Thai Literature
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300px, ''Samut Thai'', a traditional medium for recordation and transmission of Thai and other literature in mainland Southeast Asia Thai literature is the literature of the
Thai people Thai people, historically known as Siamese people, are an ethnic group native to Thailand. In a narrower and ethnic sense, the Thais are also a Tai peoples, Tai ethnic group dominant in Central Thailand, Central and Southern Thailand (Siam prope ...
, almost exclusively written in the
Thai language Thai,In or Central Thai (historically Siamese;Although "Thai" and "Central Thai" have become more common, the older term, "Siamese", is still used by linguists, especially when it is being distinguished from other Tai languages (Diller 2008:6 ...
(although different scripts other than Thai may be used). Most of imaginative literary works in Thai, before the 19th century, were composed in
poetry Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ...
. Prose was reserved for historical records, chronicles, and legal documents. Consequently, the poetical forms in the Thai language are both numerous and highly developed. The corpus of Thailand's pre-modern poetic works is large. Thus, although many literary works were lost with the sack of Ayutthaya in 1767, Thailand still possesses a large number of epic poems or long poetic tales —some with original stories and some with stories drawn from foreign sources. There is thus a sharp contrast between the Thai literary tradition and that of other East Asian literary traditions, such as Chinese and Japanese, where long poetic tales are rare and epic poems are almost non-existent. The Thai classical literature exerted a considerable influence on the literature of neighboring countries in mainland Southeast Asia, especially
Cambodia Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
and
Burma Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...
.


The development of Thai classical literature


Origins

As speakers of the Tai language family, the Siamese share literary origins with other Tai speakers in mainland Southeast Asia. It is possible that the early literature of the Thai people may have been written in Chinese. However, no historical record of the Siamese thus far refers to these earlier literature. The Thai poetical tradition was originally based on indigenous poetical forms such as ''rai'' (ร่าย), ''khlong'' (โคลง), ''kap'' (กาพย์), and ''klon'' (กลอน). Some of these poetical forms—notably ''Khlong'' - have been shared between the speakers of Tai languages since ancient time (before the emergence of Siam). An early representative work of ''Khlong'' poetry is the epic poem ''Thao Hung Thao Cheuang'', a shared epic story, about a Khmer noble warrior in mainland Southeast Asia.


Indian influence on the Siamese language

250px, A Siamese ''Khon'' dramatic troupe with accompanying "Mahoree" instrumental band Through
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
's and
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
's influence, a variety of '' Chanda'' prosodic meters were received via
Ceylon Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
. Since the Thai language is mono-syllabic, a huge number of loan words from
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
and
Pali Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a Classical languages of India, classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pali Canon, Pāli Can ...
are needed to compose in these classical Sanskrit meters. According to B.J. Terwiel, this process occurred with an accelerated pace during the reign of King Boromma-trailokkanat (1448-1488) who reformed Siam's model of governance by turning the Siamese polity into an empire under the
mandala A mandala (, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid ...
feudal system. The new system demanded a new imperial language for the ruling noble classes. This literary influence changed the course of the Thai or Siamese language—setting it apart from other ''Tai'' languages—by increasing the number of Sanskrit and Pali words and imposing the demand on the Thai to develop a writing system that preserved the orthography of Sanskrit words for literary purposes. By the 15th century, the Thai language had evolved into a distinctive medium along with a nascent literary identity of a new nation. It allowed Siamese poets to compose in different poetical styles and mood—from playful and humorous rhymed verses, to romantic and elegant ''khlong'' and to polished and imperious ''chan'' prosodies which were modified from classical Sanskrit meters. Thai poets experimented with these different prosodic forms, producing innovative "hybrid" poems such as ''Lilit'' (—an interleave of ''khlong'' and ''kap'' or ''rai'' verses), or ''Kap hor Klong'' ( - a series of ''khlong'' poems each of which is enveloped by ''kap'' verses). The Thai thus developed a keen mind and a keen ear for poetry. To maximize this new literary medium, however, a rather intensive classical education in Pali and Sanskrit was required. This made "serious poetry" an occupation of the noble classes. However, B.J. Terwiel notes, citing a 17th-century Thai text book ''Jindamanee'', that scribes and common Siamese men, too, were encouraged to learn basic Pali and Sanskrit terms for career advancement. Thai poetry and literary production came to dominate the learned literature of the Tai-speaking world from the mid-Ayutthaya period until the 20th century. As J. Layden observed, in ''On the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations'' (1808):


''Ramakien''

250px, Hanuman protects Ramas Pavilion (wall painting, "Room 53" of the gallery in the Wat Phra Kaeo) Most countries in Southeast Asia share an Indianised culture. Thai literature was heavily influenced by the
Indian culture Indian culture is the heritage of social norms and technologies that originated in or are associated with the ethno-linguistically diverse nation of India, pertaining to the Indian subcontinent until 1947 and the Republic of India post-1947. ...
and Buddhist-Hindu ideology since the time it first appeared in the 13th century.
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
's
national epic A national epic is an epic poem or a literary work of epic scope which seeks to or is believed to capture and express the essence or spirit of a particular nation—not necessarily a nation state, but at least an ethnic or linguistic group wi ...
is a version of the
Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
called the ''
Ramakien The (, , ; ; sometimes also spelled ) is one of Thailand's national epics. It is a Thai version of the ancient Indian epic ''Ramayana'', and an important part of the Thai literature, Thai literary canon. King Rama VI was the first person t ...
'', received from the
Khmer people The Khmer people (, Romanization of Khmer#UNGEGN, UNGEGN: , Romanization of Khmer#ALA-LC Romanization Tables, ALA-LC: ) are an Austroasiatic ethnic group native to Cambodia. They comprise over 95% of Cambodia's population of 17 million.https ...
through the Lavo Kingdom. The importance of the Ramayana epic in Thailand is due to the Thai's adoption of the Hindu religio-political ideology of kingship, as embodied by the Lord Rama. The former Siamese capital, Ayutthaya, was named after the holy city of
Ayodhya Ayodhya () is a city situated on the banks of the Sarayu river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ayodhya district as well as the Ayodhya division of Uttar Pradesh, India. Ayodhya became th ...
, the city of Lord Rama. All Thai kings have been referred to as "Rama" to the present day. The mythical tales and epic cycle of ''Ramakien'' provide the Siamese with a rich and perennial source for dramatic materials. The royal court of Ayutthaya developed classical dramatic forms of expression called '' khon'' and '' lakhon''. ''Ramakien'' played a great role in shaping these dramatic arts. During the Ayutthaya period, ''khon'', or a dramatized version of Ramakien, was classified as '' lakhon nai'' or a theatrical performance reserved for aristocratic audiences. A French diplomat, Simon de La Loubère, witnessed and documented it in 1687, during a formal diplomatic mission sent by King
Louis XIV LouisXIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great () or the Sun King (), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the List of longest-reign ...
. The Siamese drama and classical dance later spread throughout mainland Southeast Asia and influenced the art in neighboring countries, including Burma's own version of Ramayana, Cambodia, and Laos. A number of versions of the Ramakien epic were lost in the destruction of
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to: * Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767 ** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom * Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locall ...
in 1767. Three versions currently exist. One of these was prepared under the supervision (and partly written by) King
Rama I Phutthayotfa Chulalok (born Thongduang; 20 March 1737 – 7 September 1809), also known by his regnal name Rama I, was the founder of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (now Thailand) and the first King of Siam from the reigning Chakri dynasty. He asc ...
. His son,
Rama II Phutthaloetla Naphalai (born Chim; 24 February 1767 or 1768 – 21 July 1824), also known by his regnal name Rama II, was the second King of Siam from the Chakri dynasty, ruling from 1809 to 1824. In 1809, Itsarasunthon succeeded his father R ...
, rewrote some parts for khon drama. The main differences from the original are an extended role for the monkey god
Hanuman Hanuman (; , ), also known as Maruti, Bajrangabali, and Anjaneya, is a deity in Hinduism, revered as a divine ''vanara'', and a devoted companion of the deity Rama. Central to the ''Ramayana'', Hanuman is celebrated for his unwavering devotio ...
and the addition of a
happy ending A happy ending is an ending of the plot of a work of fiction in which there is a positive outcome for the protagonist or protagonists, and in which this is to be considered a favourable outcome. In storylines where the protagonists are in phy ...
. Many of popular poems among the Thai nobles are also based on Indian stories. One of the most famous is Anirut Kham Chan which is based on an ancient Indian story of Prince Anirudha.


