Sāṅkhya

Samkhya or Sankhya (; ) is a dualistic orthodox school of Hindu philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' Puruṣa'' ('consciousness' or spirit) and ''Prakṛti'' (nature or matter, including the human mind and emotions).

''Puruṣa'' is the witness-consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, beyond perception, above any experience by mind or senses, and impossible to describe in words.

''Prakṛti'' is matter or nature. It is inactive, unconscious, and is a balance of the three ''guṇa'', ''rajas'', and '' tamas''. When ''Prakṛti'' comes into contact with ''Purusha'' this balance is disturbed, and ''Prakṛti'' becomes manifest, evolving twenty-three tattvas, namely intellect (''buddhi'', ''mahat''), I-principle (''ahamkara''), mind ('' manas''); the five sensory capacities known as ears, skin, eyes, tongue and nose; the five action capacities known as hands (''hasta''), feet (''pada''), speech (''vak''), anus (''guda''), and genitals (''upastha''); and the five "subtle elements" or "modes of sensory content" ('' tanmatras''), from which the five "gross elements" or "forms of perceptual objects" (earth, water, fire, air and space) emerge, in turn giving rise to the manifestation of sensory experience and cognition.

''Jiva'' ('a living being') is the state in which ''Puruṣa'' is bonded to ''Prakṛti''. Human experience is an interplay of the two, ''Puruṣa'' being conscious of the various combinations of cognitive activities. The end of the bondage of ''Puruṣa'' to ''Prakṛti'' is called ''Moksha'' (Liberation) or ''Kaivalya'' (Isolation). Gerald James Larson (2011), ''Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning,'' Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 36–47.

Samkhya's epistemology accepts three of six '' pramaṇas'' ('proofs') as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge, as does yoga. These are ''pratyakṣa'' ('perception'), ''anumāṇa'' ('inference') and ''śabda'' (''āptavacana'', meaning, 'word/testimony of reliable sources').John A. Grimes, ''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English,'' State University of New York Press, , page 238. Sometimes described as one of the rationalist schools of Indian philosophy, it relies exclusively on reason.

While Samkhya-like speculations can be found in the Rig Veda and some of the older Upanishads, some western scholars have proposed that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins, developing in ascetic milieus. Proto-Samkhya ideas developed c. 8th/7th BC and onwards, as evidenced in the middle Upanishads, the '' Buddhacharita'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and the ''Mokshadharma''-section of the ''Mahabharata''. It was related to the early ascetic traditions and meditation, spiritual practices, and religious cosmology, and methods of reasoning that result in liberating knowledge (''vidya'', ''jnana'', ''viveka'') that end the cycle of ''duḥkha'' (suffering) and rebirth allowing for "a great variety of philosophical formulations". Pre-''Karika'' systematic Samkhya existed around the beginning of the first millennium CE. The defining method of Samkhya was established with the Samkhyakarika (4th c. CE).

Samkhya might have been theistic or nontheistic, but with its classical systematization in the early first millennium CE, the existence of a deity became irrelevant.Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), '' Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History'', Columbia University Press, , chapter 4, page 77. Samkhya is strongly related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, for which it forms the theoretical foundation, and it has influenced other schools of Indian philosophy.Roy Perrett, ''Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges,'' Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al.), Ashgate, , pages 149–158.

Etymology

''Sāṃkhya'' (सांख्य) or ''sāṅkhya'', also transliterated as ''samkhya'' and ''sankhya'', respectively, is a Sanskrit word that, depending on the context, means 'to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to number, rational'. In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, ''Samkhya'' refers to the philosophical school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and rational examination.

The word ''samkhya'' means 'empirical' or 'relating to numbers'. Although the term had been used in the general sense of metaphysical knowledge before, in technical usage it refers to the Samkhya school of thought that evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries CE. The Samkhya system is called so because 'it "enumerates'" twenty five ''Tattvas'' or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the puruṣa or soul'.

Philosophy

''Puruṣa'' and ''Prakṛti''

Samkhya makes a distinction between two "irreducible, innate and independent realities", ''Purusha'', the witness-consciousness, and ''Prakṛti'', "matter", the activities of mind and perception. According to Dan Lusthaus,

Puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (''bhokta'') and the ''Prakṛti'' is the enjoyed (''bhogya''). Samkhya believes that the puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is a pluralistic spiritualism, atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism.

