Syed Ahmad Shaheed

Syed Ahmad Barelvi or Sayyid Ahmad Shaheed (1786–1831) was an Indian Islamic revivalist, scholar and military commander from Raebareli, a part of the historical United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (now called Uttar Pradesh). He is considered as a scholarly authority by Ahl-i Hadith and Deobandi movements. The epithet ''Barelvi'' is derived from Rae Bareilly, his place of origin. His ancestors had migrated to India in the early 13th century. Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi wrote ''Seerat-i-Sayyid Ahmad Shaheed'', the first historical biography of Syed Ahmad Barelvi.

Early life and military service

Born in Rae Bareli in 1786, Sayyid Ahmad received his initial education in his hometown. At the age of 18, he traveled to Lucknow in search of a job. He then moved to Delhi, where he became a disciple of Shah Abdul Aziz, son of Shah Waliullah Dehlawi. After his tutelage under Shah 'Abd al-Azeez from 1806 to 1811, Sayyid Ahmad joined the militia of Amir Khan, a military expeditionary at the age of 25.

This was an era of military campaigns in India during which '' Nawabs'' and governors established their power by occupying territories. Syed Ahmad spent seven years in the service of Amir Khan, who only fought to loot and plunder. In 1817, after the Third Anglo-Maratha War, Amir Khan allied with the East India Company, the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief, The Marquess of Hastings, resolved to defeat the Pindaris whom they deemed a menace. The Treaty of Gwalior severed the link between them and Scindia. Moreover, the treaty required the latter to join forces with the East India Company to eliminate the Pindaris and Pathans. Bowing to the inevitable, Amir Khan assiduously came to terms with the English, agreeing to disband his men in return for a large stipend and recognition as a hereditary ruler. Amir Khan was recognized as a hereditary ''Nawab'', disbanded his forces, and quietly settled down to consolidate his little state. He became a faithful friend to the British, earning praise and consideration from successive pro-consuls. From Syed Ahmad's perspective, this was not just a financial problem but also a spiritual disaster, because for him the British were Christian infidels ('' kuffar'').

Syed Ahmad was unemployed again with 30,000 other soldiers. Syed Ahmad came to Delhi after the end of his service and from here he decided to become a power player like Amir Khan. During this period in his life, Syed Ahmad became more mature and harmonized his military experiences with a zealous commitment to establish '' Sharia'' (Islamic law). Two members of the theologian Shah Waliullah's family: Shah Ismail Dehlavi (1771-1831) and Maulvi Abdul Hai (died 1828) became his disciples, an event that raised his mystic confidence. This endorsement only added to Syed Ahmad's reputation, and his popularity grew with adherents flocking to him by the thousands.

Reform movement

Sayyid Ahmad was the first major Islamic theologian in the subcontinent to realize the necessity of an Islamic movement that was simultaneously scholarly, military, and political to repel the British threat. He eagerly addressed the Muslim masses directly, not traditional leaders, in his call for a popular jihad against a Sikh rule in Punjab. His evangelism —based on networks of preachers, collectors, and judges— also addressed the common people and not the rulers' courts.

At the core of the reform movement initiated by Sayyid Ahmad was the advocacy of a puritanical interpretation of ''Tawhid'' (monotheism), similar to the ''Muwahhidun'' movement in Arabia. The movement fought against local practices and customs related to saint veneration and grave visits, which they regarded as ''bid'ah'' (religious innovations) and '' shirk'' (polytheism) that corrupted Islam. Sayyid Ahmad's reformist teachings were set down in two prominent treatises ''Sirat'ul Mustaqim'' (the Straight Path) and ''Taqwiyatul-Iman'' (strengthening of the faith), compiled by his acolyte Shah Muhammad Ismail. The two works stressed the centrality of tawhid, advocated that acts of Worship such as dua, sacrifices, etc. belonged solely to God, and denounced all those practices and beliefs that were held in any way to compromise Tawhid. The followers of Syed Ahmad viewed three sources of threat to their beliefs: traditional Sufism, Shiism, and popular custom.