Literature of the Sukhothai period

The Thai alphabet emerged as an independent writing system around 1283. One of the first work composed in it was the inscription of King Ram Khamhaeng () or Ram Khamhaeng stele, composed in 1292, which serves both as the King's biography and as the Kingdom's chronicle. The influence of
Theravada Buddhism ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' ( anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or '' Dhamma'' in ...
is shown in most pre-modern Thai literary works. '' Traibhumikatha'' or ''Trai Phum Phra Ruang'' (, "The Three Worlds according to King Ruang"), one of the earliest Thai cosmological treatise, was composed around the mid-14th century. It is acknowledged to be one of the oldest traditional works of Thai literature. The ''Trai Phum Phra Ruang'' explains the composition of the universe, which, according to the Theravada Buddhist Thai, consists of three different "worlds" or levels of existence and their respective mythological inhabitants and creatures. The year of composition was dated at 1345 CE, whereas the authorship is traditionally attributed to the then designated heir to the throne and later King LiThai () of Sukhothai. ''Traibhumikatha'' is a work of high scholarly standard. In composing it, King Lithai had to consult over 30 Buddhist treatises, including
Tripitaka There are several Buddhist canons, which refers to the various scriptural collections of Buddhist sacred scriptures or the various Buddhist scriptural canons.
() and Milinda Panha. It is acclaimed to be the first research dissertation in Thai literary history.


Literature of the Ayutthaya period

One of the representative works of the early
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to: * Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767 ** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom * Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locall ...
period is Lilit Ongkan Chaeng Nam (), an incantation in verse to be uttered before the gathering of courtiers, princes of foreign land, and representatives of vassal states at the taking of the oath of allegiance ceremony. It was a ritual to promote loyalty and close domestic and foreign alliances.


''Lilit'' poetry

A ''lilit'' () is a literary format which interleaves poetic verses of different metrical nature to create a variety of pace and cadence in the music of the poetry. The first Lilit poem to appear is '' Lilit Yuan Phai'' ( 'the defeat of the Yuan', composed during the early-Ayutthaya period (c. 1475 CE). ''Yuan Phai'' is the Thai equivalent of the Song of Roland. It is an epic war poem of about 1180 lines, narrating the key events of the war between King Borommatrailokkanat (1448–1488) and King Tilokaraj of
Lan Na The Lan Na kingdom or the Kingdom of Lanna (, , "Kingdom of a Million Rice Fields"; , , ), also known as Lannathai, was an Indianized state centered in present-day Northern Thailand from the 13th to the 18th centuries. The cultural developmen ...
, and providing a victory ode for the King of Siam. The importance of ''Yuan Phai'' is not limited to just being the oldest surviving example of Lilit poetry. It serves also as an important historical account of the war between Siam and Lan Na, as well as an evidence of the Siamese's theory of kingship that was evolving during the reign of Borommatrailokkanat. Another famous piece of lilit poetry is '' Lilit Phra Lo'' () (c. 1500), a tragico-romantic epic poem that employed a variety of poetical forms. ''Phra Lo'' is roughly 2,600 lines in length. It is one of the major ''lilit'' compositions still surviving today and is considered to be the best among them. ''Phra Lo'' is considered to be one of the earliest Thai poems that evoke sadness and tragic emotions. The story ends with the tragic death of the eponymic hero and two beautiful princesses with whom he was in love. The erotic theme of the poem also made ''Phra Lo'' controversial among the Siamese noble classes for generations. While its author is unknown, ''Phra Lo'' is believed to have been written around the beginning of King Ramathibodi II's reign (1491-1529), and certainly not later than 1656, since a part of it was recited in a Thai textbook composed in the King Narai's reign. The plot probably came from a folk tale in the north of Thailand. Its tragic story has universal appeal and its composition is considered to be a high achievement under the Thai poetic tradition.


Maha-chat Kham Luang: the "Great Birth" sermon

The third major work of this period is '' Mahajati Kham Luang'' or ''Mahachat Kham Luang'' (), the Thai epic account of the "Great Birth" (maha-jati) of Vessantara Bodhisatta, the last final life before he became the Buddha. ''Mahachat'' was written in the style of the Buddhist chant (ร่าย) combining Pali verses with Thai poetical narrative. In 1492, King Borommatrailokkanat authorized a group of scholars to write a poem based on the story of Vessantara Jataka, believed to be the greatest of Buddha's incarnations. Their joint effort was this great work and the precedence of reciting Maha, the Great Life, was then established. ''Mahachat'' has traditionally been divided into 13 books. Six of them were lost during the sack of Ayutthaya and were ordered to be recomposed in 1815. There are many versions of ''Mahachat'' in Thailand today.


Royal panegyrics

The royal panegyric is a prominent genre in Thai poetry, possibly influenced by the Praśasti genre in
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
. Passages in praise of kings appear in inscriptions from the Sukhothai kingdom. Praise of the king is a large element in
Yuan Phai ''Yuan Phai'' (, also known as ''Lilit Yuan Phai'', , #Form and meter, see below for details), "Defeat of the Yuan," is a historical epic poem in the Thai language about rivalry between Kingdom of Ayudhya, Ayutthaya and Lanna culminating in a bat ...
, a 15th-century war poem. The first work framed and titled specifically as a royal panegyric was the '' Eulogy of King Prasat Thong'' about King
Narai King Narai the Great (, , ) or Ramathibodi III ( ) was the 27th monarch of Ayutthaya Kingdom, the 4th and last monarch of the Prasat Thong dynasty. He was the king of Ayutthaya Kingdom from 1656 to 1688 and arguably the most famous king of the ...
’s father and predecessor, probably composed early in King
Narai King Narai the Great (, , ) or Ramathibodi III ( ) was the 27th monarch of Ayutthaya Kingdom, the 4th and last monarch of the Prasat Thong dynasty. He was the king of Ayutthaya Kingdom from 1656 to 1688 and arguably the most famous king of the ...
’s reign. The " Eulogy of King Narai", composed around 1680, includes a description of the
Lopburi Lopburi (, , ) is the capital city of Lopburi Province in Thailand. It is about northeast of Bangkok. It has a population of 58,000. The town ('' thesaban mueang'') covers the whole ''tambon'' Tha Hin and parts of Thale Chup Son of Muea ...
palace and an account of an elephant hunt.


