Strata Coaster

A roller coaster is a type of amusement ride employing a form of elevated railroad track that carries passengers on a train through tight turns, steep slopes, and other elements, usually designed to produce a thrilling experience, though some roller coasters aim to provide a more gentle experience. Trains consist of open cars connected in a single line, and the rides are often found in theme parks around the world. Roller coasters originate from "Russian Mountains" which first appeared in the 17th century. Invented and mostly found in Russia, these were slides made of ice that upper-class Russians would slide down. LaMarcus Adna Thompson obtained one of the first known patents for a roller coaster design in 1885, based on the Switchback Railway which opened a year earlier at Coney Island.

Tracks are typically built and designed as a complete circuit in which trains depart from and return to the same loading station. One variation, a shuttle roller coaster, reverses at some point throughout the course of the ride to traverse the same track backwards.

History

The Russian Mountains and the Aerial Promenades

The oldest roller coasters are believed to have originated from the so-called "Russian Mountains"; specially constructed hills of ice located in the area that is now Saint Petersburg, Russia. Built in the 17th century, the slides were built to a height of between , had a 50-degree drop, and were reinforced by wooden supports. Later, in 1784, Catherine the Great is said to have constructed a sledding hill in the gardens of her palace at Oranienbaum in St. Petersburg.

The Riding Mountain (aka ''La Grande Glisade'') entertainment pavilion designed by Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli for Tsarskoye Selo royal residence was built in 1754–1757. In Russian it was known as ''Katalnaya gora'' (Катальная гора, literally "Mountain for riding") It was a huge building in the shape of rotunda. It had a trail with five hills which can be covered with ice in winter. In the summer time the trails used trolleys on wheels secured in the steel grooves mounted on the wooden trails. Due to a pendulum-like motion based on inertia all five hills could be traversed in one ride. The ride was engineered by Russian scientist Andrey Nartov. The Anglican clergyman John Glen King mentioned that some Englishmen visiting Russia called them "Flying Mountains" and described them as follows:

You will observe that there are five mounts of unequal height: the first and the highest is full perpendicular altitude; the momentum with which they descend this carries them over the second, which is about lower, just sufficient to allow for the friction and resistance; and so on to the last, from which they are conveyed by a gentle descent, with nearly same velocity, over a piece of water into a little island. These slides, which are about a furlong and a half (300 m) in length, are made of wood, that may be used in summer as well as in winter. The process is, two of four persons fit in a little carriage and one stands behind, for more there are in it the greater the swiftness with which it goes; it runs on castors and in grooves to keep it on its right direction, and it descends with a wonderful rapidity. Under the hill, is a machine worked by horses for drawing the carriages back again, with the company in them. Such a work as this would have been enormous in most countries for the labour and expense in cost, as well as the vast quantity of wood used in it. At the same place, there is another artificial mount which goes in a spiral line, and in my opinion, for I have tried it also, is very disagreable; as it seems always leaning on one side, and the person feels in danger of falling out of seat.

''Katalnaya gora'' was dismantled in 1792–1795. Currently in its place is the Granite Terrace in the Catherine Park.

Two roller coasters were built in France in 1817. ''Les Montagnes de Belleville'' (''Les Montagnes Russes à Belleville'') in Belleville, Paris had wheels attached to carriages and locked on tracks.
The ''Promenades Aériennes'', opened in Parc Beaujon in Paris on July 8, 1817 had wheeled cars securely locked to the track, guide rails to keep them on course, and higher speeds.Urbanowicz, Steven J. (2002). ''The Roller Coaster Lover's Companion;'' Kensington, New YorK: Citadel Press. . It spawned half a dozen imitators, but their popularity soon declined.

However, during the Belle Epoque they returned to fashion. In 1887, Catalan entrepreneur Joseph Oller, co-founder of the Moulin Rouge music hall, constructed the ''Montagnes Russes de Belleville'', "Russian Mountains of Belleville" with of track laid out in a double-eight, later enlarged to four figure-eight-shaped loops.

