shingon

is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism. It is a form of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism and is sometimes called "Tōmitsu" (東密 lit. "Esoteric uddhismof Tō-ji"). The word ''shingon'' is the Japanese reading of the Chinese word ('), which is the translation of the Sanskrit word mantra.

The Zhēnyán lineage was founded in China (c. 7th–8th centuries) by Indian vajrācāryas (esoteric masters) like Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra. These esoteric teachings would later flourish in Japan under the auspices of a Buddhist monk named Kūkai (, 774–835), who traveled to Tang China and received these esoteric transmissions from a Chinese master named Huiguo (746–805). Kūkai established his tradition at Mount Kōya (in Wakayama Prefecture), which remains the central pilgrimage center of Shingon Buddhism.

The practice of the Shingon school stresses that one is able to attain "buddhahood in this very body" (即身成佛 ''sokushin jōbutsu'') through its practices, especially those which make use of the "three mysteries" (三密 ''sanmitsu'') of mudra, mantra and mandala.Hakeda (1972), p. 6 Another influential doctrine introduced by Shingon was the idea that all beings are originally enlightened (本覺 ''hongaku'').

The Shingon school's teachings and rituals had an influence on other Japanese traditions, especially those of the Tendai school, as well as Shugendo and Shinto. Its teachings also influenced the ritual repertoire of Japanese Zen, including Soto Zen (through the monk Keizan). Shingon Buddhism also influenced broader Japanese culture, including medieval Japanese aesthetics, art, and craftsmanship.

History

Shingon Buddhism was founded in the Heian period (794–1185) by a Japanese Buddhist monk named Kūkai (774–835 CE) who traveled to China in 804 to study Esoteric Buddhist practices in the city of Xi'an (), then called Chang-an, at Qinglong Temple () under Huiguo, a student of the Indian esoteric master Amoghavajra.Green, Ronald S
''Kūkai in China, What He Studied and Brought Back to Japan.''
Education About ASIA, Volume 26, Number 3 Winter 2021. Kūkai returned to Japan with the teachings and scriptures of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism which became immediately influential with the island's elites and eventually coalesced into an institutionalized tradition in Japanese Buddhism. Shingon followers usually refer to Kūkai as or , the posthumous name given to him years after his death by Emperor Daigo.

Kūkai's early days and visit to China

Kūkai was born to a family of the aristocratic Saeki clan in Shikoku and received a classical Confucian education at Kyoto's college (''daigaku''). He converted to Buddhism in his 20s and was inspired to practice asceticism in the mountains and wander the countryside as an ascetic hermit (though he also visited cities to study texts). During this time his main meditation was the mantra of bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha found in the ''Ākāśagarbha Memory-Retention Practice'' (虛空藏求聞持法 ''Kokūzō-gumonji-hō'', Taishō no.1145). While he was practicing in the mountains, he had a vision of the bodhisattva flying at him.

During this early period of intense study, prayer and practice, Kūkai sought the highest truth to be found in Buddhism. One day he dreamt of a man telling him to seek out the '' Mahāvairocana Sūtra''. He was able to obtain a copy in Chinese (and Sanskrit) but large portions of the text were undecipherable to him and thus he decided to go to China to find someone who could explain it to him.

In 804, Kūkai set sail on a fleet of four ships to China. The future Tendai founder Saichō was on the same fleet. When Kūkai first met Huiguo (a student of Amoghavajra) on the fifth month of 805, Huiguo was sixty and on the verge of death. Huiguo exclaimed to Kūkai that he had been waiting for him and immediately initiated him into the esoteric mandalas. In the short space of three months, Huiguo initiated and taught Kūkai everything he knew on the doctrines and practices of esoteric Buddhism. During this time Kūkai also learned Sanskrit from some Indian masters living in China.Hakeda (1972), pp. 32-33.

