Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi ( ; 1 May 18544 June 1931) was an
Arab
Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...
leader from the
Banu Qatadah branch of the
Banu Hashim
Banu Hashim () is an Arab clan within the Quraysh tribe to which the Islamic prophet Muhammad belonged, named after Muhammad's great-grandfather Hashim ibn Abd Manaf.
Members of this clan, and especially their descendants, are also referred ...
clan who was the
Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908 and, after proclaiming the
Great Arab Revolt against the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
,
King of the Hejaz, even if he refused this title,
[Representation Of Hedjaz At The Peace Conference: Hussein Bin Ali's Correspondence With Colonel Wilson; Status Of Arabic Countries; King's Rejection Of 'Hedjaz' Title. Paris Peace Conference 1919: Representation Of Hedjaz, Feb. 24, 1919, Manuscript Number FO 608/97-0068 The National Archives (Kew, United Kingdom)] from 1916 to 1924.
He proclaimed himself Caliph after the
abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 and stayed in power until 1925 when Hejaz was
invaded by the
Saudis
Saudis (; local dialects: , suʿūdiyyīn) or Saudi Arabians are the citizen population of the Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, who speak the Arabic language, a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language, and share a common Ancesto ...
. His Caliphate was opposed by the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
and
French empires,
the
Zionists and the
Wahhabis alike.
However, he received support from a large part of the Muslim population of that time
[.] and from
Mehmed VI
Mehmed VI Vahideddin ( ''Meḥmed-i sâdis'' or ''Vaḥîdü'd-Dîn''; or /; 14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926), also known as ''Şahbaba'' () among the Osmanoğlu family, was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the penultimate Ottoman Cal ...
.
[Central File: Decimal File 867.9111, Internal Affairs Of States, Public Press., Newspapers., Turkey, Clippings And Items., March 22, 1924 – March 12, 1925. March 22, 1924 – March 12, 1925. MS Turkey: Records of the U.S. Department of State, 1802–1949: Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Turkey, 1910–1929. National Archives (United States). ''Archives Unbound'', link.gale.com/apps/doc/SC5111548903/GDCS.GRC?pg=5. Accessed 17 May 2023.] He is usually considered as the father of modern
pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism () is a Pan-nationalism, pan-nationalist ideology that espouses the unification of all Arabs, Arab people in a single Nation state, nation-state, consisting of all Arab countries of West Asia and North Africa from the Atlantic O ...
.
In 1908, in the aftermath of the
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress, an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II ...
, Hussein was appointed Sharif of Mecca by the
Ottoman sultan
The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to Dissolution of the Ottoman Em ...
Abdul Hamid II
Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
. His relationship with the Ottoman government deteriorated after the
Committee of Union and Progress
The Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, also translated as the Society of Union and Progress; , French language, French: ''Union et Progrès'') was a revolutionary group, secret society, and political party, active between 1889 and 1926 ...
took power, particularly because of their policies of
Turkification
Turkification, Turkization, or Turkicization () describes a shift whereby populations or places receive or adopt Turkic attributes such as culture, language, history, or ethnicity. However, often this term is more narrowly applied to mean specif ...
and persecution of ethnic minorities, including Arabs. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, although it is debated as to what extent the British were influential in his choice, he proclaimed the
Arab Revolt
The Arab Revolt ( ), also known as the Great Arab Revolt ( ), was an armed uprising by the Hashemite-led Arabs of the Hejaz against the Ottoman Empire amidst the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I.
On the basis of the McMahon–Hussein Co ...
against the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
, accusing the Committee of Union and Progress of violating tenets of
Islam
Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph. While his armies, led by his sons, were engaged in
fighting the Ottoman and German troops in the Middle East, Hussein supported the
Armenians
Armenians (, ) are an ethnic group indigenous to the Armenian highlands of West Asia.Robert Hewsen, Hewsen, Robert H. "The Geography of Armenia" in ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiq ...
during the
Armenian genocide
The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily t ...
and saved up to 4,000 of them. In the
aftermath of World War I
The aftermath of World War I saw far-reaching and wide-ranging cultural, economic, and social change across Europe, Asia, Africa, and in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were a ...
, Hussein refused to ratify the
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty signed on 28 June 1919. As the most important treaty of World War I, it ended the state of war between Germany and most of the Allies of World War I, Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace ...
, in protest of the
Balfour Declaration
The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman regio ...
, a document supporting the
Jewish settlers in Palestine, and the establishment of British and French
mandates in
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
,
Iraq
Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, and
Palestine
Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...
. His sons
Faisal and
Abdullah were made rulers of Iraq and
Transjordan respectively in 1921.
He later refused to sign the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus was left in a very precarious position, the British decided progressively to stop supporting him after the proclamation of his caliphate and the refusal to sign any treaty with them. Thus, they decided to support
Ibn Saud
Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud (; 15 January 1875Ibn Saud's birth year has been a source of debate. It is generally accepted as 1876, although a few sources give it as 1880. According to British author Robert Lacey's book ''The Kingdom'', ...
, who promptly launched an
invasion
An invasion is a Offensive (military), military offensive of combatants of one geopolitics, geopolitical Legal entity, entity, usually in large numbers, entering territory (country subdivision), territory controlled by another similar entity, ...
of the Kingdom of Hejaz. In October 1924, facing defeat by Ibn Saud, he abdicated and was succeeded as king by his eldest son
Ali bin Hussein. After Hejaz was subsequently completely invaded by the
Ibn Saud
Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud (; 15 January 1875Ibn Saud's birth year has been a source of debate. It is generally accepted as 1876, although a few sources give it as 1880. According to British author Robert Lacey's book ''The Kingdom'', ...
-
Wahhabi
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other ...
armies of the
Ikhwan
The Ikhwān (, ), commonly known as Ikhwān man Aṭāʿa Allah (, 'Brethren of those who obey God'), was a Wahhabism, Wahhabi religious militia made up of traditionally nomadic tribesmen which formed a significant military force of the ruler Ibn ...
, on 23 December 1925, Hussein surrendered to the Saudis, bringing the Kingdom of Hejaz, the
Sharifate of Mecca
The Sharifate of Mecca () or Emirate of Mecca was a state, ruled by the Sharif of Mecca. The Egyptian encyclopedist al-Qalqashandi described it as a Bedouin state, in that being similar to its neighbor and rival in the north the Sharifat ...
and the
Sharifian Caliphate
The Sharifian Caliphate () was a Caliphate proclaimed by the Sharifian leaders of the Hejaz in 1924, replacing the Ottoman Caliphate, which was abolished by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Even though the Banu Hashim held the caliphate at various points ...
to an end.
Hussein was then sent into exile to
Cyprus
Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
, where the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
kept him prisoner until his health deteriorated so much that they allowed him to go back to
Amman
Amman ( , ; , ) is the capital and the largest city of Jordan, and the country's economic, political, and cultural center. With a population of four million as of 2021, Amman is Jordan's primate city and is the largest city in the Levant ...
