Sultanate Of Morocco (1665-1912)

The Alawi Sultanate, officially known as the Sharifian Sultanate () and as the Sultanate of Morocco, was the state ruled by the 'Alawi dynasty over what is now Morocco, from their rise to power in the 1660s to the 1912 Treaty of Fes that marked the start of the French protectorate.

The dynasty, which remains the ruling monarchy of Morocco today, originated from the Tafilalt region and rose to power following the collapse of the Saadi Sultanate in the 17th century. Sultan al-Rashid () was the first to establish his authority over the entire country. The sultanate reached an apogee of political power during the reign of his successor, Moulay Isma'il (), who exercised strong central rule.

After Isma'il's death, Morocco underwent periods of turmoil and renewal under different sultans. A long period of stability returned under Sidi Mohammed ibn Abdallah (). Regional stability was disrupted by the French conquest of Algeria in 1830 and thereafter Morocco faced serious challenges from European encroachment in the region.

Morocco remained independent under 'Alawi rule until 1912, when it was placed under the control of a French protectorate. The 'Alawi sultans continued to act as nominal monarchs under French colonial rule until Morocco regained independence in 1956, with the Alawi sultan Mohammed V as its sovereign. In 1957, Mohammed V formally adopted the title of "King" and Morocco is now officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco.

Name and etymology

Morocco, since the rule of the Saadi dynasty, was sometimes referred to as the Sharifian Sultanate as a reference to the ruling dynasty's claim to noble ancestry. This was rendered in French as (; ) according to the Treaty of Fes. This name was still in official usage until 1956 when Morocco regained its independence from colonial rule. It was also referred to as Sultanate of Morocco in English, including in the Anglo-Moroccan Treaty of 1856.

The Alawi dynasty claims descent from Muhammad via Hasan, the son of Ali. The name Alawi'' () stems either from the name of Ali, from which the dynasty ultimately traces its descent, or from the name of the dynasty's early founder Ali al-Sharif of the Tafilalt.

History

Origins

The ruling dynasty of the Sultanate, the Alawis (; sometimes rendered Filali Sharifs), rose from the settlement of Sijilmassa in the eastern oasis of Tafilalt. Little is known of their history prior to the 17th century, but by this century they had become the main leaders of the Tafilalt.

The Alawis are believed to have been descendants of immigrants from Yanbu in the Hejaz who settled in North Africa during a drought that affected the region in the 13th century. The dynasty claims descent to the Prophet Muhammad through his grandson Hasan, the son of Ali and Muhammad's daughter Fatima.

Their status as '' shurafa'' (descendants of the Prophet) was part of the reason for their success, as in this era many communities in Morocco increasingly saw sharifian status and noble lineage as the best claim to political legitimacy. The Saadian dynasty, which ruled Morocco during the 16th century and preceded the 'Alawis, also claimed sharifian lineage and played an important role in engraining this model of political-religious legitimacy in Moroccan society.

The patriarch of the dynasty is believed to be Moulay Hassan ben al-Qasim ad-Dakhil, who established a religious aristocracy with his sharifian lineage throughout the oasis. Known for his deep piety, he was believed to have moved to Sijilmassa in 1265 under the rule of the Marinids at the request of locals who promoted him as imam of Tafilalt and viewed the presence of sharifs in the region as beneficial for religious legitimity.

He left behind a son, Mohamed, who in turn had only one descendant who bore the same name as his grandfather. One of this descendant's sons, , undertook the pilgrimage to Mecca and participated in the Moroccan–Portuguese wars of the 16th century and was also invited by the Nasrids to fight against Castile in the Iberian Peninsula during the Granada War. He declined to settle in Granada at the request of scholars in the city but rather settled for many years in Fez and Sefrou before returning to Tafilalt.