''Puruṣa'' – witness-consciousness

'' Puruṣa'' is the witness-consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". ''Puruṣa'' is neither produced nor does it produce. No appellations can qualify ''Purusha'', nor can it be substantialized or objectified. It "cannot be reduced, can't be 'settled'". Any designation of ''Purusha'' comes from ''Prakṛti'', and is a limitation. Unlike Advaita Vedanta, and like Purva-Mīmāṃsā, Samkhya believes in plurality of the ''Puruṣas''. However, while being multiple, ''Puruṣas'' are considered non-different because their essential attributes are the same.

''Prakṛti'' - cognitive processes

''Prakṛti'' is the first cause of the world of our experiences. Since it is the first principle (''tattva'') of the universe, it is called the ''pradhāna'' (chief principle), but, as it is the unconscious and unintelligent principle, it is also called the ''jaḍa'' (unintelligent). It is composed of three essential characteristics (''triguna''s). These are:
* ''Sattva'' – poise, fineness, lightness, illumination, and joy;
* ''Rajas'' – dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;
* '' Tamas'' – inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction, and sloth.

Unmanifested ''Prakṛti'' is infinite, inactive, and unconscious, with the three gunas in a state of equilibrium. When this equilibrium of the ''guṇas'' is disturbed then unmanifest ''Prakṛti'', along with the omnipresent witness-consciousness, ''Purusha'', gives rise to the manifest world of experience. ''Prakṛti'' becomes manifest as twenty-three ''tattvas'': intellect (buddhi, mahat), ego (ahamkara) mind ('' manas''); the five sensory capacities; the five action capacities; and the five "subtle elements" or "modes of sensory content" (''tanmatras'': form (''rūpa''), sound (''shabda''), smell (''gandha''), taste (''rasa''), touch (''sparsha'')), from which the five "gross elements" or "forms of perceptual objects" emerge (earth (prithivi), water (jala), fire (Agni), air (Vāyu), ether (Ākāsha)). ''Prakṛti'' is the source of our experience; it is not "the evolution of a series of material entities," but "the emergence of experience itself". It is description of experience and the relations between its elements, not an explanation of the origin of the universe.

All ''Prakṛti'' has these three ''guṇas'' in different proportions. Each ''guṇa'' is dominant at specific times of day. The interplay of these ''guṇa'' defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M,'' Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, , page 265 The Samkhya theory of ''guṇa'' was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian philosophies. Samkhya's philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of Hindu ethics.

Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from ''Purusha''. In Samkhya, consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or 'shapes' assumed by the mind. So intellect, after receiving cognitive structures from the mind and illumination from pure consciousness, creates thought structures that appear to be conscious. Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them. But consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates.

Liberation or ''mokṣa''

Samkhya school considers ''moksha'' as a natural quest of every jiva. The Samkhyakarika states,

Samkhya regards ignorance ( avidyā) as the root cause of suffering and bondage ('' Samsara''). Samkhya states that the way out of this suffering is through knowledge (viveka). ''Mokṣa'' (liberation), states Samkhya school, results from knowing the difference between ''Prakṛti'' (avyakta-vyakta) and ''Puruṣa'' (jña). More specifically, the ''Puruṣa'' that has attained liberation is to be distinguished from a ''Puruṣa'' that is still bound on account of the liberated ''Puruṣa'' being free from its subtle body (synonymous with buddhi), in which is located the mental dispositions that individuates it and causes it to experience bondage.

''Puruṣa'', the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of ''Prakṛti'' such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that ''Puruṣa'' is distinct from ''Prakṛti'', is more than empirical ego, and that puruṣa is deepest conscious self within, the Self gains isolation (''kaivalya'') and freedom (''moksha'').