, next to his son
Abdullah I of Jordan
Abdullah I (Abdullah bin Hussein; 2 February 188220 July 1951) was the ruler of Jordan and its predecessor state Transjordan from 1921 until his assassination in 1951. He was the Emir of Transjordan, a British protectorate, until 1946, when h ...
. He died in Amman in 1931 and was buried as a Caliph in the
Al-Aqsa mosque
The Aqsa Mosque, also known as the Qibli Mosque or Qibli Chapel is the main congregational mosque or Musalla, prayer hall in the Al-Aqsa mosque compound in the Old City (Jerusalem), Old City of Jerusalem. In some sources the building is also n ...
compound.
Biography
Ascendance and early life
Ascendance
Hussein bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in bin Awn was born in
Constantinople
Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
in 1853 or 1854. He was the eldest son of Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, who is the second son of
Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in, the former
Sharif of Mecca
The Sharif of Mecca () was the title of the leader of the Sharifate of Mecca, traditional steward of the Holiest sites in Islam, Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The term ''sharif'' is Arabic for "noble", "highborn", and is used to desc ...
. As a member of the
Hashemite dynasty, he was a descendant of
Muhammad
Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
in the 37th generation through his grandson
Hasan bin Ali. His mother, Salah Bani-Shahar, the wife of Ali, would have been a
Circassian.
He belonged to the Dhawu Awn clan of the Abadilah, a branch of the
Banu Qatadah tribe. The Banu Qatadah had ruled the
Sharifate of Mecca
The Sharifate of Mecca () or Emirate of Mecca was a state, ruled by the Sharif of Mecca. The Egyptian encyclopedist al-Qalqashandi described it as a Bedouin state, in that being similar to its neighbor and rival in the north the Sharifat ...
since the accession of their ancestor
Qatadah ibn Idris in 1201 and were the last of the four branches of Hashemite sharifs who, together, had governed
Mecca
Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
since the 11th century.
Power struggles and birth
In 1827,
Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in was appointed Sharif, the first Sharif of the Dhawu Awn branch and interrupting the centuries-long dominance of the Dhawu Zayd. He reigned until 1851, when he was replaced by Sharif
Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib of the Dhawu Zayd, the very same Sharif whom Muhammad ibn al-Abd al-Mu'in had succeeded. After being deposed, he sent his family and sons to reside in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople. While there Hussein was born to Muhammad's son, Ali, in 1853–1854.
Muhammad was reinstated to power in 1856, and Hussein, then two or three years old, accompanied his father and grandfather to Mecca.
Soon after, in 1858, Muhammad died and was succeeded by his eldest son, Emir and Sharif Abdullah Pasha, Hussein's uncle who held the Sharifate until 1877. While still young, he returned to Mecca after his father's death, when his uncle Sharif Abdullah called them back, with his mother in 1861–1862.
Youth and education
Hussein was raised at home, unlike other Hashemite youth who were typically sent outside the city to grow up among
Bedouin
The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...
nomads. Apparently a diligent young man, he mastered the principles of the
Arabic language
Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
and was also educated in
Islamic law
Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
and
doctrine
Doctrine (from , meaning 'teaching, instruction') is a codification (law), codification of beliefs or a body of teacher, teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or in a ...
. Among his teachers was Sheikh Muhammad Mahmud at-Turkizi ash-Shinqiti, with whom he studied the
seven Mu'allaqat. With Sheikh
Ahmad Zayni Dahlan, he studied the
Quran
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
,
completing its memorization before the age of 20.

During Abdullah's reign, Hussein became familiar with the politics and intrigue surrounding the Sharifian court. He also participated in numerous expeditions to the
Najd
Najd is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes most of the central region of Saudi Arabia. It is roughly bounded by the Hejaz region to the west, the Nafud desert in Al-Jawf Province, al-Jawf to the north, ...
and the eastern regions of
Hejaz
Hejaz is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes the majority of the western region of Saudi Arabia, covering the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif and Al Bahah, Al-B ...
to meet the Arab tribes, over whom the
Sharifate of Mecca
The Sharifate of Mecca () or Emirate of Mecca was a state, ruled by the Sharif of Mecca. The Egyptian encyclopedist al-Qalqashandi described it as a Bedouin state, in that being similar to its neighbor and rival in the north the Sharifat ...
then exerted a loose form of control. He learned the customs of the Bedouins, including the skills necessary to withstand the harsh desert environment. During his travels, he also gained a thorough knowledge of the desert's flora and fauna and composed poems in humayni verse, a type of vernacular poetry (
malhun) of the Bedouins. He also practiced horseback riding and hunting.
Exile to Constantinople
In 1875, he married Abdullah's daughter, Abdiyah, his cousin. In 1877, Abdullah died, and Hussein, along with his cousin Ali ibn Abdullah, received the rank of
Pasha
Pasha (; ; ) was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, generals, dignitary, dignitaries, and others. ''Pasha'' was also one of the highest titles in the 20th-century Kingdom of ...
. After a series of political assassinations among his uncles vying for the position of Sharif, he gained attention for his independence of thought and was sent back to Constantinople by the reigning uncle at that time in 1892–1893. He remained there for 15 years, until 1908, mainly focusing on raising his children, learning the politics of the
Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( or ''Babıali''; ), was a synecdoche or metaphor used to refer collectively to the central government of the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul. It is particularly referred to the buildi ...
—where he aligned with the conservative faction—and hoping to return home.
As Emir
Appointment
Following the removal of his predecessor in October and the sudden death of his successor shortly thereafter, Hussein was appointed grand sharif by official decree of the sultan
Abdul Hamid II
Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
in November 1908. However, the situation was peculiar for Hussein, who arrived in Mecca in the midst of the
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress, an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II ...
, which brought the
Young Turks
The Young Turks (, also ''Genç Türkler'') formed as a constitutionalist broad opposition-movement in the late Ottoman Empire against the absolutist régime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (). The most powerful organization of the movement, ...
(
Committee of Union and Progress
The Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, also translated as the Society of Union and Progress; , French language, French: ''Union et Progrès'') was a revolutionary group, secret society, and political party, active between 1889 and 1926 ...
) to power. Upon his arrival, he met CUP representatives who greeted him as the "Constitutional Sharif," intending to gauge his response to such a designation. He replied: "Verily these are the lands of God in which nothing will ever stand except the Shariah of God
..The constitution of the lands of God is the
Sharia
Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...
h of God and the
Sunnah
is the body of traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time supposedly saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations. Diff ...
of His Prophet".
Religious stances
His main teacher was
Ahmad Zayni Dahlan, with whom he became a
hafiz.
He had a
Shafi'i
The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Madhhab () or Shafi'i is one of the four major schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionis ...
and
Hanafi
The Hanafi school or Hanafism is the oldest and largest Madhhab, school of Islamic jurisprudence out of the four schools within Sunni Islam. It developed from the teachings of the Faqīh, jurist and theologian Abu Hanifa (), who systemised the ...
education,
but also allied with the
Malikis
The Maliki school or Malikism is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas () in the 8th century. In contrast to the Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra'y schools of thought, the Mali ...
and opposed the
Wahhabis,
at a time when adherence to a
madhhab
A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni Islam, Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi school, Hanafi, Maliki school, Maliki, Shafi'i school, Shafi'i and Hanbali school, Hanbali.