Kūkai's return

Kūkai returned to Japan after Huiguo's death in 806. He brought back numerous Buddhist texts, mandalas, ritual items and other books. After returning, Kūkai asked the imperial court for permission to establish a new Buddhist school and waited three years for a response in Kyushu. In 809 Kūkai was allowed to reside at a temple near Kyoto known as Takaosanji (now Jingo-ji). This temple would become his major center of operations near the capital. Kūkai's fortunes rose steadily when Emperor Saga became his patron and Kūkai was appointed as the head of Todai-ji in 810. Kūkai began to give esoteric initiations (''abhiśeka'') at this time, including to elite laymen and to Saicho and his students. He also began to organize a new school of esoteric Buddhism centered around Jingo-ji and wrote some key works which outlined the main teachings of Shingon.

In 818, Kūkai asked emperor Saga to grant him , in present-day Wakayama province, so that he could establish a true monastic center away from the disturbances of the capital and this was soon granted. Kūkai and his disciples soon began to build the new monastic complex, which they imagined and modeled on the two mandalas, the womb and vajra. This mountain center soon became the key center for Shingon study and practice. In his later life, Kūkai continued to actively promote the efficacy of Shingon ritual among the elite even while also working to build Kōyasan into a major center. Kūkai eventually achieved control of Tō-ji for the Shingon school, which was a major temple within the capital. His final request before his death in 832 was to construct a Shingon hall in Imperial palace grounds in order to accommodate the practice of the seven day ritual of chanting the '' Sutra of Golden Light.'' His request was eventually granted, a year after his death''.''

After Kūkai

After Kūkai, the main Shingon temples were taken over by key disciples like Jitsue, Shinzen, Shinzai, Eon and Shōhō. The main leadership after his death was Shinnen (804–891) and already at this time there was some conflict between Tō-ji and Kōyasan. Some Shingon monks also followed in Kūkai's footsteps and visited China to receive more teachings and texts. Likewise, several Tendai monks also visited China and brought back esoteric teachings, making Tendai esotericism a major competitor to Shingon.Bowring (2005), p. 152.

Under Kangen (853–925), Tō-ji temple rose to become the head temple of Shingon. Mount Kōya experienced a period of decline afterwards, until it recovered in the 11th century through the support of Fujiwara clan nobles like Fujiwara no Michinaga.

Shingon Buddhism enjoyed immense popularity during the Heian period (), particularly among the nobility, and contributed greatly to the art and literature of the time, influencing other communities such as the Tendai school.

During the late Heian, Pure Land Buddhism was becoming very popular and Shingon was also influenced by this popular devotional trend. Mount Kōya soon became the center for groups of wandering holy men called Kōya Hijiri'','' who merged Pure Land practices focused on Amida Buddha with devotion to Kūkai and were also involved in raising funds for the rebuilding of many temples.Yamasaki (1988), pp. 39-40. Kōya-san soon became a major center for pilgrimage for all Japanese.

The Shingon monk Kakuban (1095–1143) was one Shingon scholar who responded to the rise in Pure Land devotionalism. He studied Shingon along with Tendai and also incorporated Pure Land practice into his Shingon system, as well as promoting an esoteric interpretation of nembutsu and Pure Land.Yamasaki (1988), p. 41. Unlike other Pure Land schools, Kakuban held that the Pure Land exists in this very world and he also taught that Vairocana is Amida.

Kakuban, and his faction of priests centered at the soon came into conflict with the leadership at Kongōbu-ji, the head temple at Mount Kōya. Through his connections with high-ranking nobles in Kyoto, Kakuban was appointed abbot of Mount Kōya. The leadership at Kongōbu-ji opposed him and after several conflicts (some of which involved the burning down of temples of Kakuban's faction), Kakuban's group left the mountain for Mount Negoro to the northwest, where they constructed a new temple complex now known as .

After the death of Kakuban in 1143, attempts to make peace were unsuccessful and after further conflicts, the Negoro faction (led by Raiyu) founded the new Shingi Shingon School based on Kakuban's teachings. As such, Shingon became divided into two major sub-schools, , and .Yamasaki (1988), p. 42. Over time, the two Shingon sub-schools also diverged doctrinally on such issues as the attainment of buddhahood through a single mantra and the theory of how the Dharmakāya teaches the Dharma.