Though in conventional terms the bondage is ascribed to the ''Puruṣa'', this is ultimately a mistake. This is because the Samkhya school (Samkhya karika Verse 63) maintains that it is actually ''Prakṛti'' that binds itself, and thus bondage should in reality be ascribed to ''Prakṛti'', not to the ''Puruṣa'':

Vacaspati gave a metaphorical example to elaborate the position that the ''Puruṣa'' is only mistakenly ascribed bondage: although the king is ascribed victory or defeat, it is actually the soldiers that experience it. It is then not merely that bondage is only mistakenly ascribed to the ''Puruṣa'', but that liberation is like bondage, wrongly ascribed to the ''Puruṣa'' and should be ascribed to ''Prakṛti'' alone.

Other forms of Samkhya teach that ''Mokṣa'' is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. ''Moksha'' is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of liberation, where ''sattva guṇa'' predominates.

Epistemology

Samkhya considered ''Pratyakṣa'' or ''Dṛṣṭam'' (direct sense perception), ''Anumāna'' (inference), and ''Śabda'' or ''Āptavacana'' (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or ''pramana''.. Unlike some other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three ''pramanas'' to be epistemically proper: ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy), ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).
* ''Pratyakṣa'' (प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense, the mind.MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16 The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception: ''Indriyarthasannikarsa'' (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), ''Avyapadesya'' (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), ''Avyabhicara'' (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and ''Vyavasayatmaka'' (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).Karl Potter (1977), "Meaning and Truth," in ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'', Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 160-168 Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as ''pramana'' and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included ''pratibha'' (intuition), ''samanyalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and ''jnanalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state). Further, some schools considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from ''Pratyakṣa-pranama'', so as to contrast ''nirnaya'' (definite judgment, conclusion) from ''anadhyavasaya'' (indefinite judgment).
* ''Anumāna'' (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason. Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of ''Anumana''. In all except one Hindu philosophies, this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: ''pratijna'' (hypothesis), ''hetu'' (a reason), and ''drshtanta'' (examples).James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. , page 46-47 The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: ''sadhya'' (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and ''paksha'' (the object on which the ''sadhya'' is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if ''sapaksha'' (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if ''vipaksha'' (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand ''Vyapti'' - the requirement that the ''hetu'' (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both ''sapaksha'' and ''vipaksha''. A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a ''nigamana'' (conclusion).
* ''Śabda'' (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.* Eliott Deutsche (2000), in ''Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy,'' Volume 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 245–248.
* John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238.DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, , page 172 Hiriyanna explains ''Sabda-pramana'' as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 43 He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through ''Sabda'' (words). The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the ''Sabda'' of Vedas. The disagreement between the schools has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as Carvaka, state that this is never possible, and therefore ''Sabda'' is not a proper ''pramana''. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.

Causality

The Samkhya system is based on Sat-kārya-vāda or the theory of causation. According to Satkāryavāda, the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only an apparent or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material one, when it becomes effect. Since, effects cannot come from nothing, the original cause or ground of everything is seen as ''Prakṛti''.

More specifically, Samkhya system follows the ''Prakṛti-Parināma Vāda''. '' Parināma'' denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is ''Prakṛti'' or more precisely ''Moola-Prakṛti'' ("Primordial Matter"). The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution, ''Prakṛti'' is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back into ''Prakṛti'', which now remains as the undifferentiated, primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other. But this theory is very different from the modern theories of science in the sense that ''Prakṛti'' evolves for each Jiva separately, giving individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of ''Prakṛti'' merges into the ''Moola-Prakṛti''. Another uniqueness of Sāmkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind, ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from pure consciousness.

Samkhya theorizes that ''Prakṛti'' is the source of the perceived world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four ''tattvas'' or principles. The evolution itself is possible because ''Prakṛti'' is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas – ''sattva'', ''rajas'' and ''tamas''. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three together are one, "unmanifest" ''Prakṛti'' which is unknowable. A ''guṇa'' is an entity that can change, either increase or decrease, therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification.

The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal Nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Samkhya is called "''Satkārya-vāda''" ("theory of existent causes"), and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness – all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.

Samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between ''Purusha'' and ''Prakṛti'' is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The strands of Samkhya thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the ''Mahabharata'' and '' Yogavasishta''.