They ...
was more fluid.
Campaign in 'Asir (1911)
In 1911, Hussein became involved in an Ottoman campaign in
'Asir; the Committee of Union and Progress requested his support to fight
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi, who had recently revolted there and proclaimed the
Idrisid Emirate.
Hussein was very supportive of this campaign because 'Asir traditionally belonged to the Hejaz, and al-Idrisi presence in the area severed his financial and political ties with 'Asir.
He gathered an army of about 5,000 men from the Aqil and Bisha tribes, both tribes being from 'Asir, in Mecca and then began to march against al-Idrisi.
After an initial defeat due to the heat and a cholera epidemic, he managed to inflict two heavy defeats on the
Idrisid forces.
Then, he managed to break the siege of
Abha
Abha (, ') is the capital of Asir, Asir Province in Saudi Arabia. It is situated above sea level in the fertile Asir Mountains of south-western Saudi Arabia, near Asir National Park. Abha's mild climate makes it a popular tourist destination fo ...
, which was being conducted by
al-Idrisi
Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani as-Sabti, or simply al-Idrisi (; ; 1100–1165), was an Arab Muslim geographer and cartographer who served in the court of King Roger II at Palermo, Sicily. Muhammad al-Idrisi was born in C ...
forces and where Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the city, was entrenched.
Overall, he was able to defeat the opposing forces. However, during this campaign, he seems to have been shocked by the violence of the Ottoman troops against the revolted
and had a heated dispute with the Ottoman governor of Abha, Suleiman Pasha, after he began wanting to administer the territories he managed to reconquer according to Bedouin and Sharifian norms, as previously.
This led to a rupture between the two commanders, and Hussein decided to withdraw from 'Asir after having pursued the defeated Idrisid forces for some time.
It seems that this campaign had a very negative impact on how Hussein viewed the Ottoman presence and actions in the Levant, and it is possible that from this moment on, he was already on the verge of rebellion.
The Arab Revolt
Pan-Arabism and relationship with the Ottomans
Although there is no formal evidence suggesting that Hussein bin Ali was inclined towards
Arab nationalism
Arab nationalism () is a political ideology asserting that Arabs constitute a single nation. As a traditional nationalist ideology, it promotes Arab culture and civilization, celebrates Arab history, the Arabic language and Arabic literatur ...
before 1916, the rise of
Turkish nationalism
Turkish nationalism () is nationalism among the people of Turkey and individuals whose national identity is Turkish. Turkish nationalism consists of political and social movements and sentiments prompted by a love for Turkish culture, Turkish ...
strongly displeased the
Hashemites
The Hashemites (), also House of Hashim, are the royal family of Jordan, which they have ruled since 1921, and were the royal family of the kingdoms of Hejaz (1916–1925), Syria (1920), and Iraq (1921–1958). The family had ruled the city of Me ...
and
Bedouin
The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...
s. Additionally, the increasing centralization of the Ottoman Empire, the progressive prohibition of
Arabic
Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
in teaching,
Turkification policies, and the settlement of Turkish colonists in Arab areas worried and frightened Arabs throughout the empire.
[History, Grades 10‒12, Chapters in the Modern History of the Middle East, George Salama, Maktabat Al-Khouri (Permit: 317), 2009, p. 73.]
In 1908, the
Hejaz Railway was completed, allowing the Turks to strengthen their control over the Hejaz and provide a rapid response capability to reinforce their garrisons in Mecca and Medina. It was built under constant threat of Arab raids, such as those from the
Harb tribe, which demonstrated their hostility towards the project. Furthermore, in April 1915, the Ottoman government began a
policy of extermination of the minorities in the Ottoman Empire through various genocides. This frightened the Arabs,
who were the largest minority in the Empire, and was openly criticized by Hussein bin Ali.
These oppositions with the Turks became so violent that they overshadowed those that existed in Arab society and Bedouin society; and many rival tribes to the
Hashemites
The Hashemites (), also House of Hashim, are the royal family of Jordan, which they have ruled since 1921, and were the royal family of the kingdoms of Hejaz (1916–1925), Syria (1920), and Iraq (1921–1958). The family had ruled the city of Me ...
rallied behind their leadership.
An nationalist and anti-colonial Arab movement developed, mainly in
Ottoman Syria
Ottoman Syria () is a historiographical term used to describe the group of divisions of the Ottoman Empire within the region of the Levant, usually defined as being east of the Mediterranean Sea, west of the Euphrates River, north of the Ara ...
, where Arab intellectuals and newspapers called for the restoration of the
caliphate
A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...
in the hands of a
Quraysh
The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...
, and especially for the acquisition of Arab independence from the Ottoman Empire. The relationship between Hussein and the Committee of Union and Progress worsened even more after the discovery and foiling of a plot by
Enver Pasha
İsmâil Enver (; ; 23 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), better known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Turkish people, Turkish military officer, revolutionary, and Istanbul trials of 1919–1920, convicted war criminal who was a p ...
to assassinate Hussein.
All of these points led to a violent rupture between Arab elites and the Ottoman political class,
and are reflected in Hussein's later proclamation of independence, where he presented his struggle as a religious and anti-colonial one.
Twenty days after the start of the
Armenian genocide
The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily t ...
in the Ottoman Empire, Hussein bin Ali's son,
Faisal, met with the leaders of the revolutionary organization
Al-Fatat in
Damascus
Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
. They assured him of their support in case of revolt and recognized Hussein as the representative of the Arab nation.
When Hussein took up the pan-Arab claims in 1916, after his proclamation of independence, he became the leading figure behind whom the pan-Arabs rallied, and is therefore frequently regarded as the father of
pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism () is a Pan-nationalism, pan-nationalist ideology that espouses the unification of all Arabs, Arab people in a single Nation state, nation-state, consisting of all Arab countries of West Asia and North Africa from the Atlantic O ...
.
During
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, Hussein initially remained allied with the Ottomans but began secret negotiations with the British on the advice of his son,
Abdullah, who had served in the
Ottoman parliament up to 1914 and was convinced that it was necessary to separate from the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman administration.
Relationship with the British

Following deliberations at
Ta'if
Taif (, ) is a city and governorate in Mecca Province in Saudi Arabia. Located at an elevation of in the slopes of the Hijaz Mountains, which themselves are part of the Sarawat Mountains, Sarat Mountains, the city has a population of 563,282 pe ...
between Hussein and his sons in June 1915, during which Faisal counselled caution,
Ali argued against rebellion and
Abdullah advocated action and encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with
Sir Henry McMahon; over the period 14 July 1915 to 10 March 1916, a total of ten letters, five from each side, were exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon and Sherif Hussein. McMahon was in contact with
British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey throughout, and Grey was to authorise and be ultimately responsible for the correspondence.
