''Staphylococcus hyicus'' is a
Gram-positive
In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall.
Gram-positive bac ...
,
facultatively anaerobic bacterium
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were a ...
in the
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial n ...
''
Staphylococcus
''Staphylococcus'' is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria in the family Staphylococcaceae from the order Bacillales. Under the microscope, they appear spherical ( cocci), and form in grape-like clusters. ''Staphylococcus'' species are facultat ...
.'' It consists of clustered
cocci and forms white circular
colonies
In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state' ...
when grown on
blood agar.
''S. hyicus'' is a known animal
pathogen
In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a ger ...
. It causes disease in
poultry
Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, quail ...
,
cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ...
,
horse
The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million ...
s,
and
pigs.
Most notably, it is the agent that causes porcine exudative epidermitis, also known as greasy pig disease, in piglets.
''S. hyicus'' is generally considered to not be
zoonotic
A zoonosis (; plural zoonoses) or zoonotic disease is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite or prion) that has jumped from a non-human (usually a vertebrate) to a human. ...
,
however it has been shown to be able to cause
bacteremia
Bloodstream infections (BSIs), which include bacteremias when the infections are bacterial and fungemias when the infections are fungal, are infections present in the blood. Blood is normally a sterile environment, so the detection of microb ...
and
sepsis
Sepsis, formerly known as septicemia (septicaemia in British English) or blood poisoning, is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to infection causes injury to its own tissues and organs. This initial stage is foll ...
in humans.
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' commonly infects pig herds worldwide due to its global distribution.
It can be found on asymptomatic carrier pigs at sites such as the skin,
mucosa
A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body of an organism and covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. It is ...
of nasal cavity,
conjunctiva
The conjunctiva is a thin mucous membrane that lines the inside of the eyelids and covers the sclera (the white of the eye). It is composed of non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells, stratified columnar epitheli ...
, and genitals (
vagina
In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vestibule to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a thin layer of mucosal tissue called the hy ...
of sow and
prepuce of boar).

Infection with ''S. hyicus'' can be prevented with an
autogenous vaccine.
Managing the pigs can prevent disease and reduce the severity of an
outbreak
In epidemiology, an outbreak is a sudden increase in occurrences of a disease when cases are in excess of normal expectancy for the location or season. It may affect a small and localized group or impact upon thousands of people across an entire ...
.
Treatment includes
topical
A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body. Most often topical medication means application to body surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of class ...
sprays and oils
as well as
antibiotic
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting pathogenic bacteria, bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the therapy, ...
s, which should be tested to ensure S. hyicus is
susceptible
Susceptibility may refer to:
Physics and engineering
In physics the susceptibility is a quantification for the change of an extensive property under variation of an intensive property. The word may refer to:
* In physics, the susceptibility of ...
to them.
Microbiology
History and taxonomy
The first known description of exudative epidermitis in pigs was in 1842 and the causative agent was later identified as ''
Micrococcus
''Micrococcus'' (mi’ krō kŏk’ Əs) is a genus of bacteria in the Micrococcaceae family. ''Micrococcus'' occurs in a wide range of environments, including water, dust, and soil. Micrococci have Gram-positive spherical cells ranging from ab ...
hyicus'' in 1953.
Based on
phenotypic
In genetics, the phenotype () is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism. The term covers the organism's morphology or physical form and structure, its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological proper ...
similarities, ''M. hyicus'' was moved to the ''
Staphylococcus
''Staphylococcus'' is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria in the family Staphylococcaceae from the order Bacillales. Under the microscope, they appear spherical ( cocci), and form in grape-like clusters. ''Staphylococcus'' species are facultat ...
'' genus in 1965.
The similar bacterium ''
Staphylococcus chromogenes
''Staphylococcus chromogenes'' is a Gram-positive, coagulase-negative member of the bacterial genus ''Staphylococcus'' consisting of clustered cocci. The species is associated with mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usua ...
'' was considered a
subspecies of ''S. hyicus'' until it was elevated to its own
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of ...
in 1986.
Other bacteria closely related to ''S. hyicus'' include ''
S. schleiferi'', ''
S. intermedius'', ''
S. pseudintermedius'', and ''
S. felis''.
Morphological characteristics
''Staphylococcus hyicus'', like other members of the ''
Staphylococcus
''Staphylococcus'' is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria in the family Staphylococcaceae from the order Bacillales. Under the microscope, they appear spherical ( cocci), and form in grape-like clusters. ''Staphylococcus'' species are facultat ...