Nirat: The Siamese tradition of parting and longing poetry

The ''nirat'' () is a lyrical genre, popular in Thai literature, which can be translated as 'farewell poetry'. The core of the poetry is a travel description, but essential is the longing for the absent lover. The poet describes his journey through landscapes, towns, and villages, but he regularly interrupts his description to express his feelings for and thoughts of the abandoned lover. Nirat poetry probably originated from the
Northern Thai people The Northern Thai people or Tai Yuan (, ), self-designation ''khon mueang, mu(e)ang'' ( meaning "people of the (cultivated) land" or "people of our community"), are a Tai peoples, Tai ethnic group, native to nine provinces in Northern Thailan ...
. ''Nirat Hariphunchai'' (1637) is traditionally believed to be the first Nirat to appear in the Thai language. However, the Thai ''nirat'' tradition could prove to be much older, depending on whether ''Khlong Thawathotsamat'' could be dated back to the reign of King Borommatrailokkanat (1431-1488). Siamese poets composed Nirat with different poetical device. During the Ayutthaya period, poets liked to compose Nirat poems using '' ''khlong'''' (โคลง) and '' ''kap'''' (กาพย์) metrical variety. Prince Thammathibet (1715-1755) () was a renowned Nirat poet whose works are still extant today. 300px, ''Tamra Maew Suphalak'' manuscript (), a Thai treatise on cat breeding, composed in verse, from the Ayutthaya era Other representatives of this genus are Si Prat (1653-1688) () and
Sunthorn Phu Phra Sunthorn Vohara (Phu) (, , ; 26 June 1786 – 1855), known as Sunthorn Phu (, , ), was a Thai poet. He is often referred to as the "Shakespeare of Thailand." Born four years after the founding of the Rattanakosin Kingdom, he entered royal ...
(1786-1855) (). Since nirat poems record what the poet sees or experiences during his journey, they represent an information source for the Siamese culture as well as history in the premodern time. This poetical genre later spread, first to Myanmar in the late 18th Century, and then Cambodia in the mid 19th century, at the time when Cambodia was heavily influenced by the Siamese culture. Famous poems in the ''nirat'' genre during the Ayutthaya period are: * ''Khlong Thawathotsamāt'' (c. 1450?) (; "the Twelve-Month Song"): ''Thawathotsamat'' is a 1,037-line nirat poem in ''khlong'' meter. It is believed to be composed by a group of royal poets rather than by one man. It is formerly thought to be composed during the reign of King
Narai King Narai the Great (, , ) or Ramathibodi III ( ) was the 27th monarch of Ayutthaya Kingdom, the 4th and last monarch of the Prasat Thong dynasty. He was the king of Ayutthaya Kingdom from 1656 to 1688 and arguably the most famous king of the ...
, but in fact the language of this poem suggests a much older period. The large number of Sanskrit words in ''Thawathotsamat'' suggests that it was composed perhaps in the reign of King Borommatrailokkanat (1431-1488) when such literary style was common. ''Thawathotsamat'' is also an important work of Thai literature because it records the knowledge about specific traditions and norms practiced by Thai people in each month of a year. ''Thawathotsamat'' is also unique among the ''nirat'' genre of poetry because the poet(s) do not travel anywhere but they nonetheless express the longing and sadness that each month of separation from their loved ones brings. * ''Khlong Nirat Hariphunchai'' (; account of a journey from
Chiang Mai Chiang Mai, sometimes written as Chiengmai or Chiangmai, is the largest city in northern Thailand, the capital of Chiang Mai province and the List of municipalities in Thailand#Largest cities by urban population, second largest city in Thailan ...
to
Wat Phra That Hariphunchai Wat Phra That Hariphunchai () is a Buddhist temple (''wat'') in Lamphun town, Lamphun, Thailand. The temple's origins date from the 11th century but the central stupa is thought to originate in the 9th century. History Wat Phra That Hariphunchai' ...
in
Lamphun Lamphun (; , ) is a town ('' thesaban mueang'') in northern Thailand, capital of Lamphun Province. It covers the whole ''tambon'' Nai Mueang of Mueang Lamphun district. As of 2006 it has a population of 14,030. Lamphun lies north of Bangkok and ...
, possibly dated to 1517/8. The royal author laments over his separation from a beloved named Si Thip. * ''Khlong Kamsuan Sīprāt'' (; "the mournful song of Sīprāt") by Sīprāt: A nirat poem composed in ''khlong dàn'' () meter. * ''Kap Hor Khlong Nirat Thansōk'' (; "a nirat at Thansōk stream in kap-hor-khlong verse") (c. 1745) by Prince Thammathibet: a nirat poem composed in a special style of ''kap hor khlong'' - where each of the ''khlong'' poems is enclosed in ''kap'' verses. This is a rare example of a highly polished and stately style of Thai poetry. ''Nirat Thansōk'' is 152-stanza long (1,022 lines). * ''Kap Hor Khlong Praphat Than-Thongdang'' (; "a royal visit at Than-Thongdang stream in kap-hor-khlong verse") (c. 1745) by Prince Thammathibet. Another rare example of ''kap hor khlong'' genre. Only 108 stanzas of this poem have been found. The other half seems to have been lost.


The Siamese epic ''Khun Chang Khun Phaen''

In the Ayutthaya period, folktales also flourished. One of the most famous folktales is the story of '' Khun Chang Khun Phaen'' (), referred to in Thailand simply as "''Khun Phaen''", which combines the elements of romantic comedy and heroic adventures, ending in the tragic death of one of the main protagonists. The epic of ''Khun Chang Khun Phaen'' (KCKP) revolves around ''Khun Phaen'', a Siamese general with super-human magical power who served the King of Ayutthaya, and his love-triangle relationship between himself, Khun Chang, and a beautiful Siamese girl named Wan-Thong. The composition of KCKP, much like other orally-transmitted epics, evolved over time. It originated as a recreational recitation or ''
sepha Sepha (, ) is a genre of Thai poetic storytelling that had its origins in the performances of troubadours who stylized recitations were accompanied by two small clappers, sticks of wood (called in Thai '' krap sepha'' and in Khmer ''Krap chmol' ...
'' within the Thai oral tradition from around the beginning of the 17th century (c.1600). Siamese
troubadour A troubadour (, ; ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word ''troubadour'' is etymologically masculine, a female equivalent is usually called a ''trobairitz''. The tr ...
s and
minstrel A minstrel was an entertainer, initially in medieval Europe. The term originally described any type of entertainer such as a musician, juggler, acrobat, singer or fool; later, from the sixteenth century, it came to mean a specialist enter ...
s added more subplots and embellished scenes to the original storyline as time went on. By the late period of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, it had attained the current shape as a long work of
epic poem In poetry, an epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. With regard to ...
with the length of about 20,000 lines, spanning 43 '' samut thai'' books. The version that exists today was composed with ''klon'' meter throughout and is referred to in Thailand as ''nithan Kham Klon'' () meaning a ''poetic tale''. A standard edition of KCKP, as published by the National Library, is 1085-page long. 295px, Samut Thai mss of ''Khun Chang Phun Phaen''; the text recounts the scene where Khun Phaen rescues Wanthong from arrest As the national epic of the Siamese people, ''Khun Chang Khun Phaen'' is unique among other major epic poems of the world in that it concerns the struggles, romance, and martial exploits of non-aristocratic protagonists - with a high degree of realism - rather than being chiefly about the affairs of great kings, noble men or deities. The realism of KCKP also makes it standout from other epic literatures of the region. As Baker and Phongpaichit note, the depiction of war between Ayutthaya and Chiangmai in ''Khun Chang Khun Phaen'' is " ssibly ... the most realistic depiction of pre-modern warfare in the region, portraying the adventure, the risk, the horror, and the gain." KCKP additionally contains rich and detailed accounts of the traditional Thai society during the late Ayutthaya period, including religious practices, superstitious beliefs, social relations, household management, military tactics, court and legal procedures etc. To this day, KCKP is regarded as the masterpiece of Thai literature for its high entertainment value - with engaging plots even by modern standard - and its wealth of cultural knowledge. Marveling at the sumptuous milieu of old Siamese customs, beliefs, and practices in which the story takes place, William J. Gedney, a philologist specialized in Southeast Asian languages, commented that: “The quality of much of this work is superb, often entrancing for its elegance, grace, and vitality. One cannot help feeling that this body of traditional Thai poetry is among the finest artistic creations in the history of mankind.” A complete English prose translation of KCKP was published by Chris Baker and P. Phongpaichit in 2010.