The British
Secretary of State for War
The secretary of state for war, commonly called the war secretary, was a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, which existed from 1794 to 1801 and from 1854 to 1964. The secretary of state for war headed the War Offic ...
,
Field Marshal
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons a ...
Lord Kitchener, appealed to him for assistance in the conflict on the side of the
Triple Entente
The Triple Entente (from French meaning "friendship, understanding, agreement") describes the informal understanding between the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was built upon th ...
. Starting in 1915, as indicated by
an exchange of letters with Lieutenant Colonel
Sir Henry McMahon, the British High Commissioner in the
Sultanate of Egypt, Hussein seized the opportunity and demanded recognition of an Arab nation that included the Hejaz and other adjacent territories as well as approval for the proclamation of an Arab Caliphate of Islam.
High Commissioner McMahon accepted and assured him that his assistance would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between
Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
, with the exception of
British possessions
A British possession is a country or territory other than the United Kingdom which has the British monarch as its head of state.
Overview
In common statutory usage the British possessions include British Overseas Territories, and the Commonwe ...
and interests in
Kuwait
Kuwait, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in West Asia and the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. It is situated in the northern edge of the Arabian Peninsula at the head of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to Iraq–Kuwait ...
,
Aden
Aden () is a port city located in Yemen in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, on the north coast of the Gulf of Aden, positioned near the eastern approach to the Red Sea. It is situated approximately 170 km (110 mi) east of ...
, and the Syrian coast. However, at that time, the British scarcely thought about the promises made; their primary concern was winning the war and dismantling the Ottoman Empire.
The fate of the Arab populations and the division of territory were left for a future date.
According to
Ekrem Buğra Ekinci, the links between Hussein and the British should not be overestimated.
The deep-rooted reason for the Arab revolt, according to him, remains the persecutions and abuse carried out by the Young Turks against the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, and is not necessarily linked to British support.
This support would therefore be contingent and the revolt would have still occurred without their help.
This point was shared at the time by
Abbas II of Egypt, the last
Khedive of Egypt
The Khedivate of Egypt ( or , ; ') was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, established and ruled by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty following the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte's forces which brought an end to the short-li ...
, even though he was a sympathizer of the Young Turks.
The Arab Revolt proper, June 1916 to October 1918

Hussein decided to join the
Allied camp immediately, because of information that he would soon be deposed as Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman government in favor of
Sharif Ali Haidar, leader of the rival Zaʻid family.
The much-publicized executions of the Arab nationalist leaders in Damascus led Hussein to fear for his life if he was deposed in favour of Ali Haidar.
The revolt proper began on 10 June 1916, when Hussein proclaimed the independence of the
Kingdom of Hejaz
The Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz (, ''Al-Mamlakah al-Ḥijāziyyah Al-Hāshimiyyah'') was a state in the Hejaz region of Western Asia that included the western portion of the Arabian Peninsula that was ruled by the Hashemite dynasty. It was self ...
and ordered his supporters to attack the Ottoman garrison in Mecca.
In the
Battle of Mecca, there ensued over a month of bloody street fighting between the out-numbered, but far better armed Ottoman troops and Hussein's tribesmen.
[Murphy, p. 34.] Indiscriminate Ottoman artillery fire, set fire to the veil covering the
Kaaba
The Kaaba (), also spelled Kaba, Kabah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaba al-Musharrafa (), is a stone building at the center of Islam's most important mosque and Holiest sites in Islam, holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Sa ...
and turned out to be a potent propaganda weapon for the Hashemites, who portrayed the Ottomans as desecrating Islam's most holy site.
Hashemite forces in Mecca were joined by Egyptian troops sent by the British, who provided much needed artillery support, and took Mecca on 9 July 1916.
Also on 10 June, another of Hussein's sons, the Emir
Abdullah, attacked
Ta'if
Taif (, ) is a city and governorate in Mecca Province in Saudi Arabia. Located at an elevation of in the slopes of the Hijaz Mountains, which themselves are part of the Sarawat Mountains, Sarat Mountains, the city has a population of 563,282 pe ...
, a hill station near Mecca, which after an initial repulse settled down into a siege.
With the British-Egyptian artillery support, Abdullah took Ta'if on 22 September 1916.

After this, and for most of the war, Hussein's sons directed the fighting ; most notably
Faisal, future Faisal I of Iraq, and
Abdullah, future Abdullah I of Jordan.
Hussein mostly stayed in Mecca to direct the operations, while his sons were fighting.
The
Arab revolt
The Arab Revolt ( ), also known as the Great Arab Revolt ( ), was an armed uprising by the Hashemite-led Arabs of the Hejaz against the Ottoman Empire amidst the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I.
On the basis of the McMahon–Hussein Co ...
laid
siege to Medina but wasn't able to take it for a year, thus impeding the operations.
During this battle, the Ottomans killed and deported the civilian Arabic population of Medina into the
Syrian desert
The Syrian Desert ( ''Bādiyat Ash-Shām''), also known as the North Arabian Desert, the Jordanian steppe, or the Badiya, is a region of desert, semi-desert, and steppe, covering about of West Asia, including parts of northern Saudi Arabia, ea ...
, an event hidden by the pretense of doing "
Seferberlik", or mobilization. On 30 October 1916, Emir Abdullah called a meeting of ''
majlis
(, pl. ') is an Arabic term meaning 'sitting room', used to describe various types of special gatherings among common interest groups of administrative, social or religious nature in countries with linguistic or cultural connections to the Mus ...
'' where he read a letter in which "Husayn ibn Ali was recognized as sovereign of the Arab nation. Then all those present arose and proclaimed him ''Malik al-Arab'', King of the Arabs".
During the whole duration of the war, Hussein's troops stayed underequipped and lacking artillery – which the
Allies didn't want to give, seeing that front as utopical and not as important as the fight was in the
Western front, among others.
This lack of artillery and high mobility ; since most of the troops were mounted Bedouins, pushed them to use guerilla tactics in the desert ; for example by severing Ottoman supplies with the bombings of specific sections of the
Hejaz railway.

After the fall of Medina, the Arab troops were able to
secure Aqaba quickly and this allowed them to project themselves farther;
they still ambushed Ottoman troops, such as during the
battle of Wadi Musa, helping themselves with their superior knowledge of the Arabian and Syrian deserts.
This conflict was marked by widespread ethnic cleansing directed at non-Turkish populations in the areas affected. The troops of Hussein also committed war crimes, deciding to execute Turkish troops responsible of the
Tafas massacre against Arabian civilians, instead of taking them prisoners.
After the fall of Aqaba, the Arab forces, supplemented with British auxiliaries and with the design of joining forces with the British main armies, which were trying to break out of Egypt and Palestine, managed to join them.
During the
Battle of Megiddo, in September 1918, Hussein's troops led by his son Faisal, joined the British forces and managed to utterly destroy the 4th, 7th and 8th Ottoman armies, and push into retreat the
Yildirim Army Group, comprising the
German Asian Corps and led at the time by
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ( 1881 – 10 November 1938) was a Turkish field marshal and revolutionary statesman who was the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first President of Turkey, president from 1923 until Death an ...