Following in Kakuban's footsteps, the Koyasan monk Dōhan 道範 (1179–1252) has been seen as a key figure in the promotion of what has been called an “esoteric Pure Land culture”, a Shingon variety of Pure Land Buddhism that became very popular during this period and influenced other figures and schools like Eison of Saidaiji's Shingon Risshu. This esoteric pure land culture included esoteric uses and interpretations of the nembutsu along with the popularization and use of the Mantra of Light.

During the Heian period, the adoption of Shinto deities into Buddhism became popular, something that became known as ''Shinbutsu-shūgō'' (神仏習合, "syncretism of kami and buddhas"). This movement saw local Japanese deities as manifestations of the Buddhas. For example Amaterasu was seen as an emanation of Vairocana in Shingon. This emanation theory was called honji suijaku by Buddhists. Major Shingon centers participated in this development, with key deities like Hachiman being worshipped at temples like Tō-ji for example.Yamasaki (1988), p. 52.

Also during the Heian period, the syncretic religion of Shugendō started to develop and the influence of Shingon was one major element in its development. Shingon was especially influential on the Tōzan branch of Shugendō. which was centered on Mount Kinbu.

Kamakura to Sengoku period

The Kamakura period (1185 to 1333) saw the rise of another new Shingon tradition, the Shingon-risshū school. This new tradition stressed the importance of keeping the monastic Vinaya, along with esoteric practice. It was promoted by figures like Shunjō (1166–1227) and Eison (叡尊 1201–1290) and centered around Saidai-ji. Ninshō carried on the work of this tradition, which was known for its many public works projects, including building hospitals, hostels for the poor and animal sanctuaries.

Also during this period, many followers of the Ji sect founded by Ippen (1234–1289) made Kōya-san their home, joining with the Kōya hiriji groups, and many halls for Amida centered Pure Land practice were built on the mountain.

During the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573), the Shingon schools continued to develop, some under the support of elite families or even emperors, like Go-Uda (1267–1324), who entered the priesthood at Tō-ji and helped revitalize the temple as well as Daikaku-ji. Meanwhile, on Kōyasan, Yūkai (1345–1416) was responsible for revitalizing Shingon doctrinal study and also for driving away all of the nembutsu hiriji (now mostly following the Ji sect) who had been living on the mountain. He also purged the tradition of all traces of the heterodox Tachikawa school (even burning their texts). The Tachikawa school was known for teaching a mixed form of esotericism which made use of Daoist and sexual practices.

During the war torn Sengoku period (1467 to 1615), all the Shingon temples in or near the capital were destroyed or stripped of all lands, while the Shingon centers in the mountains like Kōya and Negoro were forced to raise militaries for self defense, though sometimes they used these forces to attempt to expand the lands holdings of their temples.Yamasaki (1988), pp. 45-46. Mount Negoro, the center of Shingi Shingon, was sacked by the ''daimyō'' in 1585. After this show of force, Kōyasan, the last major Shingon temple left standing at this time, submitted to Hideyoshi, and was spared destruction.

Edo period

During the Edo period (1603–1868), the Shingi Shingon monks from Mount Negoro had escaped and took their lineages elsewhere, eventually founding new schools at Hase-dera (the Buzan school) and at Chishaku (the Chisan-ha school).Yamasaki (1988), p. 46. In the Edo period, the Tokugawa Shogunate implemented new religious control measures for the Buddhist community. Tokugawa Ieyasu issued regulations for the Shingon school in 1615, incorporating it into its administrative temple system. Under this new peace, Shingon study was revived in the various temples. Hase-dera became a major center for the broad study of all of Buddhism and also of secular topics. Meanwhile in Kōyasan, the Ji sect hiriji were allowed to return and were incorporated into the Shingon school, though this would lead to conflict later on.