The folk legend of Sri Thanonchai

Another popular character among Ayutthaya folktales is the trickster, the best known is Sri Thanonchai (), usually a heroic figure who teaches or learns moral lessons and is known for his charm, wit, and verbal dexterity. Sri Thanonchai is a classic trickster-hero. Like Shakespeare's villains, such as Iago, Sri Thanonchai's motive is unclear. He simply uses his trickeries, jests and pranks to upend lives and affairs of others which sometimes results in tragic outcomes. The story of Sri Thanonchai is well known among both Thai and
Lao people The Lao people are a Tai peoples, Tai ethnic group native to Southeast Asia, primarily inhabiting Laos and northeastern Thailand. They speak the Lao language, part of the Kra–Dai languages, Kra–Dai language family, and are the dominant ethni ...
. In the Lao tradition, Sri Thanonchai is called ''Xiang Mieng''. A Lao-Isaan version of ''Xiang Mieng'' describes Sri Thanonchai as an Ayutthayan trickster.


The Legend of Phra Malai (1737)

The Legend of Phra Malai () is a religious epic adventure composed by Prince
Thammathibet Thammathibet Chaiyachet Suriyawong, the Prince Senaphithak () or Prince Narathibet (), also known as Prince Kung/ Chao Fa Kung (; 1715 – 1755Royal Society of Thailand. (2007). The Journal of The Royal Society of Thailand, 32(1–2), (2007, Janu ...
, one of the greatest Ayutthayan poets, in 1737, although the story's origin is assumed to be much older, being based on a Pali text. Phra Malai figures prominently in Thai art, religious treatises, and rituals associated with the afterlife, and the story is one of the most popular subjects of 19th-century illustrated Thai manuscripts. Prince Thammathibet's ''Phra Malai'' is composed in a style that alternates between ''rai'' and ''khlong sii-suphap.'' It tells a story of Phra Malai, a Buddhist monk of the Theravada tradition said to have attained supernatural powers through his accumulated merit and meditation. Phra Malai makes a journey into the realm of hell (naraka) to teach Buddhism to the underworld creatures and the deceased. Phra Malai then returns to the world of the living and tells people the story of the underworld, reminding listeners to make good merits and to adhere to the buddhist's teachings in order to avoid damnation. While in the human realm, Phra Malai receives an offering of eight lotus flowers from a poor woodcutter, which he eventually offers at the Chulamani Chedi, a heavenly stupa believed to contain a relic of the Buddha. In Tavatimsa heaven, Phra Malai converses with the god Indra and the Buddha-to-come, Metteyya, who reveals to the monk insights about the future of mankind. Through recitations of Phra Malai the karmic effects of human actions were taught to the faithful at funerals and other merit-making occasions. Following Buddhist precepts, obtaining merit, and attending performances of the Vessantara Jataka all counted as virtues that increased the chances of a favourable rebirth, or Nirvana in the end.


Other notable works from the Ayutthaya period

Three most famous poets of the Ayutthaya period were Sīprāt (1653-1688) (), Phra Maha Raja-Kru (), and Prince
Thammathibet Thammathibet Chaiyachet Suriyawong, the Prince Senaphithak () or Prince Narathibet (), also known as Prince Kung/ Chao Fa Kung (; 1715 – 1755Royal Society of Thailand. (2007). The Journal of The Royal Society of Thailand, 32(1–2), (2007, Janu ...
(1715-1755) (). Sriprat composed ''Anirut Kham Chan'' ("the tale of Prince Anirudha in ''kham chan'' poetry") which is considered to be one of the best ''kham chan'' composition in the Thai language. Prince Thammathibet composed many extant refined poems, including romantic "parting and longing" poems. He also composed Royal Barge Procession songs or ''kap hé reu'' () to be used during the King's grand seasonal water-way procession which is a unique tradition of the Siamese. His barge-procession songs are still considered best in the Thai repertoire of royal procession poems. Other notable literary works of the mid and late Ayutthaya Kingdom include: * ''Sue-ko Kham Chan'' () (c. 1657) by Phra Maha Raja-Kru (). Sue-ko Kham Chan is the earliest-known surviving ''kham chan'' () poem to appear in the Thai language. It is based on a story from Paññāsa Jātaka () or Apocryphal Birth-Stories of the Buddha. ''Sue-ko Kham Chan'' narrates a story concerning a virtuous brotherly-like friendship between a calf and a tiger cub. Their love for each other impresses a
rishi In Indian religions, a ''rishi'' ( ) is an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mention in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "gre ...
who asks the gods to turn them into humans on the merits of their virtues. ''Sue-ko Kham Chan'' teaches an important concept of Buddhist teaching according to which one becomes a human being, the highest species of the animal, not because he was born such, but because of his virtue or ''sila-dhamma'' (). * ''Samutta-Kōt Kham Chan'' () (c. 1657) by Phra Maha Raja-Kru. ''Samutta-Kōt kham chan'' is a religious-themed epic poem based on a story of Pannasa-Jataka. The poem is 2,218-stanza long (around 8,800 lines). However, the original poet, Phra Maha Raja-Kru, only composed 1,252 stanzas and did not finish it. King
Narai King Narai the Great (, , ) or Ramathibodi III ( ) was the 27th monarch of Ayutthaya Kingdom, the 4th and last monarch of the Prasat Thong dynasty. He was the king of Ayutthaya Kingdom from 1656 to 1688 and arguably the most famous king of the ...
(1633-1688) further composed 205 stanza during his reign and Paramanuchit-Chinorot, a noble-born poet monk and the
Supreme Patriarch of Thailand __NOTOC__ The Supreme Patriarch of Thailand or Sangharaja () is the head of the order of Buddhism, Buddhist bhikkhu, monks in Thailand. His full title is ''Somdet Phra Saṅgharāja Sakalamahāsaṅghapariṇāyaka'' (). Ancient history As ea ...
, finished it in 1849. Samut-Koat Kham Chan was praised by the Literature Society as one of the best ''kham chan'' poems in the Thai language. * ''Jindamanee'' (; "Gems of the Mind"): the first Thai grammar book and considered to be the most important book for teaching Thai language until the early 20th century. The first part was probably written during the reign of King
Ekathotsarot Ekathotsarot (, , ) or Sanphet III (); 1560 – 1610/11) was the King of Ayutthaya from 1605 to 1610/11 and overlord of Lan Na from 1605 to 1608/09, succeeding his brother Naresuan. His reign was mostly peaceful as Siam was a powerful state thr ...
() (1605-1620). The later part was composed by Phra Horathibodi, a royal scholar, in the reign of King
Narai King Narai the Great (, , ) or Ramathibodi III ( ) was the 27th monarch of Ayutthaya Kingdom, the 4th and last monarch of the Prasat Thong dynasty. He was the king of Ayutthaya Kingdom from 1656 to 1688 and arguably the most famous king of the ...
(1633-1688). ''Jindamanee'' instructs not only the grammar and the orthography of Thai language, but also the art of poetry. ''Jindamanee'' contains many valuable samples of Thai poems from works which are now lost. For a 400-year-old Asian grammar book, ''Jindamanee''s didactic model is based on sound linguistic principles. Scholars believe that European knowledge on grammar, especially via French missionaries stationed in Siam during the 17th century, may have influenced its composition. * '' Nang Sib Song'' (; "the twelve princesses") or ''Phra Rotthasen'' () or ''Phra Rot Meri'' (): an indigenous folk tale, based on a previous life of the Buddha, popularized in many Southeast Asian countries. There are several poetic retellings of this story in the Thai language. The story of ''Nang Sib Song'' concerns the life of twelve sisters abandoned by their parents and adopted by an Ogress ''Santhumala'' disguised as a beautiful lady. The conclusion is the sad love story about the only surviving son of the twelve sisters, ''Phra Rotthasen'' (พระรถเสน) with ''Meri'' (เมรี) the adopted daughter of ogress Santhumala. This is a story of unrequited love that ends with the death of the lovers, Rotthsen and Meri. * '' Lakhon'' (): ''Lakhon'' is a highly regarded type dramatic performance and literature in Siam. It is divided into two categories: ''lakhon nai'' (), dramatic plays reserved only for the aristocrats, and ''lakhon nōk'' (), plays for the enjoyment of the commoners. Only three plays have traditionally been classified as '' lakhon nai'': ''
Ramakien The (, , ; ; sometimes also spelled ) is one of Thailand's national epics. It is a Thai version of the ancient Indian epic ''Ramayana'', and an important part of the Thai literature, Thai literary canon. King Rama VI was the first person t ...
'', '' Anirut'', and '' Inao''. Fifteen plays survived the destruction of Ayutthaya. Among the most well-known are: ** ''Sāng-thong'' () - a play based on a Buddhist ''
jataka The ''Jātaka'' (Sanskrit for "Birth-Related" or "Birth Stories") are a voluminous body of literature native to the Indian subcontinent which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. Jataka stories we ...
'' story of a noble man who hides his identity by disguising as a black-skinned savage. Its popularity was revived during the early Rattanakosin era by King
Rama II Phutthaloetla Naphalai (born Chim; 24 February 1767 or 1768 – 21 July 1824), also known by his regnal name Rama II, was the second King of Siam from the Chakri dynasty, ruling from 1809 to 1824. In 1809, Itsarasunthon succeeded his father R ...
who rewrote many parts of it as ''lakorn nok''. ** ''Inao'' () - one of the three major '' lakhon nais''. Inao was a very popular drama among the Siamese aristocrats of the late-Ayutthaya period. It is based on the East-Javanese Panji tales. Inao continued to be popular in the early-Rattanakosin era during which there are many adaptations of Inao in Thai language. The sack of Ayutthaya spread its popularity to Burma. ** ''Phikul Thong'' () or ''Phóm Hóm'' ():