, thus leaving the Palestinian and Arabian front without defence, and finally breaking inside the Ottoman Empire.
The battle happened at the same time as the
Vardar offensive
The Vardar offensive () was a World War I military operation, fought between 15 and 29 September 1918. The operation took place during the final stage of the Balkans Campaign (World War I), Balkans Campaign. On 15 September, a combined Allied A ...
in the
Balkans
The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
, which managed to overrun
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
n defences, thus opening the Balkans and ultimately
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
. Since the war was seemingly won, and the Ottoman defences were crumbling, Faisal projected himself towards
Damascus, which he took the 1st of October 1918.
After this, he engaged in the
pursuit to Haritan, pursuing the remnants of the
Yildirim Army Group and ultimately
taking Aleppo on the 25 of October 1918, thus ending the war on that front.
King of Hejaz
The
US State Department
The United States Department of State (DOS), or simply the State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs o ...
quotes an
aide-mémoire dated 24 October 1917 given by the
Arab Bureau
The Arab Bureau was a section of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Cairo Intelligence Department established in 1916 during the World War I, First World War, and closed in 1920, whose purpose was the collection and dissemination ...
to the American Diplomatic Agency in Cairo confirming that "...Britain, France and Russia agreed to recognize the Sherif as lawful independent ruler of the Hejaz and to use the title of "King of the Hejaz" when addressing him, and a note to this effect was handed to him on December 10, 1916".
When Hussein declared himself King of the Hejaz, he also declared himself King of the Arab lands (''malik bilad-al-Arab'').
This only aggravated his conflict with
Abdulaziz ibn Saud, which was already present because of their differences in religious beliefs and with whom he had fought before the First World War, siding with fellow anti-Saudis, the Ottomans in 1910.
Rule
Hussein initiated a series of reforms, including measures to avoid offending Muslims from French or British colonies who undertook the
Hajj
Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
. He also addressed the issue of stray dogs, attempted to ensure the security of the Hajj routes, and sought to combat the prevalent slave markets in the Hejaz region.
He undertook the last major restoration of the
Masjid al-Haram
Masjid al-Haram (), also known as the Sacred Mosque or the Great Mosque of Mecca, is considered to be the most significant mosque in Islam. It encloses the vicinity of the Kaaba in Mecca, in the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia. It is among the ...
in 1920 and a restoration of the mosques of Palestine and more specifically of
al-Aqsa mosque
The Aqsa Mosque, also known as the Qibli Mosque or Qibli Chapel is the main congregational mosque or Musalla, prayer hall in the Al-Aqsa mosque compound in the Old City (Jerusalem), Old City of Jerusalem. In some sources the building is also n ...
, for which he funded 26,672 liras.
Armenian genocide
Starting from 1917, Hussein made decisions to protect the
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
refugees and those residing in his lands from the
Armenian genocide
The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily t ...
.
First, he condemned the genocide publicly as early as 1916, stating "We specifically bring to the world's condemnation the atrocities
committed against the Greeks and Armenians, atrocities that our holy law can only disapprove of". In this regard, he promulgated in 1917, in a decree: "In the name of Most Merciful Allah and our prophet Muhammad, we are addressing our Arab brothers (...) to take Armenian refugees in their families, to share with them their belongings – camels, food, shelter, blankets – and share everything that you have in excess, and everything that you can give to people."
In April 1918, as part of his conquest of the Syrian territories in which the Armenian genocide took place, he issued a decree to protect Armenians from persecution and allow them to settle in peace, in which he ordered :
"What is requested of you is to protect and to take good care of everyone from the Jacobite Armenian community living in your territories and frontiers and among your tribes; to help them in all of their affairs and defend them as you would defend yourselves, your properties and children, and provide everything they might need whether they are settled or moving from place to place, because they are the Protected People of the Muslims ( Ahl Dimmat al-Muslimin) – about whom the Prophet Muhammad (may Allah grant him His blessings and peace) said: "Whosoever takes from them even a rope, I will be his adversary on the day of Judgment". This is among the most important things we require of you to do and expect you to accomplish, in view of your noble character and determination".
The
Armenian National Institute considers it to be the oldest declaration by a head of state to recognize the Armenian genocide. Alongside this, he gave citizenship to his Armenian subjects. According to survivors of the Armenian genocide, such as Levon Yotnakhparian, Hussein personally received him and was shocked by the news of what was happening. He also supported Armenian survivors and provided men and protection for expeditions in the Syrian desert aimed at rescuing Armenian deportees.
According to testimonies, this method is said to have saved up to 4,000 people from the genocide, in collaboration with Hussein al-Attrache, a Druze chieftain who then disguised the refugees as
Druze
The Druze ( ; , ' or ', , '), who Endonym and exonym, call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arabs, Arab Eastern esotericism, esoteric Religious denomination, religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic ...
s.
His son, Faisal, provided free transportation to all Armenian refugees for their trip towards the British refugee camp in Damascus and free use of the
Hejaz railway ; even if that meant impeding on the war effort.
Following World War I
In the aftermath of the war, the Arabs found themselves freed from centuries of Ottoman rule. Hussein's son Faisal was made
King of Syria, but this kingdom proved short-lived, as the Middle East came under
mandate rule of France and the United Kingdom. The British Government subsequently made Faisal and his brother Abdullah kings of
Iraq
Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
and
Transjordan, respectively.
The issue of Palestine and deterioration in British relationship
Starting at the end of the war, Hussein found himself in severe conflict with Britain's views on the subject of Palestine.
In January and February 1918, Hussein received the
Hogarth Message and
Bassett Letter in response to his requests for an explanation of the
Balfour Declaration
The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman regio ...
and
Sykes-Picot Agreement respectively. Despite their explanations, he stated that Palestine should be included within the borders of the newly founded Arab Kingdom
and should refuse Zionist settlers, even if he was ready to accept Jewish people in
Palestine
Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...
,
notably those who already lived there and were not coming from foreign countries.
However, even after an assurance by McMahon, Hussein did not receive the lands promised by their British allies. McMahon claimed that the proposed lands to be taken in by the new Arab State were not purely Arab. In actuality, McMahon refused to hand over the new lands as the areas in question had already been claimed by the new British ally, France.
Having received a British subsidy totalling £6.5m between 1916 and April 1919, in May 1919, the subsidy was reduced to £100K monthly (from £200K), dropped to £75K from October, £50K in November, £25K in December until February 1920 after which no more payments were made.
The
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
were not disposed to fulfill their promises to Hussein, as
Colonel Wilson stated in secret correspondence :
"At one time, our Arabic copies of Sir H. MacMahon's letters to the Grand Sherif could not be found; if they are still unavailable it may be somewhat awkward when King Hussein produces the originals. (...) Failing a satisfactory solution King Hussein will have some grounds for considering that Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland, and Wales. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European ...
has broken her pledged word."