Scenic railways

In 1827, a mining company in Summit Hill, Pennsylvania constructed the Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway, a downhill gravity railroad used to deliver coal to Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania – now known as Jim Thorpe. By the 1850s, the "Gravity Road" (as it became known) was selling rides to thrill seekers. Railway companies used similar tracks to provide amusement on days when ridership was low.

Using this idea as a basis, LaMarcus Adna Thompson began work on a gravity Switchback Railway that opened at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York, in 1884. Passengers climbed to the top of a platform and rode a bench-like car down the track up to the top of another tower where the vehicle was switched to a return track and the passengers took the return trip. This track design was soon replaced with an oval complete circuit. In 1885, Phillip Hinkle introduced the first full-circuit coaster with a lift hill, the ''Gravity Pleasure Road'', which became the most popular attraction at Coney Island. Not to be outdone, in 1886 Thompson patented his design of roller coaster that included dark tunnels with painted scenery. "Scenic railways" were soon found in amusement parks across the county.

Popularity, decline, and revival

By 1919, the first underfriction roller coaster had been developed by John Miller. Over the next decade, roller coasters spread to amusement parks around the world and began an era in the industry often referred to as the "Golden Age". One of the most well known from the period is the historical ''Cyclone'' that opened at Coney Island in 1927. The onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, however, significantly impacted the amusement park industry and brought an end to the rapid growth experienced during the Golden Age. This aside, roller coasters were still built with varying success from location to location. In May 1932, the Scene Railway witnessed somewhat of a revival in the UK, including the opening of the roller coaster at Great Yarmouth. Today it is one of only two scenic railways still in operation in the UK.

In 1959, Disneyland introduced a design breakthrough with ''Matterhorn Bobsleds'', the first permanent roller coaster to use a tubular steel track. Designed by Arrow Development, the tubular track was unlike standard rail design on wooden coasters, allowing the track to bend in sharper angles in any direction, leading to the incorporation of loops, corkscrews, and inversion elements into track layouts. A little more than a decade later, the immediate success of '' The Racer'' at Kings Island in 1972 sparked a new era of roller coaster enthusiasm, which led to a resurgence across the amusement park industry over the next several decades.

Etymology

There are several explanations for the name ''roller coaster''. It is said to have originated from an early American design where slides or ramps were fitted with rollers over which a sled would coast. This design was abandoned in favor of fitting the wheels to the sled or other vehicles, but the name endured.

Another explanation is that the phrase originated from a ride located in a roller skating rink in Haverhill, Massachusetts in 1887. A toboggan-like sled was raised to the top of a track which consisted of hundreds of rollers. This ''Roller Toboggan'' then took off down gently rolling hills to the floor. The inventors of this ride, Stephen E. Jackman and Byron B. Floyd, claim that they were the first to use the term "roller coaster".

The term ''jet coaster'' is used for roller coasters in Japan, where such amusement park rides are very popular.Robb and Elissa Alvey
"Theme Park Review: Japan 2004"
''themeparkreview.com''. Retrieved on March 18, 2008.

In many languages, including most Romance languages, the name refers to "Russian mountains". Conversely, in Russian, they are called "Американские горки" (''Amerikanskiye gorki'', "American hills"). In the Scandinavian languages, the roller coaster is referred as "mountain-and-valley railway". German has the word ''Achterbahn'', stemming from ''Figur-8-Bahn'', relating to the form of the number 8 (''acht'' in German). This is similar to the Dutch ''Achtbaan'', in which ''acht'' also means "eight".

Mechanics

Roller coaster trains are not typically powered. Most are pulled up a lift hill by a chain or cable and released downhill. The potential energy accumulated by the rise in height is transferred to kinetic energy, which is then converted back into potential energy as the train rises up the next hill. Changes in elevation become smaller throughout the track's course, as some mechanical energy is lost to friction and air drag. A properly-designed, outdoor track will result in a train having enough kinetic energy to complete the entire course under a variety of stressful weather conditions.