Early Rattanakosin period

With the arrival of the Rattanakosin era, Thai literature experienced a rebirth of creative energy and reached its most prolific period. The Rattanakosin era is characterized by the imminent pressure to return to the literary perfection and to recover important literary works lost during the war between Ayutthaya and the Konbuang Empire. A considerable poetic and creative energy of this period was spent to revive or repair the national treasures which had been lost or damaged following the fall of the old Capital. Epics, notably ''
Ramakien The (, , ; ; sometimes also spelled ) is one of Thailand's national epics. It is a Thai version of the ancient Indian epic ''Ramayana'', and an important part of the Thai literature, Thai literary canon. King Rama VI was the first person t ...
'' and '' Khun Chang Khun Phaen'', were recomposed or collected - with aid of surviving poets and troubadours who had committed them to memory (not rare in the 18th century) - and written down for preservation. Nevertheless, many court singers and poets were carried away or killed by the invading Burmese army and some works were lost forever. But it goes to show how rich the Siamese literary creations, especially poetical works, must have been before the war, since so much still survived even after the destruction of their former Kingdom. The royal poets of the early Rattanakosin did not merely recompose the damaged or lost works of the Ayutthaya era but they also improved upon them. The
Ramakien The (, , ; ; sometimes also spelled ) is one of Thailand's national epics. It is a Thai version of the ancient Indian epic ''Ramayana'', and an important part of the Thai literature, Thai literary canon. King Rama VI was the first person t ...
epic, recomposed and selected from various extant versions, during this period is widely considered to be more carefully worded than the old version lost to the fire. In addition, whereas the poet of Ayutthaya period did not care to adhere to strict metrical regulation of the indianised prosody, the compositions of Rattanakosin poets are so much more faithful to the metrical requirements. As a result, the poetry became generally more refined but also was rather difficult for the common man to appreciate. The literary circle of the early Rattanakosin era still only accepted poets who had a thorough classical education, with deep learning in classical languages. It was in this period that a new poetical hero,
Sunthorn Phu Phra Sunthorn Vohara (Phu) (, , ; 26 June 1786 – 1855), known as Sunthorn Phu (, , ), was a Thai poet. He is often referred to as the "Shakespeare of Thailand." Born four years after the founding of the Rattanakosin Kingdom, he entered royal ...
() (1786-1855) emerged to defy the traditional taste of the aristocrat. Sunthorn Phu consciously moved away from a difficult and stately language of court poetry and composed mostly in a popular poetical form called ''klon suphap'' (). He mastered and perfected the art of ''klon suphap'' and his verses in this genre are considered peerless in the Thai language to the present day. There were also other masterpieces of ''Klon-suphap'' poem from this era, such as " Kaki Klon Suphap" – which influences the Cambodian '' Kakey'' – by Chao Phraya Phrakhlang (Hon). The literary recovery project also resulted in the improvement of prose composition - an area which had been neglected in the previous Kingdom. A translation committee was set up in 1785, during the reign of King Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok (
Rama I Phutthayotfa Chulalok (born Thongduang; 20 March 1737 – 7 September 1809), also known by his regnal name Rama I, was the founder of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (now Thailand) and the first King of Siam from the reigning Chakri dynasty. He asc ...
), to translate important foreign works for the learning of the Thai people. This includes the Mon Chronicle '' Rachathirat'' as well as Chinese classics, such as
Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...
or Sam-kok (),
Investiture of the Gods ''The Investiture of the Gods'', also known by its Chinese titles () and is a 16th-century Chinese novel and one of the major Written vernacular Chinese, vernacular Chinese works in the gods and demons (''shenmo'') genre written during the Min ...
or ''Fengshen'' (),
Water Margin ''Water Margin'' (), also called ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' or ''All Men Are Brothers'', is a Chinese novel from the Ming dynasty that is one of the preeminent Classic Chinese Novels. Attributed to Shi Nai'an, ''Water Margin'' was one of the e ...
or ''Sòngjiāng'' (). These long prose works became a gold standard of Thai classical prose composition.