In 1919, King Hussein refused to ratify the
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty signed on 28 June 1919. As the most important treaty of World War I, it ended the state of war between Germany and most of the Allies of World War I, Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace ...
. In August 1920, five days after the signing of the
Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres () was a 1920 treaty signed between some of the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire, but not ratified. The treaty would have required the cession of large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, ...
,
Curzon asked Cairo to procure Hussein's signature to both treaties and agreed to make a payment of £30,000 conditional on signature. Hussein declined and in 1921, stated that he could not be expected to "affix his name to a document assigning Palestine to the
Zionists and Syria to foreigners".
He refused again to accept the Balfour Declaration in 1923, and stated : "I look at the people of Palestine as I look at my own family, without distinction between Muslim, Christian, Jewish, or nationalist".
In January 1924, Hussein received in
Amman
Amman ( , ; , ) is the capital and the largest city of Jordan, and the country's economic, political, and cultural center. With a population of four million as of 2021, Amman is Jordan's primate city and is the largest city in the Levant ...
a Zionist delegation led by rabbi
Yaakov Meir and a British colonel.
Despite having welcomed them with respect, he would not change his position. As his stance was seen by the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
as extremist, the British and the Zionist media engaged in press campaigns against Hussein, where his positions were misrepresented.
They also engaged heavily against
his Caliphate, calling it illegitimate.
After him becoming Caliph, he continued on this path, stating: "I consider Zionism unjust towards Muslims, Christians and Orthodox Jews, and as a protector of justice, I will resist this unjust Zionism".
This contributed to aggravate his relationship with the Zionists towards a breaking point.
Caliphate
After the Caliphate was abolished by the
Turkish Grand National Assembly, Hussein was proclaimed as Caliph. The accounts on the official date and proceedings vary, some place the beginning of the Caliphate on 3 March 1924, when Hussein
would have declared himself Caliph at his son Abdullah's winter camp in Shunah,
Transjordan.
[Teitelbaum, 2001, p. 243.] Other accounts, such as a
Reuters
Reuters ( ) is a news agency owned by Thomson Reuters. It employs around 2,500 journalists and 600 photojournalists in about 200 locations worldwide writing in 16 languages. Reuters is one of the largest news agencies in the world.
The agency ...
dispatch, instead set the date as March 7, 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz".
A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population in Amman as the caliph, on March 11, 1924.
Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, March 14, 1924, when Hussein is evidently enthroned as caliph in
Baghdad
Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
during the Friday prayer.
In any case, all sources agree on a date in March 1924, shortly after the
abolition of the Ottoman caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
Separately, he made statements in support of the
Ottoman dynasty
The Ottoman dynasty () consisted of the members of the imperial House of Osman (), also known as the Ottomans (). According to Ottoman tradition, the family originated from the Kayı tribe branch of the Oghuz Turks, under the leadership of Os ...
, which had been ruined and exiled from
Turkey
Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
. In this regard, he declared:

The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding the family xilehas pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca.

In the same perspective, he financially supported the members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras.
The claim to the title was recognized by a large part of the Hejazi, Levantine
and more generally Arabic Muslim population.
He also received the support of
Mehmed VI
Mehmed VI Vahideddin ( ''Meḥmed-i sâdis'' or ''Vaḥîdü'd-Dîn''; or /; 14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926), also known as ''Şahbaba'' () among the Osmanoğlu family, was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the penultimate Ottoman Cal ...
, on March 18, 1924, one of the last
Ottoman Caliphs and the last
Ottoman Sultan
The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to Dissolution of the Ottoman Em ...
, according to ''
The Times
''The Times'' is a British Newspaper#Daily, daily Newspaper#National, national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title ''The Daily Universal Register'', adopting its modern name on 1 January 1788. ''The Times'' and its si ...
'' and ''
Vatan'', that reported that he supported him as the new Caliph.
The French viewed this proclamation as "the worst possible solution," in the words of
Hubert Lyautey
Louis Hubert Gonzalve Lyautey (17 November 1854 – 27 July 1934) was a French Army general and colonial administrator.
After serving in Indochina and Madagascar, he became the first French Resident-General in Morocco from 1912 to 1925. In earl ...
, who also defended that the
Ottoman Caliphate
The Ottoman Caliphate () was the claim of the heads of the Turkish Ottoman dynasty, rulers of the Ottoman Empire, to be the caliphs of Islam during the Late Middle Ages, late medieval and Early Modern period, early modern era.
Ottoman rulers ...
was better for French interests than the Sharifian Caliphate.
They believed that having a new influential caliph could risk reviving
pan-Islamism
Pan-Islamism () is a political movement which advocates the unity of Muslims under one Islamic country or state – often a caliphate – or an international organization with Islamic principles. Historically, after Ottomanism, which aimed at ...
, causing instability in French Muslim colonies in the event of a conflict, and potentially giving the Red Sea to the British.
As a result, the French did not support it at all, preferring to wait and see how events unfolded. Meanwhile, they had the
Sultan of Morocco
This is a list of rulers of Morocco since 789. The common and formal titles of these rulers has varied, depending on the time period. Since 1957, the designation King has been used.
The present King of Morocco is Mohammed VI of Morocco, Mohammed ...
ready to assume the caliph title if necessary, offering the French a caliph who was more aligned with their interests, albeit less significant.
To reinforce his proclamation and establish legal foundations for his caliphate, Hussein convened an Islamic Congress at
Mecca
Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
in 1924,
[.] it comprised both
Sunni
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
and
Shia
Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...
Muslims and was thus arguably one of the most inclusive Islamic Congresses in history.
The Congress held twelve sessions before being indefinitely adjourned due to the advance of Saudi forces.
His Caliphate only lasted for a few months, though, because he was invaded and defeated quickly by
Abdulaziz ibn Saud.
Defeat against Saudis and abdication
Although the British had supported Hussein from the start of the Arab Revolt and the
McMahon–Hussein Correspondence
The McMahon–Hussein correspondence is a series of letters that were exchanged during World War I, in which the government of the United Kingdom agreed to recognize Arab independence in a large region after the war Quid pro quo, in exchange ...
, they not only chose not to help him to repel the
Saudi conquest of Hejaz, but even provided weapons to Ibn Saud,
which eventually took Mecca, Medina, and Jeddah. The British offered several times to assist him and to stop supporting the Saudis, in exchange for his recognition of the
Balfour Declaration
The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman regio ...
, which he refused each time. According to the
Institute of Contemporary Islamic Thought, the British not only supported Ibn Saud against Hussein bin Ali but they also supported him subsequently against the
Ikhwan
The Ikhwān (, ), commonly known as Ikhwān man Aṭāʿa Allah (, 'Brethren of those who obey God'), was a Wahhabism, Wahhabi religious militia made up of traditionally nomadic tribesmen which formed a significant military force of the ruler Ibn ...
. Hussein attempted to make appeals to the
League of Nations
The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
, Muslim powers, and Western powers; however, they did not intervene and merely monitored the events.
The British were highly negative towards him since he assumed the caliphal title and refused to support him.