'' genus, is a
gram-positive
In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall.
Gram-positive bac ...
coccus
A coccus (plural cocci) is any bacterium or archaeon that has a spherical, ovoid, or generally round shape. Bacteria are categorized based on their shapes into three classes: cocci (spherical-shaped), bacillus (rod-shaped) and spiral ( of w ...
that forms clusters.
It is
facultatively anaerobic.
Six different
serotype
A serotype or serovar is a distinct variation within a species of bacteria or virus or among immune cells of different individuals. These microorganisms, viruses, or cells are classified together based on their surface antigens, allowing the e ...
s have been identified to date.
The bacterium is quite resistant and can remain viable in the environment for long periods of time without drying out.
On
blood agar, ''S. hyicus''
colonies
In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state' ...
are medium in size (1 to 3 mm in diameter) and appear white, opaque, convex, and circular.
Rarely, some have been observed to appear yellow on sheep blood agar but the vast majority of colonies do not produce any pigment.
''S. hyicus'' colonies normally do not show
hemolysis
Hemolysis or haemolysis (), also known by several other names, is the rupturing (lysis) of red blood cells (erythrocytes) and the release of their contents (cytoplasm) into surrounding fluid (e.g. blood plasma). Hemolysis may occur in vivo o ...
on blood agar however they do show a characteristic small zone of hemolysis on
chocolate agar
Chocolate agar (CHOC) or chocolate blood agar (CBA), is a nonselective, enriched growth medium used for isolation of pathogenic bacteria. It is a variant of the blood agar plate, containing red blood cells that have been lysed by slowly heatin ...
.
Biochemistry and identification
The identification of ''S. hyicus'' and differentiation from similar organisms may require extensive
biochemical testing.
Most strains of ''S. hyicus'' are
coagulase
Coagulase is a protein enzyme produced by several microorganisms that enables the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. In the laboratory, it is used to distinguish between different types of '' Staphylococcus'' isolates. Importantly, '' S. aureu ...
positive; however, some strains isolated from both pigs and cattle have been found to be coagulase negative so it can be considered coagulase variable.
This variability can make it difficult to tell apart from similar bacteria such as ''
Staphlococcus agnetis'' without
PCR PCR or pcr may refer to:
Science
* Phosphocreatine, a phosphorylated creatine molecule
* Principal component regression, a statistical technique
Medicine
* Polymerase chain reaction
** COVID-19 testing, often performed using the polymerase chain r ...
based methods or genotyping.
''S. hyicus'' is
catalase
Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants, and animals) which catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. It is a very important enzyme in protecting t ...
positive and
oxidase
In biochemistry, an oxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes oxidation-reduction reactions, especially one involving dioxygen (O2) as the electron acceptor. In reactions involving donation of a hydrogen atom, oxygen is reduced to water (H2O) or hydrogen ...
negative.
It also normally shows
DNase Deoxyribonuclease (DNase, for short) refers to a group of glycoprotein endonucleases which are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolytic cleavage of phosphodiester linkages in the DNA backbone, thus degrading DNA. The role of the DNase enzyme in cell ...
activity.
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' produces a bacteriolytic
enzyme
Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecule ...
and a ''S. hyicus''-specific
teichoic acid.
Porcine strains express surface receptors for
immunoglobulin G
Immunoglobulin G (Ig G) is a type of antibody. Representing approximately 75% of serum antibodies in humans, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in blood circulation. IgG molecules are created and released by plasma B cells. Each IgG ...
but these are not commonly expressed by bovine strains.
Most strains are capable of fermentation of
glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, usi ...
,
fructose
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a ketonic simple sugar found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorb ...
,
mannose
Mannose is a sugar monomer of the aldohexose series of carbohydrates. It is a C-2 epimer of glucose. Mannose is important in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins. Several congenital disorders of glycosylation a ...
,
lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide sugar synthesized by galactose and glucose subunits and has the molecular formula C12H22O11. Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk (by mass). The name comes from ' (gen. '), the Latin word for milk, plus the suffix ...