Sayyid Ahmad urged Muslims to follow the path laid down by Prophet Muhammad (''Tariqa -i Muhammadiyah''), abandon all superstitious activities in various Sufi orders and called for a total reformation of ''Tasawwuf''. Sayyid Ahmad reserved his sharpest condemnations for the moral degradation of Muslims and blamed the corrupt Sufis as the primary cause of Muslim decline. He called upon Muslims to strictly abide by the tenets of the ''shariah'' (Islamic law) by following the ''Qur'an'' and the ''Sunnah''. The most prominent feature of Sayyid Ahmad's teachings was his warning to avoid '' shirk'' (polytheism), ''bid'ah'' (religious innovations); and re-assertion of ''Tawhid'' (monotheism). Once he said to a group of his disciples:

"Brethren! the purpose of performing the ''bay'ah'' is that you should give up everything you do which is of the nature of polytheism or heresy, your making of '' ta'ziyahs'', setting up banners, worshipping the tombs of Pirs and martyrs, making offerings to them and taking vows in their names. All this you should give up, and do not believe that your good and ill come from anyone except God; do not recognize anyone but Him as having the power to grant the fulfillment of your wishes. If you continue n this way of polytheism and heresy merely offering bay'ah will bring no benefit."

Sayyid Ahmad visited numerous towns of the North Indian plains between 1818 to 1821. He incited hundreds of missionaries to preach against Shia beliefs and practices. Syed Ahmad repeatedly destroyed '' tazias'', an act that resulted in subsequent riots and chaos. Sayyid Ahmad called upon the Muslim masses to abandon practices related to Shi'i influence, such as the tazias which were replicas of the tombs of the martyrs of Karbala taken in procession during the mourning ceremony of Muharram. Shah Muhammad Ismail declared the act of breaking Taziyas as an obligation upon all believers and asserted that it was as virtuous as breaking idols. Sayyid Ahmad is reported to have organized the burning of thousands of taziyas.

In 1821, Syed Ahmad left for '' Hajj'' along with a group of devotees. He returned from Haj in 1823, and once again visited different parts of India. For Syed Ahmad and the followers of the Faraizi movement, India was "'' Dar ul Harb''" ( the Land of War) and therefore Jihad was obligatory for all Muslims. In his book, ''Sirat-e-Mustaqeem'', Shah Ismail Dehlvi wrote:

"''A large part of present-day India has become “Dar-ul-Harab”. Compare the situation with the heavenly blessings of India two and three hundred years ago''".Dr. Mubarak Ali,
Almiyah-e-Tarikh", Chapter 11, pp.107-121
Fiction House, Lahore (2012).

Sayyid Ahmad’s opponents labeled him a “Wahhabi,” a follower of the puritan Sunni reform movement in Arabia, but he did not consider himself as such.

Jihad Movement and Islamic State

Upon return, Sayyid Ahmad regarded his immediate enemy to be the Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singh, which was expanding further, close to Afghanistan. Sayyid intended to establish a strong Islamic state on the north-west frontier in the Peshawar valley, as a strategic base for the future invasion of India. When the military action began, some Muslim '' nawabs'', like his former employer Amir Khan had provided funds but did not join Sayyid Ahmad for Jihad. Around 8,000 '' Mujahideen'' (holy-warriors) accompanied him, mostly consisting of clergymen and poor people. The rulers of Tonk, Gwalior and Rampur had supported him with British consent because they were dependent on British forces and they knew well enough that the British would not stop them from aiding an enemy of a nation they would soon be at war with.

Arriving in Peshawar valley in late 1826, Syed Ahmad and his followers made their base in towns of Hund and Zaida in Swabi District.Wahhabi movement in India
Qeyamuddin Ahmad, (1994, p.50). open library Sayyid Ahmad called upon the local Pashtun tribes to wage Jihad, and demanded that they renounce their tribal customs and adopt the Sharia (Islamic law). The traditional khans were replaced by Wahhabi-style reformist ''ulama'' (Islamic scholars) and a system of Islamic taxes was established to finance the jihad. Soon after this evangelist campaign and the establishment of the ''sharia'' system, jihad was declared. He sent an ultimatum to the ruler of the Sikh Empire Ranjit Singh, demanding:

"''either become a Muslim, pay Jizyah or fight and remember that in case of war, Yaghistan supports the Indians''".

The ''Mujahideen'' were educated with both theological doctrines and physical training sessions. Syed Ahmad organized wrestling, archery training and shooting competitions. The ''mujahideen'' also chanted several Islamic anthems. One such popular anthem have survived, known as "''Risala Jihad''". It goes as follows:

"''War against the Infidel is incumbent on all Musalmans;''

''make provisions for all things.''