King Rama II: poet king of Thailand

150px, King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai King Phra Phutthaloetla Naphalai, also known as King Rama II of Siam (r. 1809-1824), was a gifted poet and playwright and is also a great patron of artists. His reign was known as the "golden age of Rattanakosin literature". His literary salon was responsible for reviving and repairing many important works of literature which were damaged or lost during the sack of Ayutthaya. Poets, including ''
Sunthorn Phu Phra Sunthorn Vohara (Phu) (, , ; 26 June 1786 – 1855), known as Sunthorn Phu (, , ), was a Thai poet. He is often referred to as the "Shakespeare of Thailand." Born four years after the founding of the Rattanakosin Kingdom, he entered royal ...
'', thrived under his patronage. King Loetlanaphalai was himself a poet and artist. He is generally ranked second only to Sunthorn Phu in terms of poetic brilliance. As a young prince, he took part in recomposing the missing or damaged parts of Thai literary masterpieces, including ''
Ramakien The (, , ; ; sometimes also spelled ) is one of Thailand's national epics. It is a Thai version of the ancient Indian epic ''Ramayana'', and an important part of the Thai literature, Thai literary canon. King Rama VI was the first person t ...
'' and '' Khun Chang Khun Phaen''. He later wrote and popularized many plays, based on folk stories or old plays that survived the destruction of the old capital, including: * '' Inao'' () * '' Krai Thong'' (): a Thai folktale, originating from
Phichit Province Phichit (, , ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (''changwat'') lies in lower northern Thailand and 330 km due north of Bangkok. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Phitsanulok, Phetchabun, Nakhon Sawan, and Kampha ...
. It tells the story of Chalawan (ชาลวัน), a crocodile lord who abducts a daughter of a wealthy Phichit man, and Kraithong, a merchant from
Nonthaburi Nonthaburi (, ) is the principal city of the district and province of the same name in Thailand. On 15 February 1936, Nonthaburi town municipality ('' thesaban mueang'') was established, which only covered Suan Yai subdistrict (''tambon''), j ...
who seeks to rescue the girl and must challenge Chalawan. The story was adapted into a '' lakhon nok'' play, by King
Rama II Phutthaloetla Naphalai (born Chim; 24 February 1767 or 1768 – 21 July 1824), also known by his regnal name Rama II, was the second King of Siam from the Chakri dynasty, ruling from 1809 to 1824. In 1809, Itsarasunthon succeeded his father R ...
, * ''Kawee'' () * '' Sang Thong'' () * ''Sang Sín Chai'' () * ''Chaiya Chet'' (): a Thai folk story originating in the Ayutthaya period. Its popularity led to the dramatization of the story into ''lakhon''. King Rama II rewrote the play for ''lakhon nok'' (ละครนอก), i.e., non-aristocratic theatre performances.


Sunthorn Phu's ''Phra Aphai Mani'': the Siamese ''Odyssey''

270px, Sculptures of Phra Aphai Mani and the Mermaid from the
epic poem In poetry, an epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. With regard to ...
'' Phra Aphai Mani'' at Ko Samet, Rayong Province The most important Thai poet in this period was
Sunthorn Phu Phra Sunthorn Vohara (Phu) (, , ; 26 June 1786 – 1855), known as Sunthorn Phu (, , ), was a Thai poet. He is often referred to as the "Shakespeare of Thailand." Born four years after the founding of the Rattanakosin Kingdom, he entered royal ...
(สุนทรภู่) (1786-1855), widely known as "the bard of Rattanakosin" (). Sunthorn Phu is best known for his epic poem '' Phra Aphai Mani'' (), which he started in 1822 (while in jail) and finished in 1844. ''Phra Aphai Mani'' is a versified fantasy-adventure novel, a genre of Siamese literature known as ''nithan kham klon'' (). It relates the adventures of the eponymous protagonist, Prince Aphai Mani, who is trained in the art of music such that the songs of his flute could tame and disarm men, beasts, and gods. At the beginning of the story, Phra Aphai and his brother are banished from their kingdom because the young prince chooses to study music rather than to be a warrior. While in exile, Phra Aphai is kidnapped by a female
Titan Titan most often refers to: * Titan (moon), the largest moon of Saturn * Titans, a race of deities in Greek mythology Titan or Titans may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional entities Fictional locations * Titan in fiction, fictiona ...
(or an ogress) named ''Pii Sue Samut'' ('sea butterfly'; ) who falls in love with him after she hears his flute music. Longing to return home, Phra Aphai manages to escape the ogress with the help of a beautiful mermaid. He fathers two sons, one with the ogress and another with the mermaid, who later grow up to be heroes with superhuman powers. Phra Aphai slays Pii Sue Samut (the ogress) with the song of his flute and continues his voyage; he suffers more shipwrecks, is rescued, and then falls in love with a princess named Suwanmali. A duel breaks out between Phra Aphai and Prince Ussaren, Suwanmali's fiancé, with the maiden's hand as the prize. Phra Aphai slays his rival. ''Nang Laweng'', Ussaren's sister and queen of Lanka (Ceylon), vows revenge. She bewitches rulers of other nations with her peerless beauty and persuades them to raise a great coalition army to avenge her fallen brother. Phra Aphai, too, is bewitched by Nang Laweng's beauty. Nevertheless, he confronts Nang Laweng and they fall in love. The war and various troubles continue, but Phra Aphai and his sons prevail in the end. He appoints his sons as rulers of the cities he has won. Now tired of love and war, Phra Aphai abdicates the throne and retires to the forest with two of his wives to become ascetics.


Composition and versions

The epic tale of ''Phra Aphai Mani'' is a massive work of poetry in ''klon suphap'' (). The unabridged version published by the National Library is 48,686-''bāt'' (two line couplets) long, totaling over 600,000 words, and spanning 132 '' samut Thai'' books—by far the single longest poem in the Thai language, and is the world's second longest epic poem written by a single poet. Sunthorn Phu, however, originally intended to end the story at the point where Phra Aphai abdicates the throne and withdraws. This leaves his original vision of the work at 25,098 bāt (two line couplet) of poetry, 64 ''samut thai'' books. But Sunthorn Phu's literary patron wanted him to continue composing, which he did for many years. Today, the abridged version, i.e., his original 64 samut-thai volumes, or 25,098 couplets of poetry—is regarded as the authoritative text of the epic. It took Sunthorn Phu more than 20 years to compose (from c. 1822 or 1823 to 1844). ''Phra Aphai Mani'' is Sunthorn Phu's chef-d'œuvre. It breaks the literary tradition of earlier Thai poetic novels or ''nithan kham-klon'' () by including Western mythical creatures, such as mermaids, and contemporary inventions, such as steam-powered ships () which only started to appear in Europe in the early-1800s. Sunthorn Phu also writes about a mechanical music player at the time when a
gramophone A phonograph, later called a gramophone, and since the 1940s a record player, or more recently a turntable, is a device for the mechanical and analogue reproduction of sound. The sound vibration waveforms are recorded as corresponding physic ...
or a self-playing piano was yet to be invented. This made ''Phra Aphai Mani'' surprisingly futuristic for the time. Also, unlike other classical Thai epic poems, ''Phra Aphai Mani'' depicts various exploits of white
mercenaries A mercenary is a private individual who joins an War, armed conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military. Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rath ...
and
pirates Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and valuable goods, or taking hostages. Those who conduct acts of piracy are call ...
which reflects the ongoing European colonization of Southeast Asia in the early-19th century. Phra Aphai himself is said to have learned "to speak ''farang'' (European), Chinese, and Cham languages." Moreover, the locations of cities and islands in ''Phra Aphai Mani'' are not imagined but actually correspond to real geographical locations in the
Andaman Sea The Andaman Sea (historically also known as the Burma Sea) is a marginal sea of the northeastern Indian Ocean bounded by the coastlines of Myanmar and Thailand along the Gulf of Martaban and the west side of the Malay Peninsula, and separated f ...
as well as east of the
Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
. Sunthorn Phu could also give an accurate description of modern sea voyage in that part of the world. This suggests that the Sunthorn Phu must have acquired this knowledge from foreign seafarers first-hand. The multi-cultural and the half-mythical, half-realistic setting of ''Phra Aphai Mani'' combined with Sunthorn Phu's poetic power, makes ''Phra Aphai Mani'' a masterpiece.