, and
trehalose
Trehalose (from Turkish '' tıgala'' – a sugar derived from insect cocoons + -ose) is a sugar consisting of two molecules of glucose. It is also known as mycose or tremalose. Some bacteria, fungi, plants and invertebrate animals synthesize it ...
but not
maltose
}
Maltose ( or ), also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an α(1→4) bond. In the isomer isomaltose, the two glucose molecules are joined with an α(1→6) bond. Maltose is the tw ...
.
Differentiation of ''S. hyicus'' from other members of the genus can be done based on the sequence of its
16S rRNA gene
or
thermonuclease (''nuc'') gene. The complete
genome
In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding ...
(2,472,129
base pairs) of ''S. hyicus'' ATCC 11249
T was also
sequenced and annotated in 2015.
Virulence and resistance
Virulence
Division of ''S. hyicus'' into virulent and avirulent strains is based on the production of an exfoliative toxin (
virulence factor
Virulence factors (preferably known as pathogenicity factors or effectors in plant science) are cellular structures, molecules and regulatory systems that enable microbial pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa) to achieve the followin ...
), which produces the clinical presentation of exudative epidermitis, as these toxins specifically target the
stratum granulosum
The stratum granulosum (or granular layer) is a thin layer of cells in the epidermis lying above the stratum spinosum and below the stratum corneum ( stratum lucidum on the soles and palms).James, William; Berger, Timothy; Elston, Dirk (2005) '' ...
and
stratum spinosum
The stratum spinosum (or spinous layer/prickle cell layer) is a layer of the epidermis found between the stratum granulosum and stratum basale. This layer is composed of polyhedral keratinocytes. These are joined with desmosomes. Their spiny ( ...
.
''S. hyicus'' exfoliative toxin (SHET) producing strains are further divided into plasmid carrying (SHETB) and plasmidless (SHETA). It was found that genes encoding four different exfoliative toxins (ExhA, ExhB, ExhC and ExhD) were homologous to SHETB.
These exotoxins are similar to the exfoliative toxin (ETA, ETB, ETD) that ''
Staphylococcus aureus
''Staphylococcus aureus'' is a Gram-positive spherically shaped bacterium, a member of the Bacillota, and is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. It is often posit ...
'' produces.
The mechanism of action is via serine protease-like exfoliative toxins.
Swine desmoglein 1 (Dsg1) is a desmosomal intracellular adhesion molecule that is cleaved by the exfoliative toxins produced by ''S. hyicus'' allowing for separation of stratum granulosum and stratum spinosum.
Other virulence factors have been reported, the production of protein A with binding sites for
immunoglobulin G (IgG) allows for evasion from phagocytes, coagulase production to form clots, surface fibronectin-binding proteins for adhesion and production of staphylokinase and lipase to evade host defences.
These virulence factors in combination with other factors like age, being immunocompromised, genetic susceptibility, trauma (physical, chemical, solar), disease status and environmental conditions can vary the expression of exudative epidermitis experienced.
Resistance
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' has frequently been reported to be resistant to a range of antimicrobial agents.
''S. hyicus'' has demonstrated resistance to penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, erythromycin, sulfonamides, lincomycin and chloramphenicol.
Further resistance testing of ''S. hyicus'' isolates found high resistance to penicillin, macrolides, tetracycline, sulfonamides and streptomycin, but ''S. hyicus'' was sensitive to ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol and florfenicol.
This multi-drug resistance has been linked to certain genes. For beta-lactam resistance, the mechanism is by altering penicillin binding protein production which is encoded by ''mec''A.
Further, it has been suggested that resistance may be passed between staphylococcal species especially when treating pigs prophylactically.
Other implicated plasmid resistance genes are ''tet''(L) for tetracyclines, ''erm''(C) for macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramins and the pS194-like ''str'' gene is for chloramphenicol and streptomycin resistance.
Genetic elements for resistance to methicillin and zinc have been reported, therefore susceptibility testing is recommended before treatment.
Disease in all species
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' is most noted for causing disease in pigs but has been shown to cause problems in other species as well.
Swine
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' is the causative agent of exudative epidermitis in piglets.
This condition is commonly referred to as greasy pig disease.
It gets this nickname from its classic appearance of scabs all over the body. It most often presents in nursery age piglets or younger, and can lead to death as the piglet loses fluid through the skin and becomes dehydrated. The morbidity varies greatly but can be up to 80% in some instances.
Lesions in the form of
macules are usually most severe around the lips, nose, and ears.
These lesions are characteristic in their release of oily
exudate. As it progresses to the entire body, treatment becomes more difficult.
