Electroacoustic music is a

genre Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other fo ...

of Western

art music Art music (alternatively called classical music, cultivated music, serious music, and canonic music) is music considered to be of high culture, high phonoaesthetic value. It typically implies advanced structural and theoretical considerationsJa ...

in which composers use recording technology and

audio signal processing Audio signal processing is a subfield of signal processing that is concerned with the electronic manipulation of audio signals. Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves—longitudinal waves which travel through air, consisting ...

to manipulate the

timbre In music, timbre (), also known as tone color or tone quality (from psychoacoustics), is the perceived sound of a musical note, sound or tone. Timbre distinguishes sounds according to their source, such as choir voices and musical instrument ...

s of acoustic sounds in the creation of pieces of music. It originated around the middle of the 20th century, following the incorporation of electronic sound production into formal compositional practice. The initial developments in electroacoustic music composition to fixed media during the 20th century are associated with the activities of the at the ORTF in Paris, the home of ''

musique concrète Musique concrète (; ): " problem for any translator of an academic work in French is that the language is relatively abstract and theoretical compared to English; one might even say that the mode of thinking itself tends to be more schematic ...

'', the Studio for Electronic Music in Cologne, where the focus was on the composition of '' elektronische Musik'', and the

Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center The Computer Music Center (CMC) at Columbia University is the oldest center for electronic and computer music research in the United States. It was founded in the 1950s as the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center. Location The CMC is h ...

in New York City, where tape music, electronic music, and computer music were all explored. Practical electronic music instruments began to appear in the early 20th century.

Tape music

Tape music is an integral part of ''

'', which uses the

tape recorder An audio tape recorder, also known as a tape deck, tape player or tape machine or simply a tape recorder, is a sound recording and reproduction device that records and plays back sounds usually using magnetic tape for storage. In its present ...

as its central musical source. The music can utilise pre-recorded sound fragments and the creation of loops, which can be altered and manipulated through techniques such as editing and playback speed manipulation. The work of Halim El-Dabh is perhaps the earliest example of tape (or, in this case, Wire recording) music. El-Dabh's ''The Expression of Zaar'', first presented in Cairo, Egypt, in 1944, was an early work using ''musique concrète''–like techniques similar to those developed in Paris during the same period. El-Dabh would later become more famous for his work at the

, where in 1959 he composed the influential piece ''Leiyla and the Poet''. Composer

John Cage John Milton Cage Jr. (September 5, 1912 – August 12, 1992) was an American composer and music theorist. A pioneer of indeterminacy in music, electroacoustic music, and Extended technique, non-standard use of musical instruments, Cage was one ...

's assembly of the ''

Williams Mix ''Williams Mix'' (1951–1953) is a 4'16" electroacoustic composition by John Cage for eight simultaneously played independent quarter-inch magnetic tapes. The first piece of octophonic music, the piece was created by Cage with the assistance o ...

'' serves as an example of the rigors of tape music. First, Cage created a 192-page score. Over the course of a year, 600 sounds were assembled and recorded. Cut tape segments for each occurrence of each sound were accumulated on the score. Then the cut segments were spliced to one of eight tapes, work finished on January 16, 1953. The premiere performance (realization) of the 4'15" work was given on March 21, 1953, at the

University of Illinois The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (UIUC, U of I, Illinois, or University of Illinois) is a public university, public land-grant university, land-grant research university in the Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area, Illinois, United ...

, Urbana.

Electronic music

In Cologne, '' elektronische Musik'', pioneered in 1949–51 by the composer Herbert Eimert and the physicist Werner Meyer-Eppler, was based solely on electronically generated (synthetic) sounds, particularly

sine wave A sine wave, sinusoidal wave, or sinusoid (symbol: ∿) is a periodic function, periodic wave whose waveform (shape) is the trigonometric function, trigonometric sine, sine function. In mechanics, as a linear motion over time, this is ''simple ...

s. The beginning of the development of

electronic music Electronic music broadly is a group of music genres that employ electronic musical instruments, circuitry-based music technology and software, or general-purpose electronics (such as personal computers) in its creation. It includes both music ...

has been traced back to "the invention of the

valve A valve is a device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or Slurry, slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically Pip ...

acuum tubein 1906". The precise control afforded by the studio allowed for what Eimert considered to be the subjection of everything, "to the last element of the single note", to serial

permutation In mathematics, a permutation of a set can mean one of two different things: * an arrangement of its members in a sequence or linear order, or * the act or process of changing the linear order of an ordered set. An example of the first mean ...

, "resulting in a completely new way of composing sound"; in the studio, serial operations could be applied to elements such as timbre and dynamics. The common link between the two schools is that the music is recorded and performed through loudspeakers, without a human performer. The majority of electroacoustic pieces use a combination of recorded sound and synthesized or processed sounds, and the schism between Schaeffer's and Eimert's approaches has been overcome, the first major example being Karlheinz Stockhausen's '' Gesang der Jünglinge'' of 1955–56.