''He who from his heart gives one farthing to the cause,''

''shall hereafter receive seven hundredfold from God.''

''He who shall equip a warrior in this cause of God,''

''shall hereafter obtain a martyr's reward;''

''His children dread not the trouble of the grave,''

''nor the last trump, not the Day of Judgement.''

''Cease to be crowded; join the divine leader, and smite the Infidel.''

''I give thanks to God that a great leader has been born,''

''in the thirteenth of the Hijra''".

In December 1826, Syed Ahmad and his followers clashed with Sikh troops at Akora with some success. On 11 January 1827, allegiance was sworn on his hand and he was declared ''Caliph'' and ''Imam.'' Syed Ahmad’s claim to '' Khilafah'' was viewed with suspicion in the Frontier region as well as in the clerical circles of North India. When the ''Jumu'ah'' (Friday prayer) sermon was read in his name, symbolising his claim to power, the tribal chiefs became wary. According to prominent Pathan Sardars like Khadi Khan, ''Maulvis'' were ill-equipped to run the affairs of a state. In response to the criticisms, Sayyid Ahmad asserted that his aim was not material but to lead a jihad (holy war) against '' Kuffar'' (infidels). Defending his claim to Caliphate, Sayyid Ahmad writes:

"We thank and praise God, the real master and the true king, who bestowed upon his humble, recluse and helpless servant the title of Caliphate, first through occult gestures and revelations, in which there is no room for doubt, and then by guiding the hearts of the believers towards me. This way God appointed me as the Imam (leader)... the person who sincerely confesses to my position is special in the eyes of God, and the one who denies it is, of course sinful. My opponents who deny me of this position will be humiliated and disgraced''".

Apart from the rebellious Pashtun chieftains, Sayyid Ahmad also faced strong opposition from Sufi clerical establishment. Throghout their armed activities during 1820s and 1830s, ''Mujahidin'' engaged in ideological and physical conflict with the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidis and various Sufi orders such as Qadiris, Chishtis, etc. Excommunicating the opponents of the Jihad movement as apostates and obliging all Muslims to fight them, Shah Ismail Dehlvi, the faithful commander of Sayyid Ahmad wrote:

"..therefore, obedience to Syed Ahmad is obligatory on all Muslims. Whoever does not accept the leadership of His Excellency or rejects it after accepting it, is an apostate and mischievous, and killing him is part of the jihad as is the killing of the disbelievers. Therefore, the appropriate response to opponents is that of the sword and not the pen''".

After the conquest of Peshawar by the '' Mujahidin'', Syed Ahmad pushed for aggressive and violent policies to enforce '' Sharia'' and announced the abolition of all tribal rituals that he regarded as ''bid'ah'' (religious innovations). He abolished various practices such as: the bride being paid a regular price for marriage, the widowed of the deceased Muslims being divided among his heirs, practise of more than four marriages, denial of inheritance to women, clan wars being considered like jihad and its plunder being considered as booty. After the conquest of Peshawar, Sayyid Ahmad instituted various policies that strictly implemented ''shariat'' (Islamic law). These included: i) those who give half of the agreed money to the brides can take them. ii) The young girls who are eligible for marriage should be married immediately. iii) Flogging people who didnt pray.

In addition to his Islamic social agenda, Syed Ahmad also attempted to collect the Islamic tithe (usher) of ten per cent of crop yields. This policy was faced with fierce opposition from an alliance of local Pathan tribesmen, who briefly managed to occupy Peshawar. The alliance was defeated and the Islamic reformers finally re-captured Peshawar. Over several months during 1830, Sayyed Ahmad tried to re-concile between established power hierarchies. But before the end of 1830, an organized uprising again occurred and the soldiers of Syed Ahmad in Peshawar and the villages of the plain were murdered and the movement was forced to retreat to the hills. There in the town of Balakot in 1831, Syed Ahmad was killed by the Sikh Army. He was beheaded.

Battle of Balakot

Syed Ahmad's political and religious power created strong opposition against him in the Frontier region and the locals started to revolt. The decisive moments for Syed Ahmad came in 1830. The Pukhtuns rose against him and around two hundred '' Mujahidin'' were killed in the Peshawar valley which compelled him to migrate and try his luck in Kashmir, his long-cherished dream.