During this period, monks like Jōgen and Onkō (1718–1804) focused on studying and promoting Buddhist precepts and monastic discipline. This renewed interest in precepts study was likely a response to Confucian critiques of Buddhism at the time. Onkō was also a well known scholar of Sanskrit.

Meiji period

After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the state forced a separation of Shinto and Buddhism (''shinbutsu bunri'') and abolished the Chokusai Hōe (Imperial Rituals). The Shingon school was significantly affected by these changes (since it was closely connected with many Shinto shrines), as well as by the Meiji era anti-buddhist persecutions known as haibutsu kishaku (abolish Buddhism and destroy Shākyamuni).Yamasaki (1988), p. 48. Some Shingon temples that were affiliated with Shintō shrines were converted into shrines. Some Shinto monks left the Buddhist priesthood to become Shintō priests, or they returned to secular life. The government enforced the confiscation of temple land and this led to the closure of many Shingon temples. Those who survived had to turn to the regular population for support.

During the Meiji period, the government also adopted the "one sect, one leader" rule which forced all Shingon schools to merge under a single leader which was called a "Chōja" (Superintendent). This led to some internal political conflict among the various sub-schools of Shingon, some of which attempted to form their own separate official sects. Some of these eventually succeeded in attaining independence and eventually the unified Shingon sect split into various sub-sects again.

20th century and post-war period

In March 1941, under the government's religious policy, Shingon schools were forcibly merged to form the 'Dai-Shingon' sect. During the second world war, prayers for the surrender of enemy nations were frequently held at various temples. After the war, both Ko-Gyō and Shin-Gyō schools continued to separate, and some established their own unique doctrines and traditions. There are now around eighteen major Shingon schools with their own headquarter temples (honzan) in Japan. Yamasaki estimated the number of Shingon followers at ten million and the number of priests at sixteen thousand in around eleven thousand temples (in his 1988 book). In Japan, there are also several new Shingon influenced groups classified as 'New Religions'. Some of these new movements include Shinnyo-en, Agon-shu and Gedatsu-kai.

Another recent modern development is the phenomenon of Chinese students reviving Chinese Esoteric Buddhism through studying Japanese Shingon. This “tantric revival movement” (mijiao fuxing yundong 密教復興運動) was mainly propagated by Chinese Buddhists who traveled to Japan to be trained, initiated, and receive dharma transmission as acharyas in the Shingon tradition and who then return home to establish the tradition. Some important figures of this revival include Wang Hongyuan 王弘願 (1876–1937), and Guru Wuguang (悟光上師 (1918–2000), both trained in Shingon and went on to spread Shingon teachings in the Chinese speaking world.

Some of these Chinese acharyas have chosen to officially remain under the oversight of Kōyasan Shingon-shū or Shingon-shu Buzan-ha and minister as Chinese branches of Japanese Shingon, but others have chosen to create independent and distinct schools. Today, these revivalist lineages exist in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia. Though they draw mainly from Shingon teachings, they have also adopted some Tibetan Buddhist elements.

A similar phenomenon has occurred in South Korea, where two recent esoteric schools have been founded, the Chinŏn (眞言) and the Jingak Order (眞 覺), both of which are largely based on Shingon teachings.Sørensen. ''Esoteric Buddhism under the Koryŏ in the Light of the Greater East Asian Tradition''. International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture September 2006, Vol.7, pp. 55-94.

During the 20th century, Shingon Buddhism also spread to the West, especially to the United States (a move led by the Japanese Diaspora). There are now various temples on the West Coast and Hawaii like Hawaii Shingon Mission (built 1915–1918) and Koyasan Beikoku Betsuin (Los Angeles, founded 1912), Henjyoji Shingon Temple in Portland, Oregon (est. 1949), and the Seattle Koya'sn Temple in Seattle, Washington.