Rise to power

The family's rise to power took place in the context of early-to-mid-17th century Morocco, when the power of the Saadian sultans of Marrakesh was in serious decline and multiple regional factions fought for control of the country. Among the most powerful of these factions were the Dala'iyya (also spelled Dila'iyya or Dilaites), a federation of Amazigh (Berbers) in the Middle Atlas who increasingly dominated central Morocco at this time, reaching the peak of their power in the 1640s. Another, was 'Ali Abu Hassun al-Semlali (or Abu Hassun), who had become leader of the Sous valley since 1614. When Abu Hassun extended his control to the Tafilalt region in 1631, the Dala'iyya in turn sent forces to enforce their own influence in the area. The local inhabitants chose as their leader the head of the 'Alawi family, Muhammad al-Sharif – known as Mawlay Ali al-Sharif, Mawlay al-Sharif, or Muhammad I – recognizing him as Sultan. Mawlay al-Sharif led an attack against Abu Hassun's garrison at Tabu'samt in 1635 or 1636 (1045 AH) but failed to expel them. Abu Hassun forced him to go into exile to the Sous valley, but also treated him well; among other things, Abu Hassun gifted him a slave concubine who later gave birth to one of his sons, Mawlay Isma'il.

While their father remained in exile, al-Sharif's sons took up the struggle. His son Sidi Mohammed (or Muhammad II), became the leader after 1635 and successfully led another rebellion which expelled Abu Hassun's forces in 1640 or 1641 (1050 AH). With this success, he was proclaimed sultan in place of his father who relinquished the throne to him. However, the Dala'iyya invaded the region again in 1646 and following their victory at Al Qa'a forced him to acknowledge their control over all the territory west and south of Sijilmasa. Unable to oppose them, Sidi Mohammed instead decided to expand in the opposite direction, to the northeast. He advanced as far as al-Aghwat and Tlemcen in Algeria in 1650. His forays into Algeria provoked a response from the leaders of the Ottoman Regency of Algiers, who sent an army that chased him back to Sijilmasa. In negotiations with a legation from Algiers, Sidi Mohammed agreed not to cross into Ottoman territory again and the Tafna River was set as their northern border. In 1645 and again in 1652, Sidi Mohammed also imposed his rule on Tuat, an oasis in the Sahara to the southeast.

Despite some territorial setbacks, the 'Alawis' influence slowly grew, partly thanks to their continued alliance with certain Arab tribes of the region. In June 1650, the leaders of Fez (or more specifically Fes el-Bali, the old city), with the support of the local Arab tribes, rejected the authority of the Dala'iyya and invited Sidi Mohammed to join them. Soon after he arrived, however, the Dala'iyya army approached the city and the local leaders, realizing they did not have enough strength to oppose them, stopped their uprising and asked Sidi Mohammed to leave.

Al-Sharif died in 1659, and Sidi Mohammed was once again proclaimed sovereign. However, this provoked a succession clash between Sidi Mohammed and one of his younger half-brothers, al-Rashid. Details of this conflict are lengthy, but ultimately Al-Rashid appears to have fled Sijilmasa in fear of his brother and took refuge with the Dala'iyya in the Middle Atlas. He then moved around northern Morocco, spending time in Fez, before settling in Angad (northeastern Morocco today). He managed to secure an alliance with the same Banu Ma'qil Arab tribes who had previously supported his brother and also with the Ait Yaznasin (Beni Snassen), a Zenata Amazigh tribe. These groups recognized him as sultan in 1664, while around the same time Sidi Mohammed made a new base for himself as far west as Azrou. The power of the Dala'iyya was in decline, and both brothers sought to take advantage of this, but both stood in each other's way. When Sidi Mohammed attacked Angad to force his rebellious brother's submission on August 2, 1664, he was instead unexpectedly killed and his armies defeated.