Circuit bending

Circuit bending is the creative short-circuiting of low

voltage Voltage, also known as (electrical) potential difference, electric pressure, or electric tension, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In a Electrostatics, static electric field, it corresponds to the Work (electrical), ...

, battery-powered electronic audio devices such as guitar effects, children's

toy A toy or plaything is an object that is used primarily to provide entertainment. Simple examples include toy blocks, board games, and dolls. Toys are often designed for use by children, although many are designed specifically for adults and p ...

s and small synthesizers to create new musical instruments and sound generators. Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with

noise music Noise music is a genre of music that is characterised by the expressive use of noise. This type of music tends to challenge the distinction that is made in conventional musical practices between musical and non-musical sound. Noise music include ...

, though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with "bent" instruments.

Examples of notable works

* Milton Babbitt – '' Philomel'' (1964) *

Luciano Berio Luciano Berio (24 October 1925 – 27 May 2003) was an Italian composer noted for his experimental music, experimental work (in particular his 1968 composition ''Sinfonia (Berio), Sinfonia'' and his series of virtuosic solo pieces titled ''Seque ...

– ''

Thema (Omaggio a Joyce) ''Thema (Omaggio a Joyce)'' is an electroacoustic music, electroacoustic composition by Luciano Berio, for voice and tape. Composed in 1958 and 1959, it is based on the interpretative reading of the poem "Sirens" from chapter 11 of the novel ''Ulys ...

'' (1958–59) * Johanna Beyer – ''Music of the Spheres'' (1938) * Konrad Boehmer – ''Aspekt'' (1964–66), ''Apocalipsis cum figuris'' (1984) *

Pierre Boulez Pierre Louis Joseph Boulez (; 26 March 19255 January 2016) was a French composer, conductor and writer, and the founder of several musical institutions. He was one of the dominant figures of post-war contemporary classical music. Born in Montb ...

– '' Répons'' (1981–84) *

– '' Imaginary Landscape No. 1'' (1939) * Mario Davidovsky – '' Synchronisms No. 6'' for Piano and Electronic Sound (1970) * Halim El-Dabh – '' Leiyla and the Poet'' (1961) * Karel Goeyvaerts – '' Nummer 5 met zuivere tonen'' (1953) * Tim Hecker – '' Virgins'' (2013) *

Jean-Michel Jarre Jean-Michel André Jarre (; born 24 August 1948) is a French composer, performer and record producer. He is a pioneer in the Electronic music, electronic, Ambient music, ambient and New-age music, new-age genres, and is known for organising out ...

– ''Deserted Palace'' (1972) * Phil Kline – '' Unsilent Night'' (1992), for cassettes in boomboxes * Gottfried Michael Koenig – ''Project 1'' (1964), ''Project 2'' (1966) * Alvin Lucier – '' I Am Sitting in a Room'' (1969) * Ivo Malec – ''Triola, ou Symphonie pour moi-même'' (1977–78) * Luigi Nono – ''La fabbrica illuminata'' (1964), ''A floresta é jovem e cheia de vida'' (1966), '' Contrappunto dialettico alla mente'' (1968), '' Como una ola de fuerza y luz'' (1971–72) * Pauline Oliveros – ''Sonic Meditations, "Teach Yourself to Fly"'' (1961) * Daphne Oram - "Still Point" (1948) * Else Marie Pade – ''Symphonie Magnétophonique'' (1958) * Henri Pousseur – '' Scambi'' (1957), ''Trois Visages de Liège'' (1961), ''Paraboles-Mix'' (1972), ''Seize Paysages planétairesl'' (2000) *

Steve Reich Stephen Michael Reich ( ; born October 3, 1936) is an American composer best known as a pioneer of minimal music in the mid to late 1960s. Reich's work is marked by its use of repetitive figures, slow harmonic rhythm, and canons. Reich descr ...

– '' Pendulum Music'' (1968), for microphones, amplifiers, speakers and performers * Pierre Schaeffer – '' Cinq études de bruits'' (1948) * Karlheinz Stockhausen – '' Gesang der Jünglinge'' (1955–56), '' Kontakte'' (1958–60), '' Mixtur'' (1964), '' Mikrophonie I & II'' (1964 and 1965), '' Telemusik'' (1966), '' Hymnen'' (1966–67), '' Oktophonie'' (1991), '' Cosmic Pulses'' (2006–2007) * James Tenney – '' For Ann (rising)'' (1969) *

Edgard Varèse Edgard Victor Achille Charles Varèse (; also spelled Edgar; December 22, 1883 – November 6, 1965) was a French and American composer who spent the greater part of his career in the United States. Varèse's music emphasizes timbre and rhythm; h ...