Doctrines

Sources

The teachings of Shingon are based on Mahayana texts, and early Buddhist tantras. The key esoteric sources are the , the , and the . Important Mahayana sutras in Shingon include the ''Lotus Sutra,'' the ''Brahmajāla Sūtra'' and ''Heart Sutra.'' Kūkai wrote commentaries on all three.

Shingon derives form the early period of Indian Vajrayana (then known as Mantrayana, the Vehicle of Mantras).Williams, Paul, and Tribe, Anthony. ''Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition.'' 2000. p. 271 Unlike Tibetan Buddhism, which focuses on the Anuttarayoga Tantras, which are tantras that arose at a later date of Indian Buddhism, Shingon bases itself on earlier works like the ''Mahavairocana'' which generally lack the antinomian uses of sexual yoga, taboo substances and charnel ground imagery found in the later tantras.Yamasaki (1988), p. 72. Nevertheless, the concept of "great bliss" (tairaku) and the transformation of desire (and other defilements) into wisdom is found in Shingon.

Another important sutra in Shingon is the '' Prajñāpāramitānaya-sūtra'' (Jp. ''Hannyarishukyō'', Taishō vol. 8, no. 243). This is a late "tantric" Prajñaparamita sutra in 150 lines which was translated by Amoghavajra and which contains various verses and seed syllables which encapsulate the Prajñaparamita teaching.BDK (2015), p. 5. The ''Hannyarishukyō'' is used extensively in Shingon as part of daily recitation and ritual practice. The full Sanskrit title is ''Mahāsukhavajra-amoghasamaya-sūtra'' (Ch. ''Dale jingang bukong zhenshi sanmohe jing'', ''Sutra of the Vow of Fulfilling the Great Perpetual Enjoyment and Benefiting All Sentient Beings Without Exception'').

Another important source for the Shingon school is the '' Awakening of Faith'' and a commentary on it called the ''On the Interpretation of Mahāyāna'' (''Shi Moheyan lun'' 釈摩訶衍論, Japanese: ''Shakumakaen-ron'', Taisho no. 1668), which was traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna (though it is likely an East Asian composition).

Finally, the works of Kūkai are key sources in Shingon Buddhism, including his various commentaries on the key esoteric texts of Shingon as well as original works like his magnum opus, the ten volume ''Jūjū shinron (Treatise on Ten Levels of Mind)'' and the shorter summary ''Hizō hōyaku (Precious Key to the Secret Treasury)''.

The Dharmakaya Mahāvairocana

In Shingon, the Buddha Mahāvairocana (Sanskrit for "Great Illuminator"), also known as Dainichi Nyorai (大日如来, "Great Sun Tathagata") is the universal primordial (''honji-shin'') Buddha that is the basis of all phenomena. Śubhakarasiṃha's ''Darijing shu'' (大日經疏‎, J. ''Dainichikyōsho'') states that Mahāvairocana is “the original ground dharmakāya.” (薄伽梵即毘盧遮那本地法身, at Taisho no. 1796:39.580). According to Hakeda, Kūkai identified the Dharmakaya with "the eternal Dharma, the uncreated, imperishable, beginningless, and endless Truth".Hakeda (1972), p. 82.

This ultimate reality does not exist independently of all things, but is immanent in them. Dainichi is worshipped as the supreme Buddha and also appears as the central figure of the Five Wisdom Buddhas. Hakeda also writes that in Shingon, Dainichi is "at the center of a multitude of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and powers; He is the source of enlightenment and the unity underlying all variety. To attain enlightenment means to realize Mahāvairocana, the implication being that Mahāvairocana is originally within man."

According to Kūkai, the Buddha's light illuminates and pervades all, like the light of the sun (hence his name). The immanent presence also means that every being already has "original enlightenment" ''(hongaku)'' within. This is also known as the "enlightened mind" (bodhicitta) and the Buddha nature. As Kūkai writes: "Where is the Dharmakaya? It is not far away; it is in our body. The source of wisdom? In our mind; indeed, it is close to us!"

