
A ''tawaif'' () was a highly successful
courtesan
A courtesan is a prostitute with a courtly, wealthy, or upper-class clientele. Historically, the term referred to a courtier, a person who attended the court of a monarch or other powerful person.
History
In European feudal society, the co ...
singer
Singing is the art of creating music with the voice. It is the oldest form of musical expression, and the human voice can be considered the first musical instrument. The definition of singing varies across sources. Some sources define singi ...
‚
dancer
Dance is an The arts, art form, consisting of sequences of body movements with aesthetic and often Symbol, symbolic value, either improvised or purposefully selected. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoir ...
‚ and
poet
A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator (thought, thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral t ...
who catered to the nobility of the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
, particularly during the
Mughal era. Many tawaifs ("
nautch girls" to the British) were forced to go into prostitution due to a lack of opportunities by the time of the
British Raj
The British Raj ( ; from Hindustani language, Hindustani , 'reign', 'rule' or 'government') was the colonial rule of the British The Crown, Crown on the Indian subcontinent,
*
* lasting from 1858 to 1947.
*
* It is also called Crown rule ...
.
Known variously as ''tawaifs'' in
North India
North India is a geographical region, loosely defined as a cultural region comprising the northern part of India (or historically, the Indian subcontinent) wherein Indo-Aryans (speaking Indo-Aryan languages) form the prominent majority populati ...
, ''Baijis'' in
Bengal
Bengal ( ) is a Historical geography, historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the Eastern South Asia, eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Benga ...
and ''naikins'' in
Goa, these professional singers and dancers were dubbed as “
nautch girl” during the British rule. Tawaifs were largely a North Indian institution central to Mughal court culture from the 16th century onwards and became even more prominent with the weakening of Mughal rule in the mid-18th century. They contributed significantly to the continuation of traditional dance and music forms. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance (
mujra), theatre, and the
Urdu
Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...
literary tradition, and were considered an authority on
etiquette
Etiquette ( /ˈɛtikɛt, -kɪt/) can be defined as a set of norms of personal behavior in polite society, usually occurring in the form of an ethical code of the expected and accepted social behaviors that accord with the conventions and ...
.
Indian writer and scholar
Pran Nevile said: “The word ‘tawaif’ deserves respect, not disdain. A lot of them were singers and not sex workers. People think of them as prostitutes, undermining their value as great musicians.” On 12 May 2024, Pakistan's Dawn newspaper described tawaif as "cultural idols and female
intellectual
An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and Human self-reflection, reflection about the nature of reality, especially the nature of society and proposed solutions for its normative problems. Coming from the wor ...
s."
History

Tawaifs have existed for centuries in the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
, with one of the earliest references to the profession being the character
Vasantasena from the
5th century BC
The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC.
This century saw the establishment of Pataliputra as a capital of the Magadha (Mahajanapada), Magadha Empire. This city would later become the ruling capital o ...
Sanskrit drama
The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient India. The roots of drama in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the Rigveda (1200-1500 BCE), which contains a number of hymns in ...
''
Mṛcchakatika''. In early India,
Gaṇikā referred to a courtesan or public dancing girl. Ganikas were trained in fine arts like dance and music to entertain kings, princes, and other wealthy patrons on religious and social occasions. Women competed to win the title of a
Nagarvadhu. The most beautiful woman, and most talented in various
dance forms, was chosen as the Nagarvadhu. For example,
Amrapali is a famous
Nagarvadhu or royal dancer.
It is believed in folkloric history that
Urvashi was said to have been born on earth as a
devadasi
In India, a devadasi is a female artist who is dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication takes place in a ceremony that is somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taki ...
and imparted the divine knowledge of dance unto humans. The first dance of the
devadasi
In India, a devadasi is a female artist who is dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication takes place in a ceremony that is somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taki ...
took place in a temple in the presence of a king who honoured her with titles and gifts, and she was well-versed in temple rituals and took part in temple festivals. Devadasis were well received across
North India
North India is a geographical region, loosely defined as a cultural region comprising the northern part of India (or historically, the Indian subcontinent) wherein Indo-Aryans (speaking Indo-Aryan languages) form the prominent majority populati ...
and modern-day
Pakistan
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
and Chinese pilgrim
Huein Tsang who visited India in the 7th century testified to a large number of dancing girls in the Sun Temple of
Multan
Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...