Historical development

Larson (1969) discerns four basic periods in the development of Samkhya:
# 8/9th c. BCE - 5th c. BCE: "ancient speculations," including speculative Vedic hymns and the oldest prose Upanishads
# 4th.c. BCE-1st c. CE: proto-Samkhya speculations, as found in the middle Upanishads, the Buddhacarita, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Mahabharata
# 1st-10/11th c. CE: classical Samkhya
# 15th-17th c.: renaissance of later Samkhya

Larson (1987) discerns three phases of development of the term ''samkhya'', relating to three different meanings:
# Vedic period and the Mauryan Empire, until the 4th and 3rd c. BCE: "relating to number, enumeration or calculation." Intellectual inquiry was "frequently cast in the format of elaborate enumerations; references to ''samkhya'' do not denote integrated systems of thought.
# 8th/7th c. BCE - first centuries CE: as a masculine noun, referring to "someone who calculates, enumerates, or discriminates properly or correctly." Proto-samkhya, related to the early ascetic traditions,reflected in the ''Moksadharma'' section of the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita, and the cosmological speculations of the Puranas. The notion of ''samkhya'' becomes related to methods of reasoning that result in liberating knowledge (''vidya'', ''jnana'', ''viveka'') that end the cycle of ''dukkha'' and rebirth. During this period, ''samkhya'' becomes explicitly related to meditation, spiritual practices, and religious cosmology, and is "primarily a methodology for attaining liberation and appears to allow for a great variety of philosophical formulations." According to Larson, "Samkhya means in the Upanishads and the Epic simply the way of salvation by knowledge." As such, it contains "psychological analyses of experience" that "become dominant motifs in Jain and Buddhist meditation contexts." Typical Samkhya terminology and issues develop. While yoga emphasizes ''asanas'' breathing, and ascetic practices, ''samkhya'' is concerned with intellectual analyses and proper discernment, but ''samkhya''-reasonong is not really differentiated from yoga. According to Van Buitenen, these ideas developed in the interaction between various ''sramanas'' and ascetic groups. Numerous ancient teachers are named in the various texts, including Kapila and Pancasikha.
# 1st c. BCE - first centuries CE: as a neuter term, referring to the beginning of a technical philosophical system. Pre-''karika-''Samkhya (ca. 100 BCE – 200 CE). This period ends with Ishvara Krishna's (Iśvarakṛṣṇa, 350 CE) ''Samkhyakarika''. According to Larson, the shift of Samkhya from speculations to the normative conceptualization hints—but does not conclusively prove—that Samkhya may be the oldest of the Indian technical philosophical schools (e.g. Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Buddhist ontology), one that evolved over time and influenced the technical aspects of Buddhism and Jainism.

Ancient speculations

The early, speculative phase took place in the first half of the first millennium BCE, when ascetic spirituality and monastic (''sramana'' and ''yati'') traditions came into vogue in India, and ancient scholars combined "enumerated set of principles" with "a methodology of reasoning that results in spiritual knowledge (''vidya, jnana, viveka'')." These early non-Samkhya speculations and proto-Samkhya ideas are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, early Upanishads such as the Chandogya Upanishad, and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. However, these early speculations and proto-Samkhya ideas had not distilled and congealed into a distinct, complete philosophy.

Ascetic origins

While some earlier scholars have argued for Upanishadic origins of the Samkhya-tradition, and the Upanisads contain dualistic speculations which may have influenced proto-samkhya, other scholars have noted the dissimilarities of Samkhya with the Vedic tradition. As early as 1898, Richard Karl von Garbe, a German professor of philosophy and Indologist, wrote in 1898,

Dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, 'The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex'. Heinrich Zimmer states that Samkhya has non-Aryan origins.

Anthony Warder (1994; first ed. 1967) writes that the Samkhya and Mīmāṃsā schools appear to have been established before the Sramana traditions in India (500 BCE), and he finds that "Samkhya represents a relatively free development of speculation among the Brahmans, independent of the Vedic revelation." Warder writes, ' amkhyahas indeed been suggested to be non-Brahmanical and even anti-Vedic in origin, but there is no tangible evidence for that except that it is very different than most Vedic speculation – but that is (itself) quite inconclusive. Speculations in the direction of the Samkhya can be found in the early Upanishads."