Because of this, there is the possibility of "becoming Buddha in this very embodied existence" ''(sokushin jōbutsu)'', even for the most depraved persons.Krummel, John, "Kûkai", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL=. All beings thus have the potential to become Buddhas through their own effort and through the power / grace ( ) of the Buddha. Kūkai thus rejected the idea we lived in an age of Dharma decline and that therefore one had to be reborn in a pure land to attain enlightenment. This also informs his positive view of the natural world, as well as of the arts, all of which he saw as manifestations of the Buddha.

Activities and forms of the Dharmakaya

Dainichi is the ultimate source of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and of the entire cosmos. The centrality of Dainichi is seen in the fact that he appears at the centre of both the Diamond Realm and the Womb Realm mandalas. According to Kūkai, Mahāvairocana is also the Universal Principle which underlies all Buddhist teachings. Thus, other Buddhist deities can be thought of as manifestations of Dainichi, each with their own attributes. As Kūkai writes, "the great Self is one, yet can be many".

Like in the school, Shingon sees Dainichi's body as being equal to the entire universe. As Dharmakaya (Jpn: ''hosshin'', Dharma body), Vairocana also constantly teaches the Dharma in inconceivable ways throughout the universe, including through the secret mysteries of Shingon esotericism. The Dharmakaya is embodied absolute reality and truth and is mostly ineffable but can be experienced through esoteric practices such as mudras and mantras. Ultimately, the whole phenomenal world itself and all the sounds and movements in it are also considered to be the teaching of Vairocana Buddha, which is identical with the cosmic body of the Buddha. Thus, for Kūkai, the entire universe, together with all actions, persons and Buddhas in it, are all part of Vairocana's cosmic sermon to its manifestations. In Shingon, this idea that all phenomena in the universe are constantly revealing the presence of the Dharmakaya Buddha, is part of the doctrine of "the dharmakaya's expounding of the Dharma" (''hosshin seppō'').Hakeda (1972), pp. 78-79. Furthermore, according to the syncretic doctrine of '' honji suijaku'', the Shinto sun goddess Amaterasu was considered a manifestation of Dainichi Nyorai along with other Shinto deities.

Kūkai explains the Dharmakaya as having four main bodies (''shishu hosshin''):Hakeda (1972), p. 83.
* Absolute Dharmakaya (''jishō hosshin'') – the ultimate wisdom body of all the Buddhas out which the entire cosmos manifests
* The Dharmakaya in Bliss / Participation (''juyō hosshin'') – it has two aspects: the bliss aspect, a state of absolute samadhi, and the participation aspect, which is how the Dharmakaya appears to the most advanced bodhisattvas as Buddha forms.
* Transformation Dharmakaya (''henge hosshin'') – how the Buddha appears to lower level bodhisattvas, sravakas and ordinary people. This includes the historical Buddha Shakyamuni.
* Emanation Dharmakaya (''tōru hosshin'') – bodies emanating from the Dharmakaya in many forms, including nonhuman beings and hell beings.
Although portrayed through the use of anthropomorphic metaphors, Shingon does not see the Dharmakaya Buddha as a separate or individual personal entity or a God standing apart from the universe. Instead, the Buddha ''is'' the universe properly understood.

The wisdom body of the Dharmakaya

Another important feature of the Dharmakaya in Kūkai's buddhology is his analysis of Vairocana's body of wisdom (''chishin''). According to this teaching, the Dharmakaya has five wisdoms, each one is associated with a Buddha and four of them are associated with a type of mundane consciousness (drawn from the Yogacara system of eight consciousnesses):