.
Al-Biruni
Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (; ; 973after 1050), known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern ...
in his famous study of India in the 11th century recorded that about 500 dancing girls were active in the Somnath temple.
The patronage of the
Mughal court in the
Doab region and the subsequent atmosphere of 16th century
Awadh
Awadh (), known in British Raj historical texts as Avadh or Oudh, is a historical region in northern India and southern Nepal, now constituting the North-central portion of Uttar Pradesh. It is roughly synonymous with the ancient Kosala Regio ...
made arts-related careers a viable prospect.
Mughal Emperor
Akbar
Akbar (Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, – ), popularly known as Akbar the Great, was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped the young emperor expa ...
himself was enchanted by a
Portuguese expert dancing girl whom he named ''Dilruba'' (heart warmer). In 1623, Italian traveler
Pietro Della Valle noted that the majority of public courtesans in the Empire were
Mohammedan women, who partook in various acts, including singing and dancing, as opposed to the indigenous women of India, who often refused to partake, deeming it immodest.
Many girls were taken at a young age and trained in both performing arts, including
mujra,
Kathak
''Kathak'' is one of the eight major forms of Classical Indian dance, Indian classical dance. Its origin is attributed to the traveling bards in ancient northern India known as ''Kathakar'' ("storyteller"), who communicated stories from the ...
, and
Hindustani classical music
Hindustani classical music is the Indian classical music, classical music of the Indian subcontinent's northern regions. It may also be called North Indian classical music or ''Uttar Bhartiya shastriya sangeet''. The term ''shastriya sangeet'' ...
, as well as
literature
Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...
, poetry (particularly
ghazal
''Ghazal'' is a form of amatory poem or ode, originating in Arabic poetry that often deals with topics of spiritual and romantic love. It may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss, or separation from the beloved, and t ...
),
thumri
Thumri () is a vocal genre or style of Indian music. The term "thumri" is derived from the Hindi verb ''thumuknaa'', which means "to walk with a dancing gait in such a way that the ankle-bells tinkle." The form is, thus, connected with dance, dram ...
, and
dadra. The training of young tawaifs also encompassed
urdu
Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...
writing and enunciation, as well as social skills employed in cultivating patrons and retaining them, particularly the complex
etiquette
Etiquette ( /ˈɛtikɛt, -kɪt/) can be defined as a set of norms of personal behavior in polite society, usually occurring in the form of an ethical code of the expected and accepted social behaviors that accord with the conventions and ...
associated with their craft, in which they were seen as experts. During the Mughal period, prostitutes were known as ''randi'', ''kasbi'', and ''thakahi'', some prostitutes also sing and dance, but many of them did not even have access to artistic training.
Once a trainee had matured and possessed a sufficient command over dancing and singing, she became a ''tawaif,'' a high-class courtesan who served the rich and noble. Unsurprisingly then, their training in music and dance started at a very young age, under the guidance and tutelage of renowned
ustaads (masters). Young girls regularly spent hours in
riyaz, a term connoting abstinence, devotion, discipline, and hard labour, learning songs and dance to the exacting standards set by their teachers. At a mundane level, regular ''riyaz'' is necessary for a flawless performance before an audience. Many well-known tawaifs practiced and learned music throughout their careers, seeking masters from different
gharana
In Hindustani music (North Indian classical music), a ''gharānā'' is a system of social organisation in the Indian subcontinent, linking musicians or dancers by lineage or apprenticeship, and more importantly by adherence to a particular musi ...
s "music traditions" to add to their performance style.
The tawaif's introduction into her profession was marked by a celebration, the so-called ''missī'' ceremony, that customarily included the inaugural blackening of her teeth.