By this time, the Dala'iyya's realm, which once extended over Fez and most of central Morocco, had largely receded to their original home in the Middle Atlas. Al-Rashid was left in control of the 'Alawi forces and in less than a decade he managed to extend 'Alawi control over almost all of Morocco, reuniting the country under a new sharifian dynasty. Early on, he won over more rural Arab tribes to his side and integrated them into his military system. Also known as ''guich'' tribes ("Army" tribes, also transliterated as ''gish''), they became one of his most important means of imposing control over regions and cities. In 1664 he had taken control of Taza, but Fez rejected his authority and a siege of the city in 1665 failed. After further campaigning in the Rif region, where he won more support, Al-Rashid returned and secured the city's surrender in June 1666. He made the city his capital, but settled his military tribes in other lands and in a new kasbah outside the city (Kasbah Cherarda today) to head off complaints from the city's inhabitants about their behaviour. He then defeated the remnants of the Dala'iyya by invading and destroying their capital in the Middle Atlas in June 1668. In July he captured Marrakesh from Abu Bakr ben Abdul Karim Al-Shabani, the son of the usurper who had ruled the city since assassinating his nephew Ahmad al-Abbas, the last Saadian sultan. Al-Rashid's forces took the Sous valley and the Anti-Atlas in the south, forced Salé and its pirate republic to acknowledge his authority, while in the north, except for the European enclaves, he was in control of all the Rif comprising Ksar al-Kebir, Tetouan and Oujda in the northeast. Al-Rashid had thus succeeded in reuniting the country under one rule. He was not able to enjoy this success for very long, however, and died young in 1672 while in Marrakesh.

The reign of Mawlay Isma'il

Upon Al-Rashid's death his younger half-brother Mawlay Isma'il became sultan. As sultan, Isma'il's 55-year reign was one of longest in Moroccan history. He distinguished himself as a ruler who wished to establish a unified Moroccan state as the absolute authority in the land, independent of any particular group within Morocco – in contrast to previous dynasties which relied on certain tribes or regions as the base of their power. He succeeded in part by creating a new army composed of Black slaves (the '' Abid al-Bukhari'') from Sub-Saharan Africa (or descendants of previously imported slaves), many of them Muslims, whose loyalty was to him alone. Mawlay Isma'il himself was half Black, his mother having been a Black slave concubine of Muhammad al-Sharif. This standing army also made effective use of modern artillery. He continuously led military campaigns against rebels, rivals, and European positions along the Moroccan coast. In practice, he still had to rely on various groups to control outlying areas, but he nonetheless succeeded in retaking many coastal cities occupied by England and Spain and managed to enforce direct order and heavy taxation throughout his territories. He put a definitive end to Ottoman attempts to gain influence in Morocco and established Morocco on more equal diplomatic footing with European powers in part by forcing them to ransom Christian captives at his court. These Christians were mostly captured by Moroccan pirate fleets which he heavily sponsored as a means of both revenue and warfare. While in captivity, prisoners were often forced into labour on his construction projects. All of these activities and policies gave him a reputation for ruthlessness and cruelty among European writers and a mixed reputation among Moroccan historians as well, though he is credited with unifying Morocco under strong (but brutal) leadership.

He also moved the capital from Fez to Meknes, where he built a vast imperial kasbah, a fortified palace-city whose construction continued throughout his reign. He also built fortifications across the country, especially along its eastern frontier, which many of his ''Abid'' troops garrisoned. This was partly a response to continued Turkish interference in Morocco, which Isma'il managed to stop after many difficulties and rebellions. Al-Khadr Ghaylan, a former leader in northern Morocco who fled to Algiers during Al-Rashid's advance, returned to Tetouan at the beginning of Isma'il's reign with Algerian help and led a rebellion in the north which was joined by the people of Fez. He recognized Isma'il's nephew, Ahmad ibn Mahriz, as sultan, who in turn had managed to take control of Marrakesh and was recognized also by the tribes of the Sous valley. Ghaylan was defeated and killed in 1673, and a month later Fez was brought back under control. Ahmad ibn Mahriz was only defeated and killed in 1686 near Taroudant. Meanwhile, the Ottomans supported further dissidents via Ahmad al-Dala'i, the grandson of Muhammad al-Hajj who had led the Dala'iyya to dominion over a large part of Morocco earlier that century, prior to Al-Rashid's rise. The Dala'is had been expelled to Tlemcen but and they returned to the Middle Atlas at the instigation of Algiers and under Ahmad's leadership in 1677. They managed to defeat Isma'il's forces and control Tadla for a time, but were defeated in April 1678 near Wadi al-'Abid. Ahmad al-Dala'i escaped and eventually died in early 1680. After the defeat of the Dala'is and of his nephew, Isma'il was finally able to impose his rule without serious challenge over all of Morocco and was able to push back against Ottoman influence. After Ghaylan's defeat, he sent raids and military expeditions into Algeria in 1679, 1682, and 1695–96. A final expedition in 1701 ended poorly. Peace was re-established and the two sides agreed to recognize their pre-existing mutual border.