– '' Poème électronique'' (1958) * Charles Wuorinen – '' Time's Encomium'' (1969) * Iannis Xenakis – ''Persepolis'' (1971)

Electronic and electroacoustic instruments

* Birotron (1974), Dave Biro * Buchla 100 and 200 serie (1960s–70s), Buchla Lightning I (1991) and Buchla Lightning II (1995) by Don Buchla * Cembaphon (1951), Harald Bode * Chamberlin (1946) * Clavinet (1964) * Clavioline (early 1950s) and Concert Clavioline (1953), Harald Bode * Clavivox, Circle Machine, Bass Line Generator, Rhythm Modulator, Bandito the Bongo Artist, and Electronium (1950s–60s), Raymond Scott * DX7 (1983), Yamaha * Elektronium (in German) * EMS Synthi AKS (1972) * Fairlight CMI (1978) * Gravikord (1986), Robert Grawi * Kraakdoos / Cracklebox (1960s–70s), Michel Waisvisz *

Mellotron The Mellotron is an electro-mechanical musical instrument developed in Birmingham, England, in 1963. It is played by pressing its keys, each of which causes a length of magnetic tape to contact a Capstan (tape recorder), capstan, which pulls i ...

(1960s) * Melochord (1947–49), Harald Bode * Melodium (1938), Harald Bode *

Moog synthesizer The Moog synthesizer ( ) is a modular synthesizer invented by the American engineer Robert Moog in 1964. Moog's company, R. A. Moog Co., produced numerous models from 1965 to 1981, and again from 2014. It was the first commercial synthesizer ...

(1965),

Robert Moog Robert Arthur Moog ( ; May 23, 1934 – August 21, 2005) was an American engineer and electronic music pioneer. He was the founder of the synthesizer manufacturer Moog Music and the inventor of the first commercial synthesizer, the Moog synthe ...

* Ondioline (1939), Georges Jenny * Optigan (1971) * Orchestron (1975), Vako Synthesizers * Polychord (1950) and Polychord III (1951), Harald Bode * Electronic Sackbut (1945), Hugh Le Caine *

Sampler (musical instrument) A sampler is an electronic musical instrument that records and plays back samples (portions of sound recordings). Samples may comprise elements such as rhythm, melody, speech, sound effects or longer portions of music. The mid-20th century sa ...

Synclavier The Synclavier is an early digital synthesizer, polyphonic digital sampling system, and music workstation manufactured by New England Digital Corporation of Norwich, Vermont. It was produced in various forms from the late 1970s into the ea ...

(1975), Jon Appleton, Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron Jones * Telharmonium (1897), Thaddeus Cahill * Theremin (1928), Leon Theremin * Tuttivox (1953), Harald Bode * UPIC (1977), Iannis Xenakis and CEMAMu * Warbo Formant organ (1937), Harald Bode

Centers, associations and events for electroacoustics and related arts

Important centers of research and composition can be found around the world, and there are numerous conferences and festivals which present electroacoustic music, notably the International Computer Music Conference, the international conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, the Electroacoustic Music Studies Conference, and the

Ars Electronica Ars Electronica Linz GmbH is an Austrian cultural, educational and scientific institute active in the field of new media art, founded in Linz in 1979. It is based at the Ars Electronica Center (AEC), which houses the Museum of the Future, in t ...

Festival (Linz, Austria). A number of national associations promote the art form, notably the Canadian Electroacoustic Community (CEC) in Canada, the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States (SEAMUS) in the US, the Australasian Computer Music Association in Australia and New Zealand, and

Sound and Music Sound and Music is the UK's national charitable agency for new music, established on 1 October 2008 from the merger of four existing bodies working in the contemporary music field: the Society for the Promotion of New Music (SPNM), the British Mu ...

(previously the Sonic Arts Network) in the UK. The '' Computer Music Journal'' and '' Organised Sound'' are the two most important peer-reviewed journals dedicated to electroacoustic studies, while several national associations produce print and electronic publications.

Festivals

There have been a number of festivals that feature electroacoustic music. Early festivals, such as Donaueschingen Festival, founded in 1921, were some of the first to include electroacoustic instruments and pieces. This was followed by ONCE Festival of New Music in the 1950s, and since the 1960s, there has been a growth of festivals that focus exclusively on electroacoustic music. * 60x60 (Intl.) * Akousma (Canada) *

(Austria) * Berlin Atonal (Germany) * Cybersonica (UK) *Dias de Música Electroacústica (Intl.) * Electro-music (UK) * Electroacoustic Music Days (Greece) * Electronic Music Midwest (US) *Electrofringe (Australia) *

Expo '70 The or Expo '70 was a world's fair held in Suita, Osaka Prefecture, Japan, between 15 March and 13 September 1970. Its theme was "Progress and Harmony for Mankind." In Japanese, Expo '70 is often referred to as . It was the first world's fair ...

(Japan) * International Computer Music Conference (Intl.) * International Electroacoustic Music Festival (Cuba) * L'espace du son (Belgium) * Les Siestes Electroniques (France) * Music For People & Thingamajigs Festival (US) * New Interfaces for Musical Expression (Int.) *Numusic (Norway) * NWEAMO (US) * Olympia Experimental Music Festival (US) *ONCE Festival of New Music (US) *Présences Électroniques (France) * Pro Musica Nova (Germany) * Spark Festival (US) * TodaysArt (The Netherlands)

Conferences and symposiums

Alongside paper presentations, workshops and seminars, many of these events also feature concert performances or sound installations created by those attending or which are related to the theme of the conference / symposium.

References

Works cited

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