute, 2002. * Trinkaus, George, "''The Lost Inventions of Nikola Tesla''"

Chapter 9.
Firm ups solar cell forecast for 2006, 2007
{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline Of Solar Cells Electrical-engineering-related lists

Solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

Solar cells A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.

* *

1800s

1900–1929

1930–1959

1960–1979

1980–1999

2000–2019

2020s

2020

2021

2022

2024

2025

See also

References

External links