Sunthorn Phu as the poet of two worlds

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
an colonial powers had been expanding their influence and presence into Southeast Asia when Sunthorn Phu was composing ''Phra Aphai Mani''. Many Thai literary critics have thus suggested that Sunthorn Phu may have intended his epic masterpiece to be an
anti-colonialist Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. The meanings and applications of the term are disputed. Some scholars of decolon ...
tale, disguised as a versified tale of fantasy adventures. In a literary sense, however, ''Phra Aphai Mani'' has been suggested by other Thai academics as being inspired by Greek epics and
Persian literature Persian literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in the Persian language and is one of the world's oldest literatures. It spans over two-and-a-half millennia. Its sources have been within Greater Iran including present-day ...
, notably the
Iliad The ''Iliad'' (; , ; ) is one of two major Ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odyssey'', the poem is divided into 24 books and ...
, the
Odyssey The ''Odyssey'' (; ) is one of two major epics of ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature and remains popular with modern audiences. Like the ''Iliad'', the ''Odyssey'' is divi ...
, the
Argonauts The Argonauts ( ; ) were a band of heroes in Greek mythology, who in the years before the Trojan War (around 1300 BC) accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, ''Argo'', named after it ...
, and Thousand and One Nights. The structure of ''Phra Aphai Mani'' conforms to the
monomyth In narratology and comparative mythology, the hero's quest or hero's journey, also known as the monomyth, is the common template of stories that involve a hero who goes on an adventure, is victorious in a decisive crisis, and comes home ch ...
structure, shared by other great epic stories in the Greek and Persian tradition. It is possible that Sunthorn Phu may have learned these epic stories from European
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Miss ...
,
Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
priests, or learned individuals who travelled to Siam during the early-19th century. Phra Aphai, the protagonist, resembles
Orpheus In Greek mythology, Orpheus (; , classical pronunciation: ) was a Thracians, Thracian bard, legendary musician and prophet. He was also a renowned Ancient Greek poetry, poet and, according to legend, travelled with Jason and the Argonauts in se ...
—the famed musician of the
Argonauts The Argonauts ( ; ) were a band of heroes in Greek mythology, who in the years before the Trojan War (around 1300 BC) accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, ''Argo'', named after it ...
—rather than an
Achilles In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus () was a hero of the Trojan War who was known as being the greatest of all the Greek warriors. The central character in Homer's ''Iliad'', he was the son of the Nereids, Nereid Thetis and Peleus, ...
-like warrior. Moreover, Phra Aphai's odyssean journey conjures similarity with the King of Ithaca's famous journey across the Aegean. ''Pii Sue Samut'' ("the sea butterfly"), a love-struck female titan who kidnaps the hero, is reminiscent of the nymph Calypso. Also, much like Odysseus, Phra Aphai's long voyage enables him to speak many languages and to discern the minds and customs of many foreign races. Phra Aphai's name (: 'to forgive') is pronounced quite similar to how "
Orpheus In Greek mythology, Orpheus (; , classical pronunciation: ) was a Thracians, Thracian bard, legendary musician and prophet. He was also a renowned Ancient Greek poetry, poet and, according to legend, travelled with Jason and the Argonauts in se ...
" () is pronounced in Greek. In addition, Nang Laweng's bewitching beauty, so captivating it drives nations to war, seems to match the reputation of
Helen of Troy Helen (), also known as Helen of Troy, or Helen of Sparta, and in Latin as Helena, was a figure in Greek mythology said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world. She was believed to have been the daughter of Zeus and Leda (mythology), ...
. Others have suggested that ''Nang Laweng'' may have been inspired by a story of a Christian princess, as recounted in Persia's '' Thousand and One Nights'', who falls in love with a Muslim king. All of this suggests that Sunthorn Phu was a Siamese bard with a bright and curious mind who absorbed, not only the knowledge of contemporary seafaring and Western inventions, but also stories of Greek classical epics from learned Europeans. In composing ''Phra Aphai Mani'', Sunthorn Phu demonstrates a grand poetic ambition. He became the first Thai writer to draw inspirations from
Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...
literary sources and produces an epic based, loosely, upon an amalgamation of those myths and legends. Thus, rather than writing with a political motive, Sunthorn Phu might simply have wanted to equal his literary prowess to the most famed poets and writers of the West.


Sunthorn Phu's other literary legacy

file:Sunthornphu_monument.jpg, 230px, A sculpture of
Sunthorn Phu Phra Sunthorn Vohara (Phu) (, , ; 26 June 1786 – 1855), known as Sunthorn Phu (, , ), was a Thai poet. He is often referred to as the "Shakespeare of Thailand." Born four years after the founding of the Rattanakosin Kingdom, he entered royal ...
near his birthplace in Rayong Province Sunthorn Phu is also the master of the Siamese tradition of parting-and-longing poetry or ''nirat'' which was popular among Thai poets who journeyed away from loved ones. Sunthorn Phu composed many nirat poems, probably from 1807 when he was on a trip to Mueang Klaeng (เมืองแกลง), a town between
Rayong Rayong (, ) is a city (''thesaban nakhon'') on the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand and the capital of Rayong province. It covers tambons Tha Pradu and Pak Nam and parts of ''tambons'' Choeng Noen and Noen Phra, all within Mueang Rayong dist ...
(his hometown) and
Chanthaburi Chanthaburi (, ) is a town ('' thesaban mueang'') in the east of Thailand, on the banks of the Chanthaburi River. It is the capital of the Chanthaburi Province and the Mueang Chanthaburi District. The town covers the two ''tambons'' Talat an ...
. There are many forms of "travel" or parting-and-longing poetry in the Thai language. In the Ayutthaya period, these were composed by noblemen (such as Prince Thammathibet (1715-1756)), whose sentimentality and expressions were refined and formal. Sunthorn Phu was different because he was a common man and his poetry is more fun (สนุก), catchy, and humorous. Sunthorn Phu was probably not as classically trained as other Thai famous poets (who were often members of the royal family) in the past. Nidhi Eoseewong, a Thai historian, argues that Sunthorn Phu's success can be attributable to the rise of the
bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...
or the middle class audience—following the transformation of Siam from a feudal society to a market economy—who held different values and had different tastes from aristocrats. Sunthorn Phu was therefore, like Shakespeare, a people's poet. Instead of exclusively writing to please aristocratic institutions or patrons, Sunthorn Phu also writes both to entertain and to instruct, which shows his confidence in his personal mission as a poet. His works were thus popular among common Siamese, and he was prolific enough to make a living from it. Sunthorn Phu exercised his "copyright" by allowing people to make copies of his ''nithan'' poems (), such as ''Phra Aphai Mani'', for a fee. This made Sunthorn Phu one of the first Thais to ever earn a living as an
author In legal discourse, an author is the creator of an original work that has been published, whether that work exists in written, graphic, visual, or recorded form. The act of creating such a work is referred to as authorship. Therefore, a sculpt ...
. Although a bard of the royal court, he was disdained by many genteel and noble-born poets for appealing to the common people. Sunthorn Phu was a prolific poet. Many of Sunthorn Phu's works were lost or destroyed due to his sojourn lifestyle. However, much is still extant. He is known to have composed: * Nine ''nirat'' (travel) poems, * Four ''nithan kham klon'' or poetic stories (), discounting ''Phra Aphai Mani'', namely: ** Kōbut () ** Phra Chai Suriya () ** Laksanawong () ** Singha-kraiphop () * Three didactic moral-teaching poems, * Four ''bōt hé klŏm'' () or lullabies * One ''lakhon'' () or a dramatic play, namely ''Aphainurāt'' ()