The bacteria can normally be present on the skin, in the nose as well as the vagina and prepuce.
For this reason, it is considered
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found els ...
in most herds, though the pathogenesis may be sporadic.
It can also cause
bacteremia
Bloodstream infections (BSIs), which include bacteremias when the infections are bacterial and fungemias when the infections are fungal, are infections present in the blood. Blood is normally a sterile environment, so the detection of microb ...
and sepsis in piglets which if they recover can result in poor growth that can affect them for life.
''S. hyicus'' has also been noted as a cause of arthritis in young pigs in the absence of any signs of exudative epidermitis.
Cattle
The bacterial species has been isolated from milk in dairy herds and is one of the more uncommon causes of contagious
mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. There is often an associated fever and general soreness. Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs ...
in the
Staphylococcus
''Staphylococcus'' is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria in the family Staphylococcaceae from the order Bacillales. Under the microscope, they appear spherical ( cocci), and form in grape-like clusters. ''Staphylococcus'' species are facultat ...
species.
This type of mastitis can be very difficult to control as cows can spread it without being clinically ill.
This bacteria most commonly causes persistent intramammary infections, which can lead to the cow needing to be culled from the herd. This bacteria can also cause a skin disease in cattle which leads to a
mange
Mange is a type of skin disease caused by parasitic mites. Because various species of mites also infect plants, birds and reptiles, the term "mange", or colloquially "the mange", suggesting poor condition of the skin and fur due to the infectio ...
-like syndrome most common in young adult cattle.
Poultry
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' has been rarely reported in
poultry
Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, quail ...
animals, but is thought to be a cause of bacterial chondro-necrosis along with other species such as ''
Staphlococcus agnetis''.
Lameness is a cause for concern in the industry and contributes to economic losses as well as welfare issues.
It is considered to be a normal part of poultry skin flora and may be a contributor to
fowlpox. This bacteria has also been cultured from chicken meat labelled for human consumption, and could be a cause of Staphylococcus food poisoning.
In one study the strains of ''S. hyicus'' found in retailed chicken meat were resistant to every antibiotic tested.
This is concerning because it means these resistant bacteria are in contact with people and could have large health implications if infected.
Horses
In horses, ''S. hyicus'' is not a common pathogen but when it does infect, it affects the skin of the distal limbs.
This condition can be referred to as summer eczema or grease heel and it results in scabs and hair loss.
It can heal on its own or can be easily treated with antibiotics the bacteria is susceptible to.
In this way it is often a cosmetic issue or a slight discomfort, and is not life threatening like in other species.
''S. hyicus'' is almost exclusively seen in lesions and is not a normal part of the healthy equine skin flora.
Humans
Humans being affected by ''S. hyicus'' is rare and for this reason is not considered a common zoonosis.
There is a higher risk of people being infected if they work in close contact with infected pigs frequently, such as one case reported in a farmer with a previously infected foot causing
bacteremia
Bloodstream infections (BSIs), which include bacteremias when the infections are bacterial and fungemias when the infections are fungal, are infections present in the blood. Blood is normally a sterile environment, so the detection of microb ...
.
Another notable case is a man who was diagnosed with a case of infectious
spondylodiscitis.
A culture of his infected bone and blood was confirmed to have ''S. hyicus'' present, suggesting it was the causative agent.
This case is concerning because he was considered immunocompetent, which is often not the case for rare bacterial infections.
There have been very few human cases found other than these rare instances, and it is not currently considered a risk to human health.
Role of ''Staphylococcus hyicus'' in exudative epidermitis (greasy pig disease)
Epidemiological background
Endemic infection with ''S. hyicus'' is a common finding worldwide; however the development of exudative epidermitis is based on opportunity and the age of the pigs involved
Rarely there are exudative epidermitis outbreaks with whole herds affected.
However, in cases of outbreak it is often the youngest whom are most severely affected with high mortality and morbidity.
A predilection for the outbreak of disease include newly founded herds, gilt litters, and an overall diminished passive transfer of antibodies for ''S. hyicus'' from sow to piglets;
and for the individual animal, those that have open wounds, sores or have been exposed to a form of trauma or irritation are predisposed to develop an infection of ''S. hyicus''.
Additional factors that may increase individual animal susceptibility to ''S. hyicus-''caused exudative epidermitis include parasitism, viral infection, and other immunity issues, nutritional deficiencies, issues with management and hygiene practices, and possible genetic susceptibility.