Isma'il also sought to project renewed Moroccan power abroad and in former territories. Following the decline of central rule in the late Saadian period earlier that century, the Pashalik of Timbuktu, created after Ahmad al-Mansur's invasion of the Songhai Empire, had become de facto independent and the trans-Saharan trade routes fell into decline. The 'Alawis had become masters over Tuat in 1645, which rebelled many times after this but Isma'il established direct control there from 1676 onwards. In 1678–79 he organized a major military expedition to the south, forcing the Emirates of Trarza and Brakna to become his vassals and extending his overlordship up to the Senegal River. In 1694 he appointed a ''qadi'' to control in Taghaza (present-day northern Mali) on behalf of Morocco. Later, in 1724, he sent an army to support the amir of Trarza (present-day Mauritania) against the French presence in Senegal and also used the opportunity to appoint his own governor in Shinqit (Chinguetti). Despite this reassertion of control, trans-Saharan trade did not resume in the long-term on the same levels it existed before the 17th century.

In 1662 Portuguese-controlled Tangier was transferred to English control as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to Charles II of England. Mawlay Isma'il unsuccessfully besieged the city in 1680, but this pressure, along with attacks from local Muslim '' mujahidin'' (also known as the " Army of the Rif"), led the English to evacuate Tangier in 1684. Mawlay Isma'il immediately claimed the city and sponsored its Muslim resettlement, but granted local authority to 'Ali ar-Rifi, the governor of Tetouan who had played an active part in besieging the city and became the chieftain of northern Morocco around this time. Isma'il also conquered Spanish-controlled Mahdiya in 1681, Al-Ara'ish (Larache) in 1689, and Asilah in 1691. Moreover, he sponsored Moroccan pirates which preyed on European merchant ships. Despite this, he also allowed Europeans merchants to trade inside Morocco, but he strictly regulated their activities and forced them to negotiate with his government for permission, allowing him to efficiently collect taxes on trade. Isma'il also allowed European countries, often through the proxy of Spanish Franciscan friars, to negotiate ransoms for the release of Christians captured by pirates or in battle. He also pursued relations with Louis XIV of France starting in 1682, hoping to secure an alliance against Spain, but France was less interested in this idea and relations eventually collapsed after 1718.

Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons

After Mawlay Isma'il's death, Morocco was plunged into one of its greatest periods of turmoil between 1727 and 1757, with Isma'il's sons fighting for control of the sultanate and never holding onto power for long. Isma'il had left hundreds of sons who were theoretically eligible for the throne. Conflict between his sons was compounded by rebellions against the heavily taxing and autocratic government which Isma'il had previously imposed. Furthermore, the ''Abid'' of Isma'il's reign came to wield enormous power and were able to install or depose sultans according to their interests throughout this period, though they also had to compete with the ''guich'' tribes and some of the Amazigh (Berber) tribes. Meknes remained the capital and the scene of most of these political changes, but Fez was also a key player. Ahmad adh-Dhahabi was the first to succeed his father but was immediately contested and ruled twice only briefly before his death in 1729, with his brother Abd al-Malik ruling in between his reigns in 1728. After this his brother Abdallah ruled for most of the period between 1729 and 1757 but was deposed four times. Abdallah was initially supported by the ''Abid'' but eventually made enemies of them after 1733. Eventually he was able to gain advantage over them by forming an alliance with the Amazigh tribe of Ait Idrasin, the Oudaya ''guich'' tribe, and the leaders of Fez (whom he alienated early on but later reconciled with). This alliance steadily wore down the ''Abid''s power and paved the way for their submission in the later part of the 18th century.