# The Wisdom that Perceives the Essential Nature of the World of Dharma (''hokkai taishō chi''): the eternal Source of knowledge and light at the center of all things. It is represented by Mahāvairocana Buddha in the Vajradhatu Mandala.
# Mirrorlike Wisdom (''daienkyō''): the wisdom which reflects things as they are without any distortion. It is represented by Aksobhya Buddha and is associated with the alaya-vijñana (storehouse consciousness).
# Wisdom of Equality (''byōdōshō chi''): the wisdom which sees the identity and sameness of all phenomena and beings. It is represented by Ratnasambhava Buddha and is associated with the ego consciousness (manas).
# Wisdom of Observation (''myōkanzatchi''): the wisdom which is free of discrimination and sees all objects of mind without discrimination / conceptualization. It is represented by Amitabha and is associated with the mental consciousness (manovijñana).
# Wisdom of Action (''jōsosa chi''): the wisdom manifested as actions that help all sentient beings and guide them to Buddhahood. It is represented by Amoghasiddhi and is associated with the five sense consciousnesses.
In the , the illumination of the Buddha's body of wisdom is symbolized as a vajra, Indra's indestructible adamantine weapon, and it represents the dynamic function of penetrating insight.Hakeda (1972), p. 85. In the , meanwhile, the Buddha's Body of Principle (Jp.: ''ri;'' Ch.: ''li'') is symbolized by a lotus and stands for "compassion, potentiality, growth and creativity" according to Hakeda. For Kūkai, both of these bodies are non-dual. Kūkai writes:

That which realizes is Wisdom and that which is to be realized is Principle. The names differ, but they are one in their essential nature.

The six great elements, the four mandalas and the three mysteries

According to Kūkai, the Dharmakaya can further be explained terms of the "Body of Six Great Elements" (''rokudaishin''). This means that for Kūkai, the Dharmakaya consists of the six great elements which "are interfused and are in a state of eternal harmony". The great elements (''mahābhūtani'') are earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness, and they are the universal elements out of which all beings and matter are made. These great elements are all in a state of perfect interfusion (''yuanrong'', 圓融, i.e. they are all harmoniously interconnected), a teaching which was first articulated in the Huayan school by patriarchs like Fazang.Hakeda (1972), p. 89. Like Fazang, Kūkai uses the metaphor of Indra's Net to describe the infinite interrelation of all existence, meaning that the Dharmakaya Mahāvairocana and every sentient being in the universe "are not identical but are nevertheless identical; they are not different but are nevertheless different."

For Kūkai, the consequence of this doctrine is a complete non-duality between seemingly different phenomena like mind and matter, humanity and nature, sentient and insentient, and so on. Thus, Kūkai writes: "matter is no other than mind; mind is no other than matter. Without any obstruction, they are interrelated." This interrelation is one of macrocosmic harmony, an eternal natural order (''hōni no dōri'') which is identical with the yoga and samadhi of the Dharmakaya. Sentient beings, as microcosmic manifestations of the Dharmakaya, can tune in to that harmony through practicing samadhi.

Another perspective with which to understand the Dharmakaya is through the four mandalas (circles, ranges, spheres) which stand for the cosmic Buddha Vairocana's extension, intention, communication and action:

* Mahāmandala – the entire physical universe as the body of the Dharmakaya Buddha
* Samayamandala – the ultimate intention of the Dharmakaya Buddha which is omnipresent throughout the universe and is universal compassion
* Dharmamandala – the universal sphere in which the Dharmakaya Buddha's preaching and revelation of the Dharma is taking place
* Karmamandala – the universal activities of the Dharmakaya Buddha, i.e. all the movements of the universe

These four mandalas are all said to be deeply interconnected or as Kūkai writes "inseparably related to one another".

The constant preaching of the Dharmakaya Buddha throughout the cosmos is described in Shingon as the "three mysteries" (sanmi 三密). Hakeda describes these three as "the suprarational activities or functions of the Body, Speech, and Mind of Mahāvairocana."Hakeda (1972), p. 91. The three mysteries are found throughout the entire universe as the movements of natural phenomena, natural sounds and as all experiences. Kūkai compares it to a sacred book "being painted by brushes of mountains, by ink of oceans", which have heaven and earth as the bindings.