According to Ruzsa in 2006, "Sāṅkhya has a very long history. Its roots go deeper than textual traditions allow us to see," stating that "Sāṅkhya likely grew out of speculations rooted in cosmic dualism and introspective meditational practice." The dualism is rooted in agricultural concepts of the union of the male sky-god and the female earth-goddess, the union of "the spiritual, immaterial, lordly, immobile fertilizer (represented as the Śiva-liṅgam, or phallus) and of the active, fertile, powerful but subservient material principle (Śakti or Power, often as the horrible Dark Lady, Kālī)." In contrast,

According to Ruzsa,

Burley argues for an ontegenetic or incremental development of Samkhya, instead of being established by one historical founder. Burley states that India's religio-cultural heritage is complicated and likely experienced a non-linear development. Samkhya is not necessarily non-Vedic nor pre-Vedic nor a 'reaction to Brahmanic hegemony', states Burley. It is most plausibly in its origins a lineage that grew and evolved from a combination of ascetic traditions and Vedic ''guru'' (teacher) and disciples. Burley suggests the link between Samkhya and Yoga as likely the root of this evolutionary origin during the Vedic era of India. Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , pages 37-39 According to Van Buitenen, various ideas on yoga and meditation developed in the interaction between various ''sramanas'' and ascetic groups.

Rig Vedic speculations

The earliest mention of dualism is in the ''Rigveda'', a text that was compiled in the late second millennium BCE., in various chapters.

At a mythical level, dualism is found in the Indra–Vritra myth of chapter 1.32 of the Rigveda. Enumeration, the etymological root of the word ''samkhya'', is found in numerous chapters of the Rigveda, such as 1.164, 10.90 and 10.129. According to Larson, it is likely that in the oldest period these enumerations were occasionally also applied in the context of meditation themes and religious cosmology, such as in the hymns of 1.164 (Riddle Hymns) and 10.129 (Nasadiya Hymns). However, these hymns present only the outline of ideas, not specific Samkhya theories and these theories developed in a much later period.

The Riddle hymns of the Rigveda, famous for their numerous enumerations, structural language symmetry within the verses and the chapter, enigmatic word play with anagrams that symbolically portray parallelism in rituals and the cosmos, nature and the inner life of man.Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, , pages 349-359 This hymn includes enumeration (counting) as well as a series of dual concepts cited by early Upanishads . For example, the hymns 1.164.2 - 1.164-3 mention "seven" multiple times, which in the context of other chapters of Rigveda have been interpreted as referring to both seven priests at a ritual and seven constellations in the sky, the entire hymn is a riddle that paints a ritual as well as the sun, moon, earth, three seasons, the transitory nature of living beings, the passage of time and spirit.

The chapter 1.164 asks a number of metaphysical questions, such as "what is the One in the form of the Unborn that created the six realms of the world?". Dualistic philosophical speculations then follow in chapter 1.164 of the Rigveda, particularly in the well studied "allegory of two birds" hymn (1.164.20 - 1.164.22), a hymn that is referred to in the Mundaka Upanishad and other texts . The two birds in this hymn have been interpreted to mean various forms of dualism: "the sun and the moon", the "two seekers of different kinds of knowledge", and "the body and the atman".

The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and non-existence (asat) in the Nasadiya Sukta of the ''Rigveda'' is similar to the vyakta– avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Puruṣa may also have had some influence on Samkhya. The Samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of hiranyagarbha, which appears in both the ''Rigveda'' and the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''.

Early Upanishads

The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. 900–600 BCE) contain speculations along the lines of classical Samkhya philosophy. The concept of ahamkara was traced back by Van Buitenen to chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and chapter 7.25 of the ''Chāndogya Upaniṣad'', where it is a "cosmic entity," and not a psychological notion. Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, may in part be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and Shvetashvatara Upanishads.