In this period, the north of Morocco also became virtually independent of the central government, being ruled instead by Ahmad ibn 'Ali ar-Rifi, the son of 'Ali al-Hamami ar-Rifi whom Mawlay Isma'il had granted local authority in the region of Tangier. Ahmad al-Hamami ar-Rifi used Tangier as the capital of his territory and profited from an arms trade with the British at Gibraltar, with whom he also established diplomatic relations. Sultan Ahmad al-Dahabi had tried to appoint his own governor in Tetouan to undermine Ar-Rifi's power in 1727, but without success. Ahmad ar-Rifi was initially uninterested in the politics playing out in Meknes, but became embroiled due to an alliance he formed with al-Mustadi', one of the ephemeral sultans installed by the 'Abid installed in May 1738. When Al-Mustadi' was in turn deposed in January 1740 to accommodate Abdallah's return to power, Ar-Rifi opposed the latter and invaded Fez in 1741. Mawlay Abdallah's alliance of factions was able to finally defeat and kill him on the battlefield in 1743, and soon after the sultan's authority was re-established along the coastal cities of Morocco. In 1647, Abdallah strategically established his two sons as ''Khalifa'' (Viceroy) in politically important cities. His eldest Mawlay Ahmed was appointed ''Khalifa'' of Rabat and his youngest. Sidi Mohammed, ''Khalifa'' of Marrakesh. His eldest son would die before him in 1750. After 9 years of uninterrupted reign, Abdallah died at Dar Dbibegh on November 10, 1757.

Restoration of authority under Mohammed ibn Abdallah

Order and control was firmly re-established only under Abdallah's son, Sidi Mohammed ibn Abdallah (Mohammed III), who became sultan in 1757 after a decade as viceroy in Marrakesh. Many of the 'Abid had by then deserted their contingents and joined the common population of the country, and Sidi Mohammed III was able to reorganize those who remained into his own elite military corps. The Oudaya, who had supported his father but had been a burden on the population of Fez where they lived, became the main challenge to the new sultan's power. In 1760 he was forced to march with an army to Fez where he arrested their leaders and destroyed their contingents, killing many of their soldiers. In the aftermath the sultan created a new, much smaller, Oudaya regiment which was given new commanders and garrisoned in Meknes instead. Later, in 1775, he tried to distance the ''Abid'' from power by ordering their transfer from Meknes to Tangier in the north. The ''Abid'' resisted him and attempted to proclaim his son Yazid (the later Mawlay Yazid) as sultan, but the latter soon changed his mind and was reconciled with his father. After this, Sidi Mohammed III dispersed the ''Abid'' contingents to garrisons in Tangier, Larache, Rabat, Marrakesh and the Sous, where they continued to cause trouble until 1782. These disturbances were compounded by drought and severe famine between 1776 and 1782 and an outbreak of plague in 1779–1780, which killed many Moroccans and forced the sultan to import wheat, reduce taxes, and distribute food and funds to locals and tribal leaders in order to alleviate the suffering. By now, however, the improved authority of the sultan allowed the central government to weather these difficulties and crises.

Sidi Mohammed ibn Abdallah maintained the peace in part through a relatively more decentralized regime and lighter taxes, relying instead on greater trade with Europe to make up the revenues. In line with this policy, in 1764 he founded Essaouira, a new port city through which he funneled European trade with Marrakesh. The last Portuguese outpost on the Moroccan coast, Mazagan (El Jadida today), was taken by Morocco in 1729, leaving only the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla as the remaining European outposts in Morocco. Muhammad also signed a Treaty of Friendship with the United States in 1787 after becoming the first head of state to recognize the new country. He was interested in scholarly pursuits and also cultivated a productive relationship with the ''ulama'', or Muslim religious scholars, who supported some of his initiatives and reforms.