It is also believed that young
nawab
Nawab is a royal title indicating a ruler, often of a South Asian state, in many ways comparable to the Western title of Prince. The relationship of a Nawab to the Emperor of India has been compared to that of the Kingdom of Saxony, Kings of ...
s-to-be were sent to these tawaifs to learn ''tameez'' ( "etiquette, good behavior") and ''
Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb'', which included the ability to recognise and appreciate good music and literature, perhaps even practice it, especially the art of
ghazal
''Ghazal'' is a form of amatory poem or ode, originating in Arabic poetry that often deals with topics of spiritual and romantic love. It may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss, or separation from the beloved, and t ...
writing. They also became teachers for the sons of wealthy and elite families, who would often send their sons to ''kotha''s so they could learn proper
Hindustani language, poetry and etiquette from tawaifs. The boys would be told to sit and observe how a tawaif goes about her interactions. The tawaif's contribution to society came from a tradition of families and enjoyed a hierarchy. The uppermost echelon of tawaifs was entrusted with the responsibility of teaching ''
adab'' (etiquette) and ''qa'ida'' (manners) to the kings and young princes. They would also familiarize the royalty with the finer nuances of poetry, music, dance and literature. By the 18th century, they had become the central element of polite, refined culture in North India.
The kotha of a tawaif is a performance space and as a guardian of arts and culture, and is only open to the city's elite and wealthy patrons.
In these rarified spaces, tawaifs would compose poetry, sing and dance with live musical composition, as well as performing at banquets, all of which required years of rigorous training. Tawaif is a performer who thrives on sponsorship from royal and aristocratic families, and the dancers are responsible for performing ''mujra'' dance with good manners. True ''mujra'' is elegant, complex, and artistic, presented elegantly. The tawaif is also invited to perform at grand occasions such as a marriage or the birth of a male heiren. In such occasions, they usually perform a mythological or legendary story, like singing. The tawaifs would dance, sing (especially
ghazal
''Ghazal'' is a form of amatory poem or ode, originating in Arabic poetry that often deals with topics of spiritual and romantic love. It may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss, or separation from the beloved, and t ...
s), recite poetry (
shairi) and entertain their suitors at
mehfils.

Like the
geisha
{{Culture of Japan, Traditions, Geisha
{{nihongo, Geisha{{efn, {{IPAc-en, lang, ˈ, ɡ, eɪ, ., ʃ, ə, {{IPA, ja, ɡei.ɕa, ɡeː-, lang{{cite book, script-title=ja:NHK日本語発音アクセント新辞典, publisher=NHK Publishing, editor= ...
tradition in Japan, their main purpose was to professionally entertain their guests, and while sex was often incidental, it was not assured contractually. High-class or the most popular tawaifs could often pick and choose among the best of their suitors. Tawaifs performed at temples during holidays and participated in temple celebrations, which had been passed down from generation to generation. They also had the tradition of performing at the Burhwa Mangal bazaar in the spring after
Holi
Holi () is a major Hindu festival celebrated as the Festival of Colours, Love and Spring.The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) p. 874 "Holi /'həʊli:/ noun a Hindu spring festival ...".Yudit Greenberg, Encyclopedia of Love in World ...
. Such events provided a significant platform for tawaifs, not just for the patronage but also for the opportunity it offered for tawaifs to showcase their skills to general audiences and, thereby, retain societal acceptability for their trade.
Due to their popularity, many dancing girls became very wealthy. According to Portuguese traveller
Domingo Paes, dancing girls were fabulously rich. Domingo was "struck by their collars of gold studded with diamonds, rubies and pearls, bracelets on their arms, girdles below and, of necessity, anklets on their feet."

There were hierarchies among the performing artists, and the tawaifs were at the top, a class distinct from street performers and prostitutes. Tawaif kothas, where the tawaifs often lived and performed, would host meetings of local intelligentsia, presided mostly by the most senior tawaif of the kotha. Tawaifs enjoyed influence among writers, journalists and poets. The poets longed for a tawaif to sing their works and asked the famous tawaif if she could sing his poems. In those days, having tawaif perform their own work was a way to ensure that poetry would be remembered and passed down from generation to generation. A Tawaif had an unconventional approach to relationships, where female performers were expected to remain unmarried but were permitted to have relationships with patrons. Tawaifs traditionally served loyal mistresses to wealthy patrons. Only once a relationship was terminated, either due to the death of their patron or a mutual decision to part ways, would a tawaif look to enter into another relationship.