Modern Thai literature

Kings
Rama V Chulalongkorn (20 September 1853 – 23 October 1910), posthumously honoured as King Chulalongkorn the Great, was the fifth Monarchy of Thailand, king of Siam from the Chakri dynasty, titled Rama V. Chulalongkorn's reign from 1868 until his ...
and
Rama VI Vajiravudh (1 January 188126 November 1925) was the sixth king of Siam from the Chakri dynasty, titled Rama VI. He reigned from 1910 until his death in 1925. King Vajiravudh is best known for his efforts to create and promote Siamese nationa ...
were also writers, mainly of
non-fiction Non-fiction (or nonfiction) is any document or content (media), media content that attempts, in good faith, to convey information only about the real life, real world, rather than being grounded in imagination. Non-fiction typically aims to pre ...
works as part of their programme to combine
Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...
knowledge with traditional Thai culture. The story Lilit Phra Lo (ลิลิตพระลอ) was voted the best ''lilit'' work by King Rama VI's royal literary club in 1916. Based on the tragic end of King Phra Lo, who died together with the two women he loved, Phra Phuean and Phra Phaeng, the daughters of the ruler of the city of Song, it originated in a tale of
Thai folklore Thai folklore is a diverse set of mythology and traditional beliefs held by the Thai people. Most Thai folklore has a regional background for it originated in rural Thailand. With the passing of time, and through the influence of the media, large ...
and later became part of Thai literature. Twentieth century Thai writers tended to produce light fiction rather than literature. But increasingly, individual writers are being recognized for producing more serious works, including writers like
Kukrit Pramoj Mom Rajawongse Kukrit Pramoj (, , ; 20 April 1911 – 9 October 1995) was a Thai politician, author, scholar and professor. He was Speaker of the House of Representatives of Thailand between 1973 and 1974. He was the thirteenth Prime Minister o ...
, Kulap Saipradit, (penname Siburapha), Supa Sirisingh (penname ''Botan''), Chart Korbjitti, Prabda Yoon, Duanwad Pimwana, Rong Wongsawan and Pitchaya Sudbanthad. Some of their works have been translated into English. The
Isan Northeast Thailand or Isan (Isan language, Isan/, ; ; also written as Isaan, Isarn, Issarn, Issan, Esan, or Esarn; from Pāli ''isāna'' or Sanskrit ईशान्य ''īśānya'' "northeast") consists of 20 provinces in northeastern Thai ...
region of Thailand has produced two literary social critics in Khamsing Srinawk and Pira Sudham. Notably, Pira Sudham writes in English. Thailand had a number of expatriate writers in the 20th century as well. The Bangkok Writers Group publishes fiction by Indian author G. Y. Gopinath, the fabulist A. D. Thompson, as well as non-fiction by Gary Dale Cearley.


Thai literary influence on neighbouring countries

Thai literature, especially its poetic tradition, has had a strong influence on neighbouring countries, especially
Burma Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...
and
Cambodia Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
. The two golden periods of
Burmese literature The literature of Myanmar () spans over a millennium. The Burmese language, unlike other Southeast Asian languages (e.g. Thai, Khmer), adopted words primarily from Pāli rather than from Sanskrit. In addition, Burmese literature tends to re ...
were the direct consequences of the Thai literary influence. The first occurred during the two-decade period (1564–1583) when the
Toungoo Dynasty ''taungnguumainn saat'' , conventional_long_name = Toungoo dynasty , common_name = Taungoo dynasty , status = Empire/Monarchy, Kingdom , event_start = Independence from Kingdom of Ava, Ava Kingdom , yea ...
made
Siam Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
a vassal state. The conquest incorporated many Thai elements into Burmese literature. Most evident were the ''
yadu This is a list of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes that are mentioned in the literature of Indian religions. From the second or first millennium BCE, ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes turned into most of the population in the north ...
'' or ''yatu'' (), an emotional and philosophic verse, and the '' yagan'' () genre. The next transmission of Thai literary influence to Burma happened in the aftermath of the fall of Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1767. After a second conquest of
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to: * Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767 ** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom * Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locall ...
(Thailand), many Siamese royal dancers and poets were brought back to the court of Konbaung. Ramakien, the Thai version of ''
Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
'' () was introduced and was adapted in Burmese where it is now called
Yama Zatdaw Yama Zatdaw (, ), unofficially Myanmar's national epic, is the Burmese version of the Ramayana and Dasaratha Jataka. There are nine known pieces of the Yama Zatdaw in Myanmar. The Burmese name for the story itself is ''Yamayana'', while ''zatdaw ...
. Many dramatic songs and poems were transliterated directly from the Thai language. In addition, the Burmese also adopted the Thai tradition of '' Nirat'' poetry, which became popular among the Burmese royal class. Burmese literature during this period was therefore modeled after the ''Ramayana'', and dramatic plays were patronised by the Burmese court. Cambodia had fallen under Siamese hegemony in the reign of King Naresuan. But it was during the
Thonburi Kingdom The Thonburi Kingdom was a major Thai people, Siamese kingdom which existed in Southeast Asia from 1767 to 1782, centered around the city of Thonburi, in Siam or present-day Thailand. The kingdom was founded by Taksin, who reunited Siam follow ...
that the high cultures of the Rattanakosin kingdom were systematically transmitted to a Cambodian court that absorbed them voraciously. As Fédéric Maurel, a French historian, notes: It was during this period of Siamzation that Thai literary influence had a wholesale impact on Khmer literature. The ''Nirat'' or Siamese tradition of parting poetry was emulated by Khmer poets; and many Thai stories were translated directly from the Siamese source into Khmer language. One Thai study on comparative literature found that Cambodia's current version of Ramayana (Reamker) was translated directly from the Thai source, stanza by stanza. The Cambodian royal court used to stage Thai ''lakhon'' dramas in Thai language during King Narodom's reign. While older
Reamker ''Reamker'' (, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ; ) is a Cambodian epic poem, based on the Sanskrit's Rāmāyana epic. The name means "Glory of Rama". It is the national epic of Cambodia, along with the less famous version of the '' Trai Bhet''. The earliest ...
literary texts may have existed before the 16th century but most of the work has now been lost.


See also

* Ka Kee * Phra Saraprasoet *
Phya Anuman Rajadhon Phraya Anuman Rajadhon (; , also spelled ''Phaya Anuman Rajadhon'' or ''Phrayā Anuman Rajadhon''; December 14, 1888 – July 12, 1969), was one of modern Thailand's most remarkable scholars. He was a self-trained linguist, anthropologist and et ...
* Sangsilchai *
Thai folklore Thai folklore is a diverse set of mythology and traditional beliefs held by the Thai people. Most Thai folklore has a regional background for it originated in rural Thailand. With the passing of time, and through the influence of the media, large ...


References


External links


The Journal of Asian Studies
{{DEFAULTSORT:Thai Literature Culture of Thailand