Not all coasters feature a lift hill, however. A train may also be set into motion by a launch mechanism such as a flywheel, linear induction motor, linear synchronous motor, hydraulic launch, or drive tire. Some launched roller coasters are capable of reaching greater speeds using less track when compared to traditional coasters that rely on a conventional lift hill.

A brake run at the end of the circuit is the most common method of stopping a roller coaster train as it returns to the station. One notable exception is a powered roller coaster, which instead of relying on gravity uses one or more motors to propel the trains along the course.

In 2006, NASA announced that it would build a system using principles similar to those of a roller coaster to help astronauts escape the Ares I launch pad in an emergency, although this has since been scrapped along with the rest of the Ares program.

Safety

Some sources have shown concern over the ability of roller coasters to cause head trauma and serious injury such as the tearing of axons and damaging of blood vessels.

Safety mechanisms and technology

A variety of safety mechanisms protect riders on roller coasters.

Block system

Most large roller coasters have the ability to run two or more trains at once.

The block system prevents these trains from colliding. In this system, the track is divided into two or more sections known as blocks.

* Only one train is permitted in each block at any given time.
* There is a section of track at the end of each block where a train can be stopped if necessary.
** Examples include block brakes, the top of a lift hill (that can stop) and the station (train will not dispatch until the next block is clear).
* Sensors detect when a train passes so that the system's computer is aware of which blocks are occupied. If a train attempts to enter an occupied block, the stopping mechanisms in all blocks are engaged.

Seat restraints

Seat restraints are used to ensure that riders stay in their seats throughout the ride.

= Types of restraints

=

= Restraint locking mechanisms

=

Restraints use proximity sensors to determine if they are locked. If not all of the restraints are locked, the train cannot leave the station.

Braking systems

Braking systems such as pivoting pawls are used on the bottom of the train and on the inclined lift hill. While the train goes up the lift hill, it is pulled by a chain. The pawl moves over bumps that are separated closely apart. In the event that the train ever becomes disconnected from the chain, the anti roll-back system will engage and it will fall back into the nearest downhill stop preventing the train from falling down the lift hill.

Programmable logic controller

Another key to safety is the programmable logic controller, an essential component of a roller coaster's computer system. Multiple controllers work together to detect faults associated with operation and automate decisions to engage various elements (e.g. lift, brakes, etc.). Periodic maintenance and visual inspection by ride engineers are also important to verify that structures and materials are within expected wear tolerances and functioning correctly. Effective operating procedures further enhance safety.

Roller coaster design and statistics

Roller coaster design is another important aspect that requires a working knowledge of basic physics to enhance ride comfort and avoid harmful strain to the rider. Ride designers must carefully analyze the movement a ride subjects its riders to, ensuring it is within a reasonable tolerance. The human body needs sufficient time to react to sudden changes in force in order to control muscle tension and avoid harmful consequences such as whiplash. Designers typically stay in the range of as a maximum for positive g-force acceleration, which increases the feeling of weight and pushes riders downward into their seat. For negative g-force, or the feeling of weightlessness, the target is as a maximum. These fall into a range considered safe to a majority of the population. Lateral acceleration is also typically kept under using various techniques including the banking of curves.

Wheels are a critical part in rollercoaster design. The purpose of wheels is to keep the train on the track and to prevent it from flying off. A majority of roller coaster wheels are made from polyurethane. There are three kinds of roller coaster wheels which include road wheels, side friction wheels, and up-stop wheels. Road wheels ride on top of the track. Side friction wheels ride on the side of the track to keep the train on the track throughout turns. Up-stop wheels ride below the track and prevent the train from lifting off the track.

Roller coasters are statistically very safe when compared to other activities, but despite all the safety measures in place, accidents still occur. The International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) reports that a rider has one chance in 15.5 million of being injured on a ride. Also, "In a typical year, more than 385 million guests enjoyed in excess of 1.7 billion rides at approximately 400 North American fixed-site facilities". IAAPA is required to report annual ride incidents to the National Safety Council.