However, by the time the
British Raj
The British Raj ( ; from Hindustani language, Hindustani , 'reign', 'rule' or 'government') was the colonial rule of the British The Crown, Crown on the Indian subcontinent,
*
* lasting from 1858 to 1947.
*
* It is also called Crown rule ...
had annexed
Punjab
Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
, the services of tawaifs were no longer valued, and even the most highly trained dancing girls were reviled as lewd by the Victorian standards of the British. Despite this, British men were happy to take local women as
concubines and
mistresses but were uninterested in becoming patrons of the formerly well tolerated tawaifs of
Lahore
Lahore ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Administrative units of Pakistan, Pakistani province of Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab. It is the List of cities in Pakistan by population, second-largest city in Pakistan, after Karachi, and ...
, and even less interested in spending lavish sums upon them.
Some of the most prominent tawaifs in history were
Anarkali,
Mah Laqa Bai,
Bhagmati,
Lal Kunwar,
Qudsia Begum,
Zainabadi Mahal,
Mubarak Begum and
Begum Samru (who rose to rule the principality of
Sardhana
Sardhana is a city and a municipal board in Meerut district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is northeast of New Delhi and 13 mi from Meerut. It is 5 km from Meerut Karnal National Highway and 12 km from National Highway 5 ...
in western Uttar Pradesh),
Moran Sarkar (who became the wife of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh
Ranjit Singh (13 November 1780 – 27 June 1839) was the founder and first maharaja of the Sikh Empire, in the northwest Indian subcontinent, ruling from 1801 until his death in 1839.
Born to Maha Singh, the leader of the Sukerchakia M ...
),
Wazeeran (patronised by Lucknow's last nawab
Wajid Ali Shah),
Begum Hazrat Mahal (Wajid Ali's first wife who played an important role in the
Indian Rebellion),
Gauhar Jaan (a notable classical singer who sang for India's first-ever record), and
Zohrabai Agrewali.
A number of television and film actresses from
Pakistan
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
were tawaifs, including
Niggo,
Nadira, and
Naina. A number of singers from
Pakistan
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
also were tawaifs, including
Zeenat Begum and
Tamancha Jan.
British colonial period

The annexation of Oudh by the
East India Company
The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to Indian Ocean trade, trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (South A ...
in 1856 sounded the first death knell for this medieval-era institution. It was soon looked down upon with disfavour by the colonial government, and the tawaifs were eventually forced to go into
prostitution
Prostitution is a type of sex work that involves engaging in sexual activity in exchange for payment. The definition of "sexual activity" varies, and is often defined as an activity requiring physical contact (e.g., sexual intercourse, no ...
due to a lack of employment opportunities.
Social reform
Reformism is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements which reject t ...
ers in India opposed them as social decadence.
[Indian Classical Dance and the Making of Postcolonial National Identities: Dancing on Empire's Stage, Sitara Thobani, Routledge, 27 March 2017] But some tawaif and institutions still survived until
India's independence
The Indian independence movement was a series of historic events in South Asia with the ultimate aim of ending British colonial rule. It lasted until 1947, when the Indian Independence Act 1947 was passed.
The first nationalistic movement t ...
in 1947. Some of the famous tawaifs include:
*
Begum Akhtar (7 October 1914 – 30 October 1974), Indian singer and actress, known as "Mallika-e-Ghazal" (Queen of Ghazals).
*
Binodini Dasi (1862–1941), Indian actress, pioneering entrepreneur of the Bengali stage.
*
Fatma Begum (1892–1983), Indian actress, director and screenwriter.
*
Husna Bai,
thumri
Thumri () is a vocal genre or style of Indian music. The term "thumri" is derived from the Hindi verb ''thumuknaa'', which means "to walk with a dancing gait in such a way that the ankle-bells tinkle." The form is, thus, connected with dance, dram ...
singer.
*
Jaddanbai (1892–1949), Indian master music composer, singer, actress, and film maker.
*
Rattan Bai (15 July 1890 – 1 January 1986), Indian actress and singer.
*
Kajjanbai (15 February 1915 – 20 December 1945) Indian singer and actress, often referred to as the "Nightingale of Bengal".