The non-dual nature of all mandalas and the interpenetration of all phenomena embodied as Mahavairocana's body and functions is a key Shingon view which also underlies its understanding of the practice of the three secrets. As such, Kūkai explains how Shingon practice enacts the unity of all actions and things in the following important passage:Yamasaki (1988), p. 106

The six symbolic elements interpenetrate without obstruction and are in eternal union.

They are not apart from any of the Four Mandalas.

Through practice of three-secrets empowerment, they manifest immediately.

The universal web is what we call this body.

All things are naturally endowed with bodhisattva wisdom transcending the essential mind, the subsidiary minds imited aspects of mind and the objects of the senses.

Each of the Five Wisdoms is endowed with unlimited wisdom.

Since it is the power of the perfect mirror, this is true enlightened wisdom.

As such, through the Shingon "three-secrets yoga" ''(sanmitsu yuga)'', a practitioner unifies his body, speech and mind with those of the Buddha's Dharmakaya. Kūkai states that "the three secrets bring about the response of empowerment '' aji' and he quickly attains great enlightenment".

Buddha's power and self-power

The three mysteries are also interpreted as tapping into the energy, grace or sustaining power (Skt. , Jp. ''kaji'') of the Buddha, which according to Kūkai "indicates great compassion on the part of the Tathagata and faith (Skt. , Jp. ''shinjin'') on the part of sentient beings." Kūkai compares this process to rays of sun (the Buddha's power) shining on water (sentient beings) and the water's ability to retain the heat of the rays.Hakeda (1972), p. 92. Kūkai also holds that faith comes through the power of the Buddha; it is not something acquired by one's own efforts. Indeed, for Kūkai, the three mysteries are innate in all beings, and the fact that these are united with the macrocosmic three mysteries of the Dharmakaya is what makes faith possible.

However, in Shingon, it is not solely through the Buddha's power that one accumulates merit and attains enlightenment; rather, it is through a conjunction of "the three powers" (''sanriki''): the power of Buddha's blessing or grace (''nyorai kaji-riki'', which is "other power," ''tariki''); one's power of self-merit (''ga kudoku-riki'', i.e. "self-power", ''jiriki''); and the power of the Dharma realm (''hokkai riki)'', the interfused self-nature in which self and Buddha are non-dual.Yamasaki (1988), p. 110. As such, in Shingon, self-power and other-power are not two separate powers but are non-dual.

Kūkai describes this as "the Buddha entering the self and the self entering the Buddha" (''nyūga ga'nyū'', literally "entering-self and self-entering") in his ''Dainichi-kyo Kaidai'' ("Interpretation of the Mahavairocana Sutra"). Yamasaki calls this "a subtle process of the self, the deity, and the universe" in which "in striving 'upward', the individual perceives an energy flowing 'downward' as if to aid his striving."

Buddhahood

According to Shingon doctrine, Buddhahood is not a distant, foreign reality that can take aeons to approach but it is a real possibility within this very life. This is because the buddha-nature / original enlightenment is present within all beings. Kūkai describes this immanent reality within all beings as "the glorious mind, the most secret and sacred".

According to Kūkai, the core teaching on enlightenment in the ''Mahāvairocana sutra'' is found in the following passages:

The enlightened mind odhicittais the cause, great compassion ahakarunais the root, and skillful means payais the ultimate...enlightenment is to know your own mind as it really is...Seek in your own mind enlightenment and all-embracing wisdom. Why? Because it is originally pure and bright.Hakeda (1972), pp. 87.

This means that Buddhahood can be attained because all beings already have enlightenment and "all embracing wisdom" within which is "originally pure and bright" according to Kūkai. With the help of a genuine teacher and through proper training, one can reclaim and liberate this enlightened capacity for the benefit of oneself and others. When cultivated, the luminous enlightened mind manifests as awakened wisdom.

Kūkai systematized and categorized all Buddhist teachings into ten stages of spiritual realization, from the lowest type of worldly mind to the highest mind of exoteric Buddhism (the view of Huayan/Kegon) to the supreme mind attained through Shingon.

The nature of esoteric Buddhism

Kūkai wrote at length on the difference between exoteric