On 6 May 1831, on the day of Jumu'ah 23 Zulqa'da 1246 AH, Syed Ahmad Barelvi's Mujahideen forces prepared for the final battle at Balakot Maidan in the mountainous valley of Mansehra district. An ill-equipped army of 1,000 ''Mujahideen'' faced a 12,000 strong force of ''Banduqchis'' led by the Sikh commander Sher Singh. On that day Syed Ahmed, Shah Ismail and prominent leaders of the Wahhabi movement fell fighting in the battlefield. Out of the 10,000 Mujahideen, 9000 died and Sikh casualties were 5000 deaths. Sikh victory at Balakot arose jubilation in Lahore. The British government also congratulated Ranjit Singh in his victory. The defeat at Balakot made a devastating blow to the Wahhabi movement.

After Sher Singh left the area, Sikh soldiers dug up the grave of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and threw his dead body into the river. It was never found as the water in the Kunhar river flows too fast in that area.

Legacy

Sayyid Ahmad is widely regarded as the founder of the subcontinental ''Ahl-i Hadith'' movement and his teachings are highly influential amongst its members. Other major group that carries his legacy is the Deobandi school of thought. Syed Ahmad is thought by at least one scholar ( Edward Mortimer), to have anticipated modern Islamists in waging Jihad and attempting to create an Islamic state with strict enforcement of ''Shari'ah'' (Islamic law), and by at least one other ( Olivier Roy), to be the first modern Islamic leader to lead a movement that was "religious, military and political," and to address the common people and rulers with a call for ''Jihad''. The ''Mujahidin'' were unprecedented for their tactics of popular mobilization aimed at swiftly achieving the objectives of social reformation through military means, combined with fierce hostility towards non-Muslim powers such as the British Empire and the Sikhs. Sayyid Ahmad was committed to expand his Islamic '' Imarat'' to the whole of South Asia and authored tracts calling upon Indian Muslims to join the cause of Jihad.

Sayyid Ahmad attained the exemplar status of ''Shahid'' (martyr), one of the highest honours in Islam, and would inspire generations of Militant Islamist ideologues and Jihadi activists throughout the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. His calls for a return to the pristine Islam of the ''Salaf'', purifying Islamic culture of Western and Shi'i influences through armed Jihad, etc. became major hallmarks of South Asian and Central Asian militant Islamist movements like the Taliban. Al-Qaeda's ideology was greatly inspired by Sayyid Ahmad's Jihad movement, which was waged from Eastern Afghanistan and Khyber-Pakhtunkwa. Influenced by Sayyid Ahmad, contemporary Jihadists compare American hegemony to the 19th century British rule to justify their campaigns.

The Jihad movement of Sayyid Ahmad made a great impact on Islamic scholarly tradition of South Asia and would deeply divide many clerics and theologians. Some intellectuals and scholars criticised the militant aspects of his reform programme, especially its sectarian violence against other self-professed Muslims whom the ''Mujahidin'' declared as heretics or apostates. Scholars like Wahiduddin Khan asserted that Sayyid Ahmad's Jihad was illegitimate, since it was self-declared and not waged by a Muslim ruler. Meanwhile, South Asian Islamists eagerly embraced Sayyid Ahmad's teachings and popularised his writings that sought the militant restoration of an Islamic state. All major organisations that wage militant Jihad in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Kashmir, etc. uses the rhetoric and legacy of Sayyid Ahmad's ''Mujahidin'' to shore up support from the conservative base. Hafiz Saeed's Lashkar-e-Taiba and Masood Azhar's Jaish-e-Muhammad, are two major militant Islamist organisations inspired by Sayyid Ahmad that wages Jihad against India in Kashmir. Other organisations include Harkat ul Mujahidin, a Jihadist group in Pakistan.

References

Bibliography

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External links

Syed Ahmed Barelvi and his Jihad movement
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Syed Ahmad Barelvi
1786 births
1831 deaths
Proto-Salafists
Islamic fundamentalism
Indian Muslim scholars of Islam
Muslim nationalism in South Asia
18th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Muslim reformers
Critics of Shia Islam
Anti-Shi'ism
Indian Islamists
People from Raebareli
18th-century Indian Muslims
19th-century Indian Muslims
19th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Syed Ahmad Barelvi
Ahl-i Hadith people