*
Kajjan Begum (24 January 1932 – 10 February 2000) Pakistani classical singer and playback singer.
*
Malika Pukhraj (1912 – 2004), Pakistani ghazal and folk singer.
* Malka Jaan, and daughter
Gauhar Jaan (1873–1930), who created the first Indian song recording in 1902.
*
Mukhtar Begum (12 July 1901 – 25 February 1982), Pakistani classical, ghazal singer and actress. She was known as The Queen of Music for singing songs in films and on radio.
* Chamiyan Bai (1898 – 14 August 1998), Indian singer and classical singer. She was also known as Shamshad Begum and was known as The Queen of Music. She is the mother of
Naseem Banu and grandmother of
Saira Banu.
*
Rasoolan Bai (1902 – 15 December 1974), Indian
Hindustani classical music
Hindustani classical music is the Indian classical music, classical music of the Indian subcontinent's northern regions. It may also be called North Indian classical music or ''Uttar Bhartiya shastriya sangeet''. The term ''shastriya sangeet'' ...
vocal musician.
*
Roshan Ara Begum (1917 – 6 December 1982), vocalist belonging to the Kirana
gharana
In Hindustani music (North Indian classical music), a ''gharānā'' is a system of social organisation in the Indian subcontinent, linking musicians or dancers by lineage or apprenticeship, and more importantly by adherence to a particular musi ...
of Hindustani classical music. She is also known by her honorific title Malika-e-Mauseeqi (The Queen of Music) in both Pakistan and India.
*
Shobha Gurtu (1925–2004), Indian singer in the light Hindustani classical style, known as The Thumri Queen.
* Zareena Begum of
Lucknow
Lucknow () is the List of state and union territory capitals in India, capital and the largest city of the List of state and union territory capitals in India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and it is the administrative headquarters of the epon ...
(1947 – 12 May 2018), Indian classical singer.
*
Zohrabai (1868–1913), Hindustani classical singer of the Agra gharana.
*
Zeenat Begum (11 November 1931 – 11 December 2007), Pakistani singer, known as "The Queen of Yesteryear" for singing songs in films and on radio.
*
Tamancha Jan (10 July 1918 – 20 October 2008), Pakistani folk singer, known as "The Singing Siren" and "The Nightingale of Lahore".
The tawaifs had actively participated in anti-British actions behind the scenes. Their buildings, known as "kothas", became meeting areas and hiding places for anti-British elements. Those tawaifs who accumulated wealth provided financial support to anti-British elements. Some tawaifs suffered retaliation from colonial authorities. Their kotha was searched and their belongings confiscated. The Victorian-era morality project placed a premium on women's chastity and domesticity. As public performers, tawaifs were equated with prostitutes and their kothas were branded as brothels. Mujra dance originally did not refer to vulgar dance, but an elegant and ceremonial dance, usually performed by tawaif. During the British colonial period, some tawaifs became prostitute. The distinction between prostitutes and tawaifs began to blur. Some prostitutes also called their erotic dances mujra dance. Mujra dance gradually became associated with sex and prostitution.
They used to be the only source of popular music and dance and were often invited to perform on weddings and other occasions. Some of them became
concubine
Concubinage is an interpersonal relationship, interpersonal and Intimate relationship, sexual relationship between two people in which the couple does not want to, or cannot, enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarde ...
s and wives of maharajas and wealthy individuals. They were the first singers to record on gramophone with the emergence of that new technology. With the emergence of movies, however, they lost popularity. With their traditional spaces and modes of music rehearsal under attack, many tawaifs found space as performers in the newly emerging industries of mass entertainment, such as the gramophone, theatre and later films. The earliest singers to record for the gramophone, in the early 20th century, came from tawaif backgrounds, as did the first actresses of Parsi theatre and, later, the ‘talkies’, films with sound. A majority of tawaifs could not make this transition, however, and continued to perform within their kothas to a dwindling group of patrons.
Decline
After the British colonization, although more brothels and prostitutes were operating in
Heera Mandi
Heera Mandi (Urdu and ), sometimes referred to as Shahi Mohallah (''"Royal Neighbourhood"''), is a neighbourhood and bazaar located in the Walled City of Lahore.