Sidi Mohammed's opening of Morocco to international trade was not welcomed by some, however. After his death in 1790, his son and successor Mawlay Yazid ruled with more xenophobia and violence, punished Jewish communities, and launched an ill-fated attack against Spanish-held Ceuta in 1792 in which he was mortally wounded. After his death, he was succeeded by his brother Suleyman (or Mawlay Slimane), though the latter had to defeat two more brothers who contested the throne: Maslama in the north and Hisham in Marrakesh to the south. Suleyman brought trade with Europe nearly to a halt. Although less violent and bigoted than Yazid, he was still portrayed by European sources as xenophobic. Some of this lack of engagement with Europe was likely a consequence of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, during which the Royal Navy blockaded France and Spain, both of whom threatened Morocco into not taking sides in the conflict. After 1811, Suleyman also pushed a fundamentalist Wahhabist ideology at home and attempted to suppress local Sufi orders and brotherhoods, in spite of their popularity and despite his own membership in the Tijaniyya order.

European encroachment and reforms

Suleyman's successor, Abd al-Rahman (), tried to reinforce national unity by recruiting local elites of the country and orchestrating military campaigns designed to bolster his image as a defender of Islam against encroaching European powers. The French conquest of Algeria in 1830, however, destabilized the region and put the sultan in a very difficult position. It marked a major shift in Morocco's diplomatic and military situation. Until then, European powers had been an intermittent concern, but now they became a permanent presence whose influence grew in politics, the economy, and society. French conquests in the region progressively surrounded Morocco afterwards, while colonial encroachment on Morocco itself was slowed mainly due to rivalries between the European powers.

Wide popular support for the Algerians against the French invasion led Morocco to allow the flow of aid and arms to the resistance movement led by Emir Abd al-Qadir, while the Moroccan ''ulama'' delivered a fatwa for supporting jihad in 1837. On the other hand, Abd al-Rahman was reluctant to provide the French with a clear reason to attack Morocco if he ever intervened. He managed to maintain the appearance of neutrality until 1844, when he was compelled to provide refuge to Abd al-Qadir in Morocco. The French, led by the marshall Bugeaud, pursued him and thoroughly routed the Moroccan army at the Battle of Isly, near Oujda, on August 14. At the same time, the French navy bombarded Tangiers on August 6 and bombarded Mogador (Essaouira) on August 16. In the aftermath, Morocco signed the Convention of Lalla Maghnia on March 18, 1845. The treaty made the superior power of France clear and forced the sultan to recognize French authority over Algeria. Abd al-Qadir turned rebel against the sultan and took refuge in the Rif region until his surrender to the French in 1848.

Between 1848 and 1865, Britain, France and Spain competed for influence in Morocco. Britain sought to keep France at bay in the region, especially since Morocco was next to Gibraltar. British consul John Hay Drummond Hay pressured Abd ar-Rahman into signing the Anglo-Moroccan Treaty of 1856, which removed government restrictions on trade and granted special privileges to the British. Among the latter was the establishment of a ''protégé'' system whereby Britain could extend legal protection to individuals within Morocco. British influence in Morocco encouraged other European powers to replicate their success. The Spanish government was eager to expand its presence in Africa in order to distract from its own domestic difficulties. The next direct confrontation between Morocco and Europe was the Hispano-Moroccan War, which took place from 1859 to 1860. The subsequent Treaty of Wad Ras led the Moroccan government to take a massive British loan larger than its national reserves to pay off its war debt to Spain.

Right before the war, Abd al-Rahman died and was succeeded by his son Muhammad IV (). Following the war, the new sultan was determined to follow a policy of reforms to address the state's weaknesses. These reforms took place progressively and in a piecemeal fashion. The sultan tried to increase revenues by streamlining the taxation of Morocco's fertile regions, forcing the payment of an annual fixed sum instead of the more flexible taxation regime that existed earlier. This was more efficient but it took a heavy toll on the rural economy and the food security of its population. At the same time, the urban population grew along with international trade, which fostered the emergence of an urban bourgeoisie, both Muslim and Jewish, who spurred further social changes. Despite this growth, the state remained in financial difficulties, in part due to the devaluation of the Moroccan currency.