Types

Roller coasters are divided into two main categories: steel roller coasters and wooden roller coasters. Steel coasters have tubular steel tracks, and compared to wooden coasters, they are typically known for offering a smoother ride and their ability to turn riders upside-down. Wooden coasters have flat steel tracks, and are typically renowned for producing "air time" through the use of negative g-forces when reaching the crest of some hill elements. Newer types of track, such as I-Box and Topper introduced by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC), improve the ride experience on wooden coasters, lower maintenance costs, and add the ability to invert riders.

A third classification type is often referred to as a hybrid roller coaster, which use a mixture of wood and steel elements for the track and structure. Many, for example, have a track made out of steel and a support structure made from wood. RMC has notably redesigned wood coasters that have either deteriorated from age or been deemed by parks as too costly to maintain. RMC often replaces the wood track with their patented steel I-Box track design, while reusing much of the ride's wooden structure, resulting in a smoother ride with the incorporation of new design elements, such as inversions, sharper turns, and steeper drops.

Although the term wasn't widely used or accepted until the 21st century, one of the oldest examples is Cyclone at Luna Park, which opened in 1927. It features a wood track and steel structure. Other older examples include mine train roller coasters, many of which were built by Arrow Dynamics. The term ''hybrid'' became more prominent after the introduction of New Texas Giant at Six Flags Over Texas in 2011. Many in the industry, however, continue to classify coasters strictly by their track type only, labeling them either steel or wood.

Modern roller coasters are constantly evolving to provide a variety of different experiences. More focus is being placed on the position of riders in relation to the overall experience. Traditionally, riders sit facing forward, but newer variations such as stand-up and flying models position the rider in different ways to change the experiences. A flying model, for example, places riders lying down and facing forward with their chests and feet strapped in. Other ways of enhancing the experience involve removing the floor beneath passengers riding above the track, as featured in floorless roller coasters. Unique track elements, such as new inversions, are often introduced to provide entirely new experiences.

By train type

* Bobsled
** Flying Turns
* Floorless
* Flying
* Fourth-dimension
* Inverted
* Mine train
* Motorbike
* Mountain/Alpine coaster
* Pipeline
* Side friction
* Single-rail
* Spinning
** Virginia Reel
* Stand-up
* Steeplechase
* Suspended
* Water coaster
* Wing
* Wild mouse

By model

* Accelerator Coaster
* Boomerang
* Dive Coaster
* El Loco
* Galaxi
* Euro-Fighter
* Giant Inverted Boomerang
* Impulse
* Infinity Coaster
* Invertigo
* Launched Loop
* Polercoaster
* SFX Coaster
* Shuttle Loop
* Sky Rocket II
* SkyLoop
* Suspended Family Coaster
* Suspended Looping Coaster
* Thrust Air 2000
* Toboggan
* Vekoma Junior Coaster

By track layout

* Dual-tracked
* Figure 8
* Out and back
* Shuttle
* Terrain
* Twister
* Wild mouse

By mechanics

* Lift hill
* Launched
* Powered

By height

Several height classifications have been used by parks and manufacturers in marketing their roller coasters, as well as enthusiasts within the industry. One classification, the kiddie coaster, is a roller coaster specifically designed for younger riders. Following World War II, parks began pushing for more of them to be built in contrast to the height and age restrictions of standard designs at the time. Companies like Philadelphia Toboggan Company (PTC) developed scaled-down versions of their larger models to accommodate the demand. These typically featured lift hills smaller than , and still do today. The rise of kiddie coasters soon led to the development of "junior" models that had lift hills up to . A notable example of a junior coaster is the Sea Dragon – the oldest operating roller coaster from PTC's legendary designer John Allen – which opened at Wyandot Lake in 1956 near Powell, Ohio.

Hypercoaster

A hypercoaster, occasionally stylized as hyper coaster, is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . Moonsault Scramble, which debuted at Fuji-Q Highland in 1984, was the first to break this barrier, though the term ''hypercoaster'' was first coined by Cedar Point and Arrow Dynamics with the opening of Magnum XL-200 in 1989. Hypercoasters have become one of the most predominant types of roller coasters in the world, now led by manufacturers Bolliger & Mabillard and Intamin.