It is specifically known as the red light district of Lahore, Pakistan. It ...
, there were still tawaif performing activities in the area, Heera Mandi retained its reputation as a centre of the performing arts. After the partition, young and attractive tawaifs from Heera Mandi became the first choice of Pakistan filmmakers. Tawaifs from Heera Mandi joined the Lollywood industry and gained much fame and wealth. Some of the most skilled tawaifs performed as backup dancers in early Pakistan films.
In Heera Mandi and surrounding areas, there were many dance classrooms and music classrooms, which were closed as the tawaifs and musicians left.
With the development of time, the tawaif in India has gradually disappeared. In the 1980s, when kothas were no longer recognized as centres for aesthetics, and society disapproved of the tawaif's art, as they felt it was sex work in the guise of adakari (performance). It was an era when tawaifs had to dodge guns, goons and Ghalib's ghazals. The tawaifs who are still performing no longer have the same literary education as before, but they are not sex workers, "a courtesan is no less than a circus performer, balancing a bottle on her head".
They are all trained in Kathak, to regale the men who visit them in the evenings. Another skill they are expected to master is singing. Tawaifs are versed in
ghazals, hori and thumris, but many now know just enough to earn a livelihood. In addition to performing at kotha, tawaifs also performed during weddings at home, celebrations of child birth and other festivities, provided the entertainment of singing and dancing. The
1993 Bow Bazaar bomb blast in Calcutta brought an end to the kothas in the busy commercial district. As dance bars and disco music replaced mujras, kathak and thumri, the tawaifs abandoned the profession.
Cultural influences
"Tawaifs & Kothas" cultural tour initiated by "Enroute Indian History". Explore the lives of the tawaifs or dancing girls on a heritage walk through the streets of Shahjahanabad with Enroute Indian History.
Popular culture
In films
The image of the tawaif has had an enduring appeal, immortalized in
Bollywood
Hindi cinema, popularly known as Bollywood and formerly as Bombay cinema, is primarily produced in Mumbai. The popular term Bollywood is a portmanteau of "Bombay" (former name of Mumbai) and "Cinema of the United States, Hollywood". The in ...
and
Lollywood movies and
Pakistani dramas.
Films with a tawaif as a character include:
India
* ''
Devdas'' (1935)
* ''
Devdas'' (1936)
* ''
Devdas'' (1937)
* ''
Anhonee'' (1952)
* ''
Anarkali'' (1953)
* ''
Devadasu'' (1953)
* ''
Chandni Chowk'' (1954)
* ''
Mirza Ghalib'' (1954)
* ''
Devdas'' (1955)
* ''
Anarkali'' (1955)
* ''
Mehndi
Mehndi () is a form of temporary skin decoration using a paste created with henna. In the West, mehndi is commonly known as henna tattoo, although it is not a permanent tattoo.
Mehndi is a popular form of body art in South Asia and resembl ...
'' (1958)
* ''Zindagi Ya Toofan'' (1958)
* ''
Jalsaghar'' (1958)
* ''
Mughal-E-Azam
''Mughal-e-Azam'' () is a 1960 Indian Epic film, epic historical drama film produced and directed by K. Asif. Starring Prithviraj Kapoor, Dilip Kumar, Madhubala, and Durga Khote, it follows the love affair between Mughal Empire, Mughal Prince ...
'' (1960)
* ''
Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam'' (1962)
* ''
Uttar Falguni'' (1963)
* ''
Mujhe Jeene Do'' (1963)
* ''
Benazir'' (1964)
* ''
Devdas'' (1965)
* ''
Kaajal'' (1965)
* ''
Mamta'' (1966)
* ''
Teesri Kasam
''Teesri Kasam'' () is a 1966 Hindi, Hindi language drama film directed by Basu Bhattacharya and produced by lyricist Shailendra (lyricist), Shailendra. It is based on the short story ''Mare Gaye Gulfam'', by the Hindi novelist Phanishwarnath Re ...