Muhammad IV also reorganized the state and began to institutionalize a more professional, regular administration and military, often by following Western European models. This trend was taken further by his talented successor, Hassan I (). Hassan I also campaigned tirelessly to collect tax revenues and reimpose central rule on outlying provinces.

In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions. Hassan I called for the Madrid Conference of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of the ''protégé'' system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries.

Crisis and installation of French and Spanish Protectorates

After Sultan Abdelaziz appointed his brother Abdelhafid as viceroy of Marrakesh, the latter sought to have him overthrown by fomenting distrust over Abdelaziz's European ties. Abdelhafid was aided by Madani el-Glaoui, older brother of T'hami, one of the Caids of the Atlas. He was assisted in the training of his troops by Andrew Belton, a British officer and veteran of the Second Boer War. For a brief period, Abdelaziz reigned from Rabat while Abdelhafid reigned in Marrakesh and Fez and a conflict known as the Hafidiya (1907–1908) ensued. In 1908 Abdelaziz was defeated in battle. In 1909, Abdelhafid became the recognized leader of Morocco.

In 1911, rebellion broke out against the sultan. This led to the Agadir Crisis, also known as the Second Moroccan Crisis. These events led Abdelhafid to abdicate after signing the Treaty of Fes on 30 March 1912, which made Morocco a French protectorate. He signed his abdication only when on the quay in Rabat, with the ship that would take him to France already waiting. When news of the treaty finally leaked to the Moroccan populace, it was met with immediate and violent backlash in the Intifada of Fez. His brother Youssef was proclaimed Sultan by the French administration several months later (13 August 1912). At the same time a large part of northern Morocco was placed under Spanish control.

Government and politics

Moroccan authors during the Sultanate classified it as both being a caliphate and an imamate. Morocco was led by an absolute monarchy, with no clear rules of succession.

Makhzen

The governing administration in Morocco, known as the Makhzen (), was an hierarchical administration which ruled under Islamic law. The authority of the Sultan in Morocco were both political and religious, with his authority revolving around his title of Commander of the Faithful (''amir al-muminin'') and oaths of allegiance ( ''bayahs'') made by tribes to the Sultan.

The Sultanate was divided into provinces led by pashas and regions led by caids, which were all appointed by the Makhzen and were described as "local despots" by .

These caids were unpaid until 1856, when Hay proposed that Sultan Mohammed IV give government workers wages from the Makhzen's treasury. A few caids consolidated power and embraced despotism, establishing a form of oligarchy involving three families: the El Glaoui (through Madani El Glaoui), Gontafi and Mtouggi clans.

The extent of the Sultan's authority was classified in two categories mainly based on taxation. Bled el-Makhzen (), which included most of the country's Atlantic coast and urban areas and was directly governed and taxed by the Makhzen under the direct rule of the Sultan. In contrast, Bled es-Siba () held tribal autonomy and self-governance but held an oath of allegiance to the Sultan and recognized his religious and spiritual status but refused to pay taxes to the Makhzen.

Despite this, the distinction between Bled el-Makhzen and Bled es-Siba remained vague and fluctuated. The decision by some tribes to refuse to pay taxes to the Makhzen were sometimes used as a bargaining chip to obtain favors rather than dissent from the Sultan. In many cases, governors in Bled es-Siba reported their investiture to the Sultan.

Judiciary

In Bilad el-Makhzen, common law matters and some civil and criminal cases were judged by courtrooms which ruled by Islamic law and were presided by a ''qadi'' (judge), where parties could choose an '' oukil'' (council; equivalent to a lawyer) to represent them in court and present ''fatwas'' (advisories) written by a '' faqih'' (jurist) using Islamic jurisprudence to present their case or defense. After the sentence was pronounced, a governor for the Makhzen was charged with enforcing the decision. Contracts and marriage certificates were registered by two '' adouls'' (notaries) and were signed also signed by a ''qadi''.

Most civil and criminal cases were judged by a courtroom ran by the Makhzen and led by a pasha (governor) or a qaid (commander) which enforced tazir

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