Giga coaster

A giga coaster is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . The term was coined during the construction of the Millennium Force, a roller coaster built by Intamin on Cedar Point amusement park. Although Morgan and Bolliger & Mabillard have not used the term ''giga'', both have also produced roller coasters in this class.

Strata coaster

A strata coaster is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . As with the other two height classifications, the term ''strata'' was first introduced by Cedar Point with the release of Top Thrill Dragster, a roller coaster that opened in 2003. Kingda Ka was the second strata coaster, and it opened at Six Flags Great Adventure in 2005 as the tallest roller coaster in the world with a height of . Top Thrill Dragster closed in 2021 following an incident in which a guest was severely injured while standing in line. The ride was subsequently refurbished and modified, and it reopened in 2024 as Top Thrill 2. Kingda Ka closed on November 10, 2024.

Superman: Escape From Krypton, a coaster, operated at Six Flags Magic Mountain from 1997 to 2024. It was not typically classified as a strata coaster due to its shuttle coaster design, where trains do not travel a complete circuit.

Exa coaster

An exa coaster is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . The term ''exa'' was first introduced by Intamin for Falcons Flight, a coaster expected to open at Six Flags Qiddiya in 2025. Upon completion, it will be the tallest roller coaster in the world, surpassing the previous record once held by the now-defunct Kingda Ka.

Major roller coaster manufacturers

* Allan Herschell Company (defunct, merged with Chance Rides)
* Arrow Development (acquired by Huss Trading Corporation, formed into Arrow-Huss)
* Arrow Dynamics (defunct, assets bought by S&S Arrow)
* ART Engineering
* Arrow-Huss (defunct, reformed as Arrow Dynamics)
* B.A. Schiff & Associates
* Bolliger & Mabillard
*
* Chance Morgan
* Chance Rides
* Custom Coasters International (defunct)
* D. H. Morgan Manufacturing (acquired by Michael Chance, formed into Chance Morgan)
* Dinn Corporation (defunct)
* Dynamic Structures
* E&F Miler Industries
* Fabbri Group
* Gerstlauer
* Giovanola (defunct)
* The Gravity Group
* Great Coasters International
* Hopkins Rides
* Intamin
* Mack Rides
* Maurer AG
* Martin & Vleminckx
* Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters
* Pinfari (defunct)
* Premier Rides
* Preston & Barbieri
* Reverchon Industries (defunct)
* Rocky Mountain Construction
* Roller Coaster Corporation of America (defunct)
* Sansei Technologies
* S&S - Sansei Technologies (formerly known as S&S Worldwide)
* SBF Visa Group
* Schwarzkopf (defunct)
* TOGO (defunct)
* Vekoma
* Zamperla
* Zierer