'' (1966)
* ''
Anarkali'' (1966)
* ''
Bahu Begum'' (1967)
* ''
Mere Huzoor'' (1968)
* ''
Sunghursh
''Sunghursh'' ("Struggle") is a 1968 Indian Hindi film directed and produced by Harnam Singh Rawail. It is based on ''Layli Asmaner Ayna'' ("Layli Does Not Go To Heaven"), a short story in Bengali language by Jnanpith Award-winning writer Mah ...
'' (1968)
* ''
Kaviya Thalaivi'' (1970)
* ''
Sharafat'' (1970)
* ''
Aansoo Aur Muskan'' (1970)
* ''Insan Aur Aadmi'' (1970)
* ''
Khilona'' (1970)
* ''
Pakeezah'' (1972)
* ''
Gomti Ke Kinare'' (1972)
* ''
Amar Prem'' (1972)
* ''
Dharma
Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
'' (1973)
* ''
Pran Jaye Par Vachan Na Jaye
''Pran Jaye Per Vachan Na Jaye'' () is a 1974 Hindi-language action film directed by S. Ali Raza. It stars Sunil Dutt, Rekha, Bindu, Ranjeet, Jeevan, Madan Puri, Premnath, Iftekhar, Jayshree T. The music is by O. P. Nayyar.
Plot
Raja T ...
'' (1974)
* ''
Devadasu'' (1974)
* ''
Sharafat Chhod Di Maine'' (1976)
* ''Harmonium'' (1976)
* ''
Shatranj Ke Khilari'' (1977)
* ''
Kasme Vaade'' (1978)
* ''
Muqaddar Ka Sikandar'' (1978)
* ''
Devadasu Malli Puttadu'' (1978)
* ''
Suhaag'' (1979)
* ''
Umrao Jaan'' (1981)
* ''
Daasi'' (1981)
* ''Deedaar-e-Yaar'' (1982)
* ''
Prem Tapasya'' (1983)
* ''Ghungroo'' (1983)
* ''Maati Maangey Khoon'' (1984)
* ''
Tawaif'' (1985)
* ''
Angaaray'' (1986)
* ''
Maa Beti'' (1986)
* ''
Pati Patni Aur Tawaif'' (1990)
* ''
Dil Aashna Hai'' (1992)
* ''
In Custody'' (1993)
* ''
Sardari begum'' (1996)
* ''
Devdas'' (2002)
* ''
Mangal Pandey: The Rising'' (2005)
* ''
Kisna: The Warrior Poet'' (2005)
* ''
Bhagmati'' (2005)
* ''
Umrao Jaan'' (2006)
* ''
Yatra
''Yatra'' (, ), in Indian religion, Indian-origin religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, generally means a pilgrimage to holy places such as confluences of River#Sacred rivers, sacred rivers, Sacred mountains#India, sacred mount ...
'' (2006)
* ''
Devdas'' (2010)
* ''The Black Woman'' (2011) (depicts a tawaif in a supporting role, often in situations where a man in a loveless marriage goes to her.)
* ''Dedh Ishqiya'' (2014)
* ''Jaanisaar'' (2015)
* ''Thugs Of Hindostan'' (2018)
* ''Ek Je Chhilo Raja'' (2018)
* ''Kalank'' (2019)
* ''Hamidabai Ki Kothi'' (2019)
* ''Qala (film), Qala'' (2022)
Pakistan
* ''Anarkali (1958 film), Anarkali'' (1958)
* ''Ghalib (film), Ghalib'' (1961)
* ''Anjuman (1970 film), Anjuman'' (1970)
* ''Afshan'' (1971)
* ''Umrao Jaan Ada (film), Umrao Jaan Ada'' (1972)
* ''Deedar'' (1974)
* ''Izzat'' (1975)
* ''Surraya Bhopali'' (1976)
* ''Pakeeza (film), Pakeeza'' (1979)
* ''Bazar-e-Husn'' (1988)
* ''Bol (film), Bol'' (2011)
* ''Mah e Mir'' (2016)
* ''Huey Tum Ajnabi'' (2023)
In documentary films
* ''The Courtesans of Bombay'' (1983)
* ''The Other Song'' (2009)
In Indian television
* ''Umrao jaan Ada'' (2014)
* ''Lajwanti (TV series), Lajwanti'' (2015)
* ''Bhabiji Ghar Par Hain!'' (2015)
* ''Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali'' (2018)