Pathogenesis
Early clinical signs can include
anorexia
Anorexia nervosa, often referred to simply as anorexia, is an eating disorder characterized by low weight, food restriction, body image disturbance, fear of gaining weight, and an overpowering desire to be thin. ''Anorexia'' is a term of Gre ...
,
lethargy
Lethargy is a state of tiredness, sleepiness, weariness, fatigue, sluggishness or lack of energy. It can be accompanied by depression, decreased motivation, or apathy. Lethargy can be a normal response to inadequate sleep, overexertion, overwor ...
, and reddening of skin specifically in the inguinal and axillary regions.
Epidermal inflammatory processes accompanied by
exudate are attributed to exfoliative toxins of ''S. hyicus''.
Exfoliative toxins will cleave swine
desmoglein-1 (Dsg1); therefore, creating an opportunity for epidermal bacterial invasion with the splitting of the stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum.
With bacterial invasion, 1 to 2 cm (diameter) brown lesions will begin to appear within the 24 to 48 hour range; and lesions will first appear cranially before progressing posteriorly as crusting ulcers with possible formation of suppurative folliculitis.
However, in younger animals that may die within 3 to 5 days, crusting ulcers may only be situated in the cranial region due to lack of time to progress.
Often the young piglets severely affected by ''S. hyicus'' causing exudative epidermitis die from dehydration characterized by a loss of protein serum and electrolytes.
Besides the characteristic brown lesions of the dermis, ulcerative lesions can form in the mucosa of the mouth and on the tongue.
Additionally, peripheral lymph nodes will swell, and internal organs such as the kidney and lungs may become distended.
Areas of the body affected
* Head, neck, feet, general body, mouth and tongue
* Kidneys and ureters may become distended with mucous and debris collection; additionally lungs may accumulate congestion during the disease process
Diagnosis
Exudative epidermitis is often fatal in piglets especially those within the 1 to 5 week-old range as they are most at risk for the development of the acute disease form.
As animals age the likelihood of developing the acute disease form lessens therefore mortality decreases; however, producers may note a reduction in feed conversion and weight gain post-disease recovery.
Diagnosis of exudative epidermitis is often made based on the characteristic brown lesions that progress to crusting ulcers along with the other clinical signs mentioned above.
Prevention of disease
Vaccine

A
vaccine
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified.[ ...]
can be used for prevention of infection with ''S. hyicus''.
The vaccine is made using the genes that encode exfoliative toxin type B (ExhB) from ''S. hyicus'' strains.
Since there is no commercial vaccine available yet, the vaccine used is an
autogenous vaccine with the strain of ''S. hyicus'' that is currently affecting the herd of pigs to ensure
immunity
Immunity may refer to:
Medicine
* Immunity (medical), resistance of an organism to infection or disease
* ''Immunity'' (journal), a scientific journal published by Cell Press
Biology
* Immune system
Engineering
* Radiofrequence immunity desc ...
is developed to the strain within the barn.
Vaccination reduces the chance that pigs will die from the disease and can help reduce the use of
antimicrobial
An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms or stops their growth. Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against. For example, antibiotics are used against bacteria, and antifungals ...
s to treat exudative epidermitis.
Vaccinated sows can pass on antibodies to the piglets so that the piglets have some
passive immunity Passive immunity is the transfer of active humoral immunity of ready-made antibodies. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and it can also be induced artificially, when ...
to ''S. hyicus''.
Management of pigs
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' can enter the skin of pigs through any cut. Managing the pigs so they are unable to bite each other or ensuring the flooring is soft can decrease infection.
The barn should be disinfected and cleaned regularly to ensure bacteria cannot grow as easily.
Any new sows entering the barn should be washed to reduce contamination.
When the first signs of disease are noticed, changing the bedding or moving the pigs to a new stall can reduce contamination.
Using sterile needles for injections and controlling
mange
Mange is a type of skin disease caused by parasitic mites. Because various species of mites also infect plants, birds and reptiles, the term "mange", or colloquially "the mange", suggesting poor condition of the skin and fur due to the infectio ...
may also decrease infection.
Exudative epidermitis is contagious between pigs and quick
isolation can reduce the chance of the disease spreading.