Yajnavalkya's exposition on the Self in the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', and the dialogue between Uddalaka Aruni and his son Svetaketu in the ''Chandogya Upanishad'' represent a more developed notion of the essence of man (''Atman'') as "pure subjectivity - i.e., the knower who is himself unknowable, the seer who cannot be seen," and as "pure conscious," discovered by means of speculations, or enumerations. According to Larson, "it seems quite likely that both the monistic trends in Indian thought and the dualistic samkhya could have developed out of these ancient speculations." According to Larson, the enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad and Yajnavalkya–Maitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

Proto classical samkhya

Buddhist and Jainist influences

Jainism was re-organised in 9th century BCE and Buddhism had developed in eastern India by the 5th century BCE. It is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya influenced each other. According to Burely, there is no evidence that a systematic samkhya-philosophy existed prior to the founding of Buddhism and Jainism, sometime in the 5th or 4th century BCE. A prominent similarity between Buddhism and Samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering ( dukkha) as the foundation for their respective soteriological theories, than other Indian philosophies. However, suffering appears central to Samkhya in its later literature, which likely suggests a Buddhist influence. Eliade, however, presents the alternate theory that Samkhya and Buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time, benefiting from their mutual influence.

Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls (jiva) could have influenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However Hermann Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that Samkhya notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in Jainism. It is more likely, that Samkhya was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various Vedic and non-Vedic schools.

Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state it to be likely that early Samkhya doctrines found in oldest Upanishads (700-800 BCE) provided the contextual foundations and influenced Buddhist and Jaina doctrines, and these became contemporaneous, sibling intellectual movements with Samkhya and other schools of Hindu philosophy. This is evidenced, for example, by the references to Samkhya in ancient and medieval era Jaina literature.

Middle upanishads

Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for first time in chapter 6.13 of the Shvetashvatra Upanishad, as ''samkhya-yoga-adhigamya'' (literally, "to be understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline").

The Katha Upanishad (5th-1st c. BCE) in verses 3.10–13 and 6.7–11 describes a concept of puruṣa, and other concepts also found in later Samkhya.Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 273, 288–289, 298–299 The ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' in chapter 6.13 describes samkhya with Yoga philosophy, and Bhagavad Gita in book 2 provides axiological implications of Samkhya, therewith providing textual evidence of samkhyan terminology and concepts. Katha Upanishad conceives the Purusha (cosmic spirit, consciousness) as same as the individual soul ( Ātman, Self).

Bhagavad Gita and Mahabharata

The Bhagavad Gita identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge. The three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya. The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion (bhakti) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman of Vedanta.

The ''Mokshadharma'' chapter of Shanti Parva (Book of Peace) in the Mahabharata epic, composed between 400 BCE to 400 CE, explains Samkhya ideas along with other extant philosophies, and then lists numerous scholars in recognition of their philosophical contributions to various Indian traditions, and therein at least three Samkhya scholars can be recognized – Kapila, Asuri and Pancasikha. The 12th chapter of the '' Buddhacarita'', a buddhist text composed in the early second century CE, suggests Samkhya philosophical tools of reliable reasoning were well formed by about 5th century BCE. According to Rusza, "The ancient Buddhist Aśvaghoṣa (in his Buddha-Carita) describes Āḷāra Kālāma, the teacher of the young Buddha (ca. 420 B.C.E.) as following an archaic form of Sāṅkhya."

Classical Samkhya

According to Ruzsa, about 2,000 years ago "Sāṅkhya became the representative philosophy of Hindu thought in Hindu circles", influencing all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts.

Traditional credited founders

Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school. It is unclear in which century of the 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived.Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, , pages 107-109 Kapila appears in Rigveda, but context suggests that the word means 'reddish-brown color'. Both Kapila as a 'seer' and the term ''Samkhya'' appear in hymns of section 5.2 in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (300 BCE), suggesting Kapila's and Samkhya philosophy's origins may predate it. Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila; for example, Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila called ''Kapila Sannyasa Vidha''. A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently note Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching and a much later scholar named Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas. Isvarakrsna is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified Samkhya theories of Pancasikha, many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in the 6th century CE.

Samkhyakarika

The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the '' Samkhya Karika'' (c. 200 CE or 350–450 CE) of Īśvarakṛṣṇa. There were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are available today. Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his ''Kārikā'' describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila, through ''Āsuri and ''Pañcaśikha to himself. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called Ṣaṣṭitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost. The text was imported and translated into Chinese about the middle of the 6th century CE. The records of Al Biruni, the Persian visitor to India in the early 11th century, suggests Samkhyakarika was an established and definitive text in India in his times.