* ''A Suitable Boy (TV series)'' (2020)
* ''Jubilee (TV series)'' (2023)
* ''Heeramandi:The Diamond Bazaar'' (2024)
In Pakistani television
* ''Chand Grehan'' (1995), drama on STN
* ''Red Card'' (1995), drama on STN
* ''Samandar Hai Darmiyan'' (1998)
* ''Ghulam Gardish'' (1998)
* ''Umrao Jaan Ada (TV series), Umrao Jaan Ada'' (2003)
* ''Aatish'' (2004), PTV drama
* ''Adhoray Khawab'' (2004)
* ''Bazar'' (2004), PTV telefilm based on story by Saadat Hasan Manto
* ''Kaantay'' (2004), PTV drama
* ''Bheegi Palkain'' (2005)
* ''Makan Aka Home a Heaven'' (2006)
* ''Bhool'' (2006), PTV drama
* ''Sitam'' (2006), PTV drama
* ''Jhumka Jaan'' (2007)
* ''Mere Humnasheen'' (2009), a television film
* ''Saza Aur Jaza'' (2010), PTV drama
* ''Chand Chehra'' (2013)
* ''Anjuman (2013 film), Anjuman'' (2013), a television film
* ''Mein Sitara'' (2016)
* ''Alif Allah Aur Insaan'' (2017)
* ''Kahan Ho Tum (TV series), Kahan Ho Tum''(2018)
* ''Alif (TV series), Alif'' (2019)
* ''Deewar-e-Shab'' (2019)
* ''Raqs e Bismil'' (2020)
* ''Khuda Aur Mohabbat (season 3), Khuda Aur Mohabbat'' (2021)
* ''Pehli Si Muhabbat'' (2021)
* ''Badzaat'' (2022)
* ''Dil Awaiz (2022 TV series), Dil Awaiz'' (2022)
* ''Nauroz (TV series), Nauroz'' (2023)
* ''Namak Haram'' (2024)
In literature
* ''Tawaifnama'' by Saba Dewan
* ''Mera Naam Gauhar Jaan Hai'' by Vikram Sampath
* ''TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light District'' by Fouzia Saeed
* ''Umrao Jaan Ada'' novel by Mirza Hadi Ruswa
* ''Nashtar'' novel by Hasan Shah
* ''Bazar'' story by Saadat Hasan Manto
* ''The Last Courtesan'' by Manish Gaekwad
* ''Song Sung True'' by
Malika Pukhraj
* ''Akhtari : The Life and Music of Begum Akhtar'' by Yatindra Mishra, Maneesha Taneja
* ''Nautch Girls of India'' by
Pran Nevile
* ''The Unsung Martyred Tawayafs'' by Dr. K.S. Bhardwaj
* ''Dance to Freedom'' by A.K. Gandhi
See also
* Similar professions in other cultures
** Almah (Egyptian dancer), Almah, a similar profession in the Middle East
** Ca trù, a similar profession in Vietnam
** Geisha, a similar profession in Japan
** Shirabyōshi, a similar profession in Japan
** Kisaeng, a similar profession in Korea
** Qiyan, a similar profession in the pre-modern Islamic world
**
Nagarvadhu, a similar profession in ancient India
**
Gaṇikā, a similar profession in ancient India
** Shamakhi dancers, a similar profession in Azerbaijan
** Gējì, a similar profession in China
* Similar topics in India
** Bargirl
** Dance bar
** Mujra
** Nautch
** Devdasi
* Related topics
** Prostitution in colonial India
** Prostitution in India
** Prostitution in Pakistan
References
*
Further reading
* Martha Feldman, Bonnie Gordon.
The courtesan's arts: cross-cultural perspectives'. pp. 312–352.
Essay on Asia art, history, epigraphy and culture in Honour of Gouriswar Bhattacharya
External links
{{Alcohol in India
Obsolete occupations
Sex industry in India
Courtesans by type
Culture of Lucknow
Culture of Uttar Pradesh
Indian courtesans
Pakistani tawaifs