Ensuring
biosecurity
Biosecurity refers to measures aimed at preventing the introduction and/or spread of harmful organisms (e.g. viruses, bacteria, etc.) to animals and plants in order to minimize the risk of transmission of infectious disease. In agriculture, thes ...
of the farm and isolating any new pigs before introducing them to the herd can reduce transmission.
For young piglets, reducing the chance of chilling can impact how sick the piglets will get.
Keeping the barn dry and clean as well as ensuring there is adequate
ventilation and humidity can decrease the amount of ''S. hyicus'' that can grow in the barn and possibly infect pigs.
Treatment
Treatments for exudative epidermitis include
antibiotic
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting pathogenic bacteria, bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the therapy, ...
s given
topically or injected,
disinfectant
A disinfectant is a chemical substance or compound used to inactivate or destroy microorganisms on inert surfaces. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than s ...
s, and topical oils which can relieve symptoms.
In farms which are "antibiotic-free", pigs which fall ill are removed from the production system rather than treated.
Farmers generally treat infected pigs
topically with sprays or oils.
Sprays can have antibiotics such as
novobiocin
Novobiocin, also known as albamycin or cathomycin, is an aminocoumarin antibiotic that is produced by the actinomycete '' Streptomyces niveus'', which has recently been identified as a subjective synonym for ''S. spheroides'' a member of the clas ...
and
procaine
Procaine is a local anesthetic drug of the amino ester group. It is most commonly used in dental procedures to numb the area around a tooth and is also used to reduce the pain of intramuscular injection of penicillin. Owing to the ubiquity o ...
penicillin G.
Any pigs which are
dehydrated
In physiology, dehydration is a lack of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake, usually due to exercise, disease, or high environmental temperature. Mi ...
may need fluids and
electrolytes to become rehydrated.
Rehydration is crucial as dehydration is the common cause of death in infected pigs.
''Staphylococcus hyicus'' was found to be susceptible to many antibiotics including
norfloxacin,
ciprofloxacin
Ciprofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections. This includes bone and joint infections, intra abdominal infections, certain types of infectious diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, skin infec ...
,
ampicillin
Ampicillin is an antibiotic used to prevent and treat a number of bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B stre ...
,
cephalexin,
oxytetracycline
Oxytetracycline is a broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic, the second of the group to be discovered.
Oxytetracycline works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to produce essential proteins. Without these proteins, the bacteria cannot g ...
,
and
gentamicin
Gentamicin is an antibiotic used to treat several types of bacterial infections. This may include bone infections, endocarditis, pelvic inflammatory disease, meningitis, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis among others. It is not ...
.
These antibiotics could be used to treat pigs infected with ''S. hyicus''.
Novobiocin and
enrofloxacin have been shown to be effective in controlling ''Staphylococcus hyicus''
in vitro
''In vitro'' (meaning in glass, or ''in the glass'') studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology and ...
.
''S. hyicus'' is often susceptible to
vancomycin
Vancomycin is a glycopeptide antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections. It is recommended intravenously as a treatment for complicated skin infections, bloodstream infections, endocarditis, bone and joint infection ...
as this antibiotic is still effective against most
methicillin-resistant Staphylococci.
With
antibiotic resistance
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from the effects of antimicrobials. All classes of microbes can evolve resistance. Fungi evolve antifungal resistance. Viruses evolve antiviral resistanc ...
increasing in all bacteria, sending samples to a diagnostic
lab
Lab most often refers to:
* Laboratory, a facility to conduct scientific research
Lab or LAB may also refer to:
Places
* Láb, a village near Bratislava in western Slovakia
* Lab (river), in north-eastern Kosovo
People
* ISO 639 code for the an ...
for
susceptibility testing
Susceptibility may refer to:
Physics and engineering
In physics the susceptibility is a quantification for the change of an extensive property under variation of an intensive property. The word may refer to:
* In physics, the susceptibility of a ...
is important for choosing the right antibiotic in that case.
Ensuring bacteria do not develop resistance to many antimicrobials is important for both animal and human health.
This is especially true in food animals, such as pigs, because resistant bacteria responsible for many common
foodborne illness
Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the spoilage of contaminated food by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food,
as well as prions (the agents of mad cow ...
es in people may be linked to animal antimicrobial resistance.
References
Further reading
*
External links
Type strain of ''Staphylococcus hyicus'' at Bac''Dive'' - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
{{Taxonbar, from=Q2332104
hyicus
Bacteria described in 1953