He chose to abdicate.
After his abdication, another of his sons,
Ali, briefly assumed the throne of the Hejaz, but then he too had to flee from the encroachment of the Saudi forces. Another of Hussein's sons,
Faisal, was briefly
King of Syria and later
King of Iraq, while
Abdullah was
Emir of Transjordan. While he was in exile, he still used the title of caliph until his death.
Exile

King Hussein was then forced to flee to
Amman
Amman ( , ; , ) is the capital and the largest city of Jordan, and the country's economic, political, and cultural center. With a population of four million as of 2021, Amman is Jordan's primate city and is the largest city in the Levant ...
,
Transjordan, where his son
Abdullah was
Emir
Emir (; ' (), also Romanization of Arabic, transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic language, Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocratic, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person po ...
. During this period, King Hussein is described as having taken over control that his son wielded, and therefore was sent to live in
Aqaba
Aqaba ( , ; , ) is the only coastal city in Jordan and the largest and most populous city on the Gulf of Aqaba. Situated in southernmost Jordan, Aqaba is the administrative center of the Aqaba Governorate. The city had a population of 148, ...
(which was recently transferred from Hijazi to Transjordanian sovereignty by the British).
Britain – responding to Ibn Saud's plea that the Sharif be expelled from Aqaba – exiled him from Aqaba to
British-controlled Cyprus.
He lived in
Nicosia
Nicosia, also known as Lefkosia and Lefkoşa, is the capital and largest city of Cyprus. It is the southeasternmost of all EU member states' capital cities.
Nicosia has been continuously inhabited for over 5,500 years and has been the capi ...
from 1925,
with his sons coming to visit him at some times, even if his relationships with them were strained, except for Zeid who came to visit him the most. According to the British governor of
Cyprus
Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
,
Ronald Storrs
Sir Ronald Henry Amherst Storrs (19 November 1881 – 1 November 1955) was an official in the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Foreign Office. He served as Oriental Secretary in Cairo, Military Governor of Jerusalem, Governor of Britis ...
, when he went to see Hussein, he found his son
Zeid reading him the commentary of
al-Bukhari on the
Quran
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
.
He rarely left his home, lived an austere lifestyle, and read the Quran, religious books, he also read Arabic newspapers in the mornings.
However, he still went to see horse-races and had brought Arabic horses in his exile that he treated "like his own family".
Hussein also did some interviews with the press during his exile.
He received some visitors, such as Sheikh Fuad al-Khatib,
Muhammad Jamil Bayham, who wanted to write his biography, or the Jordanian poet
Mustafa Wahbi Tal, among others.
Hussein was ruined, but the local
Greek Cypriot and
Turkish Cypriot
Turkish Cypriots or Cypriot Turks ( or ; ) are so called ethnic Turks originating from Cyprus. Turkish Cypriots are mainly Sunni Muslims. Following the Ottoman conquest of the island in 1571, about 30,000 Turkish settlers were given land onc ...
population considered him to be a very wealthy man and therefore tried to win his favors.
Meanwhile, he was entangled in legal matters regarding property income in Egypt, among other things.
He tried to be friendly towards the various ethnic communities on the island but was particularly close to the Armenians of the island, seeing them as victims, like himself, of the
Young Turks
The Young Turks (, also ''Genç Türkler'') formed as a constitutionalist broad opposition-movement in the late Ottoman Empire against the absolutist régime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (). The most powerful organization of the movement, ...
.
Hussein did not have any documented connection with the Turkish Cypriot community; though it is possible that one exists, there is no mention of him having visited a Turkish mosque in Nicosia.
He met with the Armenian Archbishop of Nicosia in 1926 and received a warm welcome,
after that, he donated drums and instruments to the Armenian community of the island, including the Armenian Philharmonic Melkonian School.

He began to fall ill as early as 1928, but his favorite wife,
Adila Khanum, died in 1929, which exacerbated his illness. She was buried at
Hala Sultan Tekke, the largest Muslim shrine on the island.
His two sons,
Ali and
Abdallah, attended the funeral and started making preparations and requesting the British for his repatriation, believing that he didn't have much time left to live and that they needed to be by his side.
Return and death
As his health continued to deteriorate and as he was paralyzed by a stroke at age 79 in 1930,
the British became increasingly inclined to send him back to the Middle East. They feared that his death would not only stir resentment among Arabs towards the United Kingdom but also potentially strain their relationships with the Hashemite rulers, all of whom were allies in the Middle East.
The Saudis expressed their displeasure with rumors of Hussein's repatriation, especially after Hussein expressed his wish to be buried in Mecca, an event the Saudis feared would lead to "pro-Hashemite gatherings."
Eventually, the British decided to repatriate him to Amman, with Baghdad as another option they had considered.
Upon his arrival, he was greeted by a large crowd that cheered him and followed him to the
Raghadan Palace.
There, while in Amman, he published a series of texts in al-Yarmouk, an Arabic newspaper, where he defended his actions and stated once again that he was against the
British mandate of Palestine.
[''The Papers of Al-Sharif Hussein Bin Ali, Documents published together for the first time,'' Ghazi bin Muhammad, Mohammad Yunes Al-Abbadi, Lamya Al-Khraisha. , 2020, Royal Library of Jordan
https://www.aalalbayt.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/The-Papers-of-al-Sharif-Hussein-bin-Ali-ebook.pdf ]
He died on June 4, 1931. Hussein bin Ali was buried in
Jerusalem
Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
in 1931, as he wasn't able to be buried in Mecca, as he wanted and as was the norm for
Sharifs of Mecca until then, for
Ibn Saud
Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud (; 15 January 1875Ibn Saud's birth year has been a source of debate. It is generally accepted as 1876, although a few sources give it as 1880. According to British author Robert Lacey's book ''The Kingdom'', ...
didn't want to allow him being buried there.
Local dignitaries and leaders wanted him to be buried in the al-Aqsa mosque compound.
This idea was kept and after a procession where 30,000 people took part,
he was buried in Jerusalem: inside the
Arghūniyya, a building on the
Haram esh-Sharif or "
Temple Mount
The Temple Mount (), also known as the Noble Sanctuary (Arabic: الحرم الشريف, 'Haram al-Sharif'), and sometimes as Jerusalem's holy esplanade, is a hill in the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem that has been venerated as a ...
", in a walled enclosure decorated with white marble and carpets. His son Faisal, with whom the relationship was the worse at that point, didn't attend his funerals, claiming he had "government business" to attend to.
On the window above his tomb is written the following inscription: which translates "This is the tomb of the
Commander of the Faithful, Hussein bin Ali".