''Samkhyakarika'' includes distilled statements on epistemology, metaphysics and soteriology of the Samkhya school. For example, the fourth to sixth verses of the text states it epistemic premises,

The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarika was the Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya attributed to Gauḍapāda, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Other important commentaries on the karika were ''Yuktidīpīka'' (c. 6th century CE) and ''Vācaspati''’s ''Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī'' (c. 10th century CE).

Yuktidipika

Between 1938 and 1967, two previously unknown manuscript editions of ''Yuktidipika'' (ca. 600–700 CE) were discovered and published. ''Yuktidipika'' is an ancient review by an unknown author and has emerged as the most important commentary on the ''Samkhyakarika'', itself an ancient key text of the Samkhya school. This commentary as well as the reconstruction of pre-''karika'' epistemology and Samkhya emanation text (containing cosmology-ontology) from the earliest Puranas and ''Mokshadharma'' suggest that Samkhya as a technical philosophical system existed from about the last century BCE to the early centuries of the Common Era. ''Yuktidipika'' suggests that many more ancient scholars contributed to the origins of Samkhya in ancient India than were previously known and that Samkhya was a polemical philosophical system. However, almost nothing is preserved from the centuries when these ancient Samkhya scholars lived.

Samkhya revival

The 13th century text '' Sarvadarsanasangraha'' contains 16 chapters, each devoted to a separate school of Indian philosophy. The 13th chapter in this book contains a description of the Samkhya philosophy.

The '' Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra'' (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika. Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (''Sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti'', c. 15th century CE), Vijñānabhikṣu (''Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya'', c. 16th century CE), Mahādeva (vṛttisāra, c. 17th century CE) and Nāgeśa (''Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti''). In his introduction, the commentator Vijnana Bhiksu stated that only a sixteenth part of the original Samkhya Sastra remained, and that the rest had been lost to time. While the commentary itself is no doubt medieval, the age of the underlying sutras is unknown and perhaps much older. According to Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.

Views on God

Although the Samkhya school considers the Vedas a reliable source of knowledge, samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected beings but rejects the notion of God, according to Paul Deussen and other scholars,Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , page 39Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 38-39 although other scholars believe that Samkhya is as much theistic as the Yoga school.

According to Rajadhyaksha, classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on metaphysical grounds. Samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever-changing world and that God was only a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.

The oldest commentary on the Samkhyakarika, the Yuktidīpikā, asserts the existence of God, stating:
"We do not completely reject the particular power of the Lord, since he assumes a majestic body and so forth. Our intended meaning is just that there is no being who is different from prakrti and purusa and who is the instigator of these two, as you claim. Therefore, your view is refuted. The conjunction between prakrti and purusa is not instigated by another being."

A medieval commentary of Samkhyakarika such as ' in verse no. 1.92 directly states that existence of "Ishvara (God) is unproved". Hence there is no philosophical place for a creationist God in this system. It is also argued by commentators of this text that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist. However, later in the text, the commentator Vijnana Bhiksu clarified that the subject of dispute between the Samkhyas and others was the existence of an ''eternal'' Isvara. Samkhya did accept the concept of an ''emergent'' Isvara previously absorbed into ''Prakṛti''.

A key difference between the Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that the Yoga school accepts a 'personal, yet essentially inactive, deity' or 'personal god'. However, Radhanath Phukan, in the introduction to his translation of the ''Samkhya Karika of Isvarakrsna'' has argued that commentators who see the unmanifested as non-conscious make the mistake of regarding Samkhya as atheistic, though Samkhya is equally as theistic as Yoga.Radhanath Phukan, ''Samkhya Karika of Isvarakrsna'' (Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1960), pp.36-40 A majority of modern academic scholars are of view that the concept of Ishvara was incorporated into the ''nirishvara'' (atheistic) Samkhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the Yoga, the Pasupata and the Bhagavata schools of philosophy. Others have traced the concept of the emergent Isvara accepted by Samkhya to as far back as the Rig Veda, where it was called Hiranyagarbha (the golden germ, golden egg). This theistic Samkhya philosophy is described in the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita.