Gallery

File:Särkänniemi - Tornado.jpg, Tornado, located at Särkänniemi in Tampere, Pirkanmaa, Finland
File:PKDHypersonicDrop.jpg, Hypersonic XLC, the world's first production Thrust Air 2000 (now defunct)
File:Top Thrill Dragster (Cedar Point) 01.jpg, Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point was the first strata coaster ever built.
File:Rollercoaster expedition geforce holiday park germany.jpg, Riding Expedition GeForce at Holiday Park, Germany
File:Cedar point raptor1.jpg, Raptor, a steel inverted coaster, is located at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, United States.
File:Wooden roller coaster txgi.jpg, Texas Giant at Six Flags Over Texas before being refurbished into a hybrid steel-wood coaster New Texas Giant.
File:Image-Lightning Racer at Hersheypark station.jpg, Lightning Racer at Hersheypark is a racing, dueling roller coaster made by GCI.
File:Linnanrollerc.JPG, This all-wooden roller coaster, built in 1951, dominates the Linnanmäki amusement park in Helsinki, Finland.
File:Coney Island 2010 109.JPG, Coney Island Cyclone in Brooklyn, New York was built in 1927 and refurbished in 1975.
File:PKI-Son of Beast.jpg, Son of Beast in Kings Island was the only wooden coaster to have a vertical loop.
File:Kennywood Jack Rabbit DSCN2786.JPG, Jack Rabbit at Kennywood Park outside of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States was built in 1920.
File:Knoebels Phoenix.JPG, Phoenix, built in 1947, at Knoebels Amusement Resort in Elysburg, Pennsylvania, United States.
File:Baron 1889.jpg, Baron 1898 at Efteling in Kaatsheuvel, The Netherlands
File:Griffon (Busch Gardens Europe) 02.JPG, Griffon splashing down into a pool at Busch Gardens Williamsburg, US.
File:Great Bear Helix.jpg, Great Bear is the first steel inverted coaster in Pennsylvania, located at Hersheypark.
File:Behemoth (Canada's Wonderland) 06.jpg, Behemoth, at Canada's Wonderland, at one point the highest and fastest coaster in Canada
File:Busch Gardens Tampa Bay - Montu.jpg, "Montu", a popular inverted roller coaster at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay, US
File:Millennium Force (Cedar Point) 06.JPG, Millennium Force at Cedar Point
File:Black mamba first drop.jpg, Black Mamba at Phantasialand, Germany
File:Euromir.jpg, Euro-Mir, a spinning roller coaster at Europa-Park in Rust, Germany
File:Rollercoaster dragon khan universal port aventura spain.jpg, Dragon Khan at PortAventura Park in Salou (Tarragona), Spain
File:Kennywood Thunderbolt DSCN2744.JPG, Thunderbolt at Kennywood outside of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US was built in 1968.
File:Leviathan Reactions.jpg, Leviathan at Canada's Wonderland, the tallest coaster in Canada (, )
File:Kingda Ka.jpg, Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure was the world's tallest roller coaster and was the second strata coaster in the world after Top Thrill Dragster.
File:Ee-train.jpg, Expedition Everest, a roller coaster at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Walt Disney World
File:Porcijunkulovo, Čakovec, 2017. - vlak smrti.jpg, A small roller coaster at a local festival in Čakovec, Croatia
File:Hyperion, Energylandia - 2018 Aug 06.jpg, Hyperion (roller coaster), Hyperion at Energylandia in Zator, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland
File:Carowinds-Fury325Entry.JPG, Fury 325 at Carowinds is the tallest roller coaster to use a traditional chain lift.
File:Superman Ultimate Flight (Six Flags Great Adventure).jpg, alt=Superman The Ride, Superman: Ultimate Flight at Six Flags Great Adventure
File:Revere Beach Cyclone Postcard Crop.JPG, alt=, Cyclone (Revere Beach), The Cyclone, Revere Beach, Massachusetts, USA

See also

* Amusement park (Lists of amusement parks)
* Amusement rides on the National Register of Historic Places
* Fear of roller coasters
* List of roller coaster elements
* List of roller coaster rankings
* List of theme park management video games
* Roller coaster train

Notes

References

Further reading

* Bennett, David (1998). ''Roller Coaster: Wooden and Steel Coasters, Twisters and Corkscrews''. Edison, New Jersey: Chartwell Books. 9. .
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* Coker, Robert (2002). ''Roller Coasters: A Thrill Seeker's Guide to the Ultimate Scream Machines''. New York: Metrobooks. 14. .
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External links

Roller Coaster Glossary

Roller Coaster History
– History of the roller coaster

Roller Coaster Database
– Information, statistics and photos for over 3700 roller coasters throughout the world


– With links to the U.S. Patent office

Roller Coaster Physics
() – Classic physics explained in terms of roller coasters



3D Animated Roller Coaster in MS Excel

Magic Mountain Announces 'Twisted' Plans for Iconic Colossus Roller Coaster

National Roller Coaster Museum & Archives
– Collection of historic ride vehicles

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