Marriage and children

Hussein, who had four wives, fathered five sons and three daughters with three of his wives:
* Sharifa Abidiya bint Abdullah (died Constantinople, Ottoman Empire, 1888, buried there), eldest daughter of his paternal uncle, Amir Abdullah Kamil Pasha, Grand Sharif of Mecca;
* Madiha, a Circassian;
* Sharifa Khadija bint Abdullah (1866 – Amman, Transjordan, 4 July 1921), second daughter of Amir Abdullah Kamil Pasha, Grand Sharif of Mecca;
*
Adila Khanum (Constantinople, Ottoman Empire, 1879 – Larnaca, Cyprus, 12 July 1929, buried there at the Hala Sultan, Umm Haram, Tekke), daughter of Salah Bey and granddaughter of
Mustafa Rashid Pasha, sometime
Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire
The grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire ( or ''Sadr-ı Azam'' (''Sadrazam''); Ottoman Turkish language, Ottoman Turkish: or ) was the ''de facto'' prime minister of the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, sultan in the Ottoman Empire, with the absolute p ...
;
With his first wife Abidiya bint Abdullah, he had:
*
Prince Ali, last King of Hejaz married to
Nafisa bint Abdullah. Parents of
Aliya bint Ali. Grandparents of
Sharif Ali bin al-Hussein.
* Hasan bin Hussein, died young.
*
Prince Abdullah, Emir (later King) of Transjordan, married to
Musbah bint Nasser,
Suzdil Hanum, and
Nahda bint Uman.
*
Princess Fatima, married a European Muslim businessman from France.
*
Prince Faisal, later King of Iraq and Syria, married to
Huzaima bint Nasser. Parents of
Ghazi, King of Iraq born 1912 died 4 April 1939, married his first cousin, Princess
Aliya bint Ali, daughter of
HM King Ali of Hejaz.
With his second wife Madiha, he had:
*
Princess Saleha, married
Abdullah bin Muhammed.
With his third wife Adila, he had:
*
Princess Sara, married
Muhammad Atta Amin in July 1933, divorced September 1933.
*
Prince Zeid, who succeeded in pretense King
Faisal II of Iraq
Faisal II (; 2 May 1935 – 14 July 1958) was the last King of Iraq. He reigned from 4 April 1939 until July 1958, when he was killed during the 14 July Revolution. This regicide marked the end of the thirty-seven-year-old Hashemite monarchy in ...
upon his assassination in 1958, but never actually ruled as Iraq became a republic. Married to
Fahrelnissa Kabaağaç.
Works
Literature
Hussein wrote extensively, his most important papers were published in a book by
Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad.
Otherwise, he is known to have written a large series of articles in ''
al-Qibla''.
Legacy
Art
Several poets wrote about him, including
Ahmed Shawqi, nicknamed the Prince of Poets, who wrote a poem about his funerals and
Mustafa Wahbi Tal, one of the most prominents Jordanian poets, who wrote a poem about him.
In the early 21st century, Hussein was a regular character in the 'burgeoning' Jordanian cinema.
Armenian genocide refugees
His role in the support of Armenian refugees, especially during the
Armenian genocide
The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily t ...
, led him to be cited in 2014 and 2020 by Armenian Presidents
Serzh Sargsyan and
Armen Sarkissian as an example of tolerance and friendship between people also stressed by Jordanian
Prince Hassan bin Talal. Hussein is quoted in the book ''Crows of the Desert'' from Armenian survivor Levon Yotnakhparian, when he discusses the help Hussein provided to the survivors and to save victims.
This book subsequently gave birth to a movie of the same name.
For his actions during the Armenian genocide, Hussein was awarded the title of "Righteous of the Armenian genocide" by Armenian researchers. On Friday 24 April 2015, on the occasion of the centennial of the Armenian genocide,
Lebanese Sheikh Maher Hammoud referenced Hussein bin Ali in his sermon condemning the genocide. The
Middle East Council of Churches paid hommage to his actions.
Others
Several mosques bear his name to the present day, such as the Hussein bin Ali mosque in
Aqaba
Aqaba ( , ; , ) is the only coastal city in Jordan and the largest and most populous city on the Gulf of Aqaba. Situated in southernmost Jordan, Aqaba is the administrative center of the Aqaba Governorate. The city had a population of 148, ...
, the Hussein bin Ali mosque in
Ma'an
Ma'an () is a city in southern Jordan, southwest of the capital Amman. It serves as the capital of the Ma'an Governorate. Its population was approximately 41,055 in 2015. Civilizations with the name of Ma'an have existed at least since the Nab ...
or the al-Husseini mosque in
Amman
Amman ( , ; , ) is the capital and the largest city of Jordan, and the country's economic, political, and cultural center. With a population of four million as of 2021, Amman is Jordan's primate city and is the largest city in the Levant ...
. A school is named after him in Ma'an. His house in Aqaba was restored in 2023 at the initiative of the Jordanian government and subsequently reopened to the public in 2024. A brigade of the Jordanian army bears his name.
In 2020, a documentary was made about him and his life by
Al-Araby, which was seen more than five million times on YouTube as of May 2023. The
Order of Hussein bin Ali, created in 1949 by
Abdullah I of Jordan
Abdullah I (Abdullah bin Hussein; 2 February 188220 July 1951) was the ruler of Jordan and its predecessor state Transjordan from 1921 until his assassination in 1951. He was the Emir of Transjordan, a British protectorate, until 1946, when h ...
, is the highest order of
Jordan
Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...
.
Decorations
* Grand-cordon of the
Order of Muhammad Ali
The Royal Order of Muhammad Ali (''Nishan al-Muhammad'Ali'') was an order of chivalry and state honour in the Kingdom of Egypt.
History
The Order of Muhammad Ali was founded by Sultan Hussein Kamel to commemorate the Muhammad Ali dynasty on 14 ...
(Egypt)
* Grand Cordon of the
Order of Leopold (Belgium)
*

Grand Cross of the
Legion of Honour
The National Order of the Legion of Honour ( ), formerly the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honour (), is the highest and most prestigious French national order of merit, both military and Civil society, civil. Currently consisting of five cl ...
(France)
*

First Class of the
Order of Osmanieh (Ottoman Empire)
*

First Class of the
Order of the Medjidie
Order of the Medjidie (, August 29, 1852 – 1922) was a military and civilian order of the Ottoman Empire. The order was instituted in 1851 by Sultan Abdulmejid I.
History
Instituted in 1851, the order was awarded in five classes, with the Firs ...
(Ottoman Empire)
* Grand Cross of the
Order of the Nichan Iftikhar (Ottoman Empire)
*

Knight Grand Cross of the
Order of the Bath
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by King George I of Great Britain, George I on 18 May 1725. Recipients of the Order are usually senior British Armed Forces, military officers or senior Civil Service ...
(United Kingdom)
Ancestry
See also
*
Battle of Mecca 1916
*
Sharifian Caliphate
The Sharifian Caliphate () was a Caliphate proclaimed by the Sharifian leaders of the Hejaz in 1924, replacing the Ottoman Caliphate, which was abolished by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Even though the Banu Hashim held the caliphate at various points ...
*
Siege of Medina
*
Suleiman Mousa
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
* – Total pages: 473
* Teitelbaum, Joshua (2001). ''The Rise and Fall of the Hashemite Kingdom of the Hijaz''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.
*
Further reading
*
External links
*
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