Chandradhar Sharma in 1960 affirmed that Samkhya in the beginning was based on the theistic absolute of Upanishads, but later on, under the influence of Jaina and Buddhist thought, it rejected theistic monism and was content with spiritualistic pluralism and atheistic realism. This also explains why some of the later Samkhya commentators, e.g. Vijnanabhiksu in the sixteenth century, tried to revive the earlier theism in Samkhya.Burley and Gopal suggest distinguishing between theistic and non-theistic streams of Samkhya traditions as "seśvara ('with lord')" and "nirīśvara ('without lord')" respectively. Burley suggests that the Svetasvatara Upanishad is a paradigmatic example of seśvara Samkhya whereas the Samkhyakarika is a paradigmatic example of nirīśvara Samkhya.

Arguments against Ishvara's existence

According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator God:
* If the existence of karma is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral governor of the universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so without karma. If however, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God.
* Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. If his motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. However, assuming that God has desire would contradict God's eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover, desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakṛti and cannot be thought to grow in God. The testimony of the Vedas, according to Samkhya, also confirms this notion.
* Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires, this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhya's notion of higher self.
* Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference and the testimony of the Vedas speak of prakṛti as the origin of the world, not God.
Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not prove God.

Influence on other schools

Vaisheshika and Nyaya

The Vaisheshika atomism, Nyaya epistemology may all have roots in the early Samkhya school of thought; but these schools likely developed in parallel with an evolving Samkhya tradition, as sibling intellectual movements.

Yoga

The Yoga school derives its ontology and epistemology from Samkhya and adds to it the concept of Isvara. However, scholarly opinion on the actual relationship between Yoga and Samkhya is divided. While Jakob Wilhelm Hauer and Georg Feuerstein believe that Yoga was a tradition common to many Indian schools and its association with Samkhya was artificially foisted upon it by commentators such as Vyasa. Johannes Bronkhorst and Eric Frauwallner think that Yoga never had a philosophical system separate from Samkhya. Bronkhorst further adds that the first mention of Yoga as a separate school of thought is no earlier than Śankara's (c. 788–820 CE) Brahmasūtrabhaśya.

Tantra

The dualistic metaphysics of various Tantric traditions illustrates the strong influence of Samkhya on Tantra. Shaiva Siddhanta was identical to Samkhya in its philosophical approach, barring the addition of a transcendent theistic reality. Knut A. Jacobsen, Professor of Religious Studies, notes the influence of Samkhya on Srivaishnavism. According to him, this Tantric system borrows the abstract dualism of Samkhya and modifies it into a personified male–female dualism of Vishnu and Sri Lakshmi. Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wild Kali standing on a slumbering Shiva was inspired from the Samkhyan conception of prakṛti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a passive witness. However, Samkhya and Tantra differed in their view on liberation. While Tantra sought to unite the male and female ontological realities, Samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the ultimate goal.

According to Bagchi, the Samkhya Karika (in karika 70) identifies Sāmkhya as a Tantra, and its philosophy was one of the main influences both on the rise of the Tantras as a body of literature, as well as Tantra sadhana.

Advaita Vedanta

The Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara called ''Samkhya'' as the 'principal opponent' (''pradhana-malla'') of the Vedanta. He criticized the ''Samkhya'' view that the cause of the universe is the unintelligent ''Prakṛti'' (''Pradhan''). According to Shankara, the Intelligent Brahman only can be such a cause. He considered ''Samkhya'' philosophy as propounded in Samkhyakarika to be inconsistent with the teachings in the Vedas, and considered the dualism in Samkhya to be non-Vedic. In contrast, ancient Samkhya philosophers in India claimed Vedic authority for their views.Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 213

See also

* Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara, a non-dualist strand within Hinduism
* Darshanas
* Khyativada
* Ratha Kalpana
* Subtle body

Notes

References

Sources

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Further reading

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* 'first edition, 1968; second revised edition, 1979''*
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External links

* Ferenc Ruzsa,
* Dan Lusthaus
Samkhya

Samkhya and Yoga: An Introduction
Russell Kirkland, University of Georgia

PDF file of Ishwarkrishna's Sankhyakarika
in English


by Karl Potter, University of Washington

Lectures on Samkhya
The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, Oxford University

Samkhya philosophy on Purusha and Prakriti

{{Indian Philosophy

Āstika
Hindu philosophical concepts
Schools and traditions in ancient Indian philosophy