Sex Verification In Sports
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Sex verification in sports (also known as gender verification, or as gender determination or a sex test) occurs because eligibility of athletes to compete is restricted whenever sporting events are limited to a single
sex Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inheri ...
, which is generally the case, as well as when events are limited to mixed-sex teams of defined composition (e.g., most ''pairs'' events). Practice has varied tremendously over time, across borders and by competitive level. Issues have arisen multiple times in the Olympic games and other high-profile sporting competitions, for example allegations that certain male athletes attempted to compete as women or that certain female athletes had
intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
conditions perceived to give unfair advantage. The topic of sex verification is related to the more recent question of how to treat
transgender people in sports The participation of transgender people in competitive sports, a traditionally sex-segregated institution, has become a subject of debate and discussion. Particularly, the inclusion of transgender women and girls in women's sports. Opponent ...
. Sex verification is not typically conducted on athletes competing in the male category because there is generally no perceived competitive advantage for a female or intersex athlete to compete in male categories. Sex verification in sports began in the 1940s with "femininity certificates" provided by a physician. It subsequently evolved into visual inspections, physical examinations, chromosome testing, and later testosterone level testing. These tests were all designed to ensure that athletes were only allowed to compete as their sex, but mostly resulted in the exclusion of
intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
athletes from female sports. Mandatory sex verification testing was fueled by anxieties surrounding the "unfemininity" of some female athletes, as more participated in historically "masculine" events (e.g., track and field). Sex verification can be substantially more complicated than checking whether a person's
sex chromosome Sex chromosomes (also referred to as allosomes, heterotypical chromosome, gonosomes, heterochromosomes, or idiochromosomes) are chromosomes that carry the genes that determine the sex of an individual. The human sex chromosomes are a typical pair ...
''pair'' is XX vs. XY, or comparing their levels of key sex hormones to distinct reference ranges, to determine an athlete's sex. This is due to variations in human biology where some people are not unambiguously female or male, not all cells in a person's body have the same genotype or the presence of other atypical genetic condition. These reasons, among others, led sporting bodies to abandon chromosome testing towards the end of the 20th century and use hormone testing instead. The downside of hormone testing, however, is that policies on
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
(women with naturally higher testosterone) were required, which have sparked both public debate and legal battles.


History

From 1946 to 1966, national sporting associations conducted sex verification testing. The first mandatory sex test issued by the
International Association of Athletics Federations World Athletics, formerly known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation and International Association of Athletics Federations and formerly abbreviated as the IAAF, is the international governing body for the sport of athletics, coverin ...
(IAAF), the world's track and field governing body, for woman athletes was in July 1950 in the month before the European Championships in Belgium. All athletes were tested in their own countries. The IAAF instituted sex testing at the actual games, starting at the
1966 European Athletics Championships The 8th European Athletics Championships were held from 30 August to 4 September 1966 in the Stadium Puskás Ferenc, Nép Stadium in Budapest, Hungarian People's Republic, Hungary. Contemporaneous reports on the event were given in the Glasgow Hera ...
in response to suspicion that several female athletes from the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
and
Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural and socio-economic connotations. Its eastern boundary is marked by the Ural Mountain ...
were actually men. At the Olympics, testing was introduced in 1968. Subsequent reports have shown that the tests could cause psychological harm. ''Sex verification''—identifying athletes whose hormone levels are abnormal compared to others of their ''purported'' sex — can cause sex identity crises, elicit demeaning reactions (publicly and privately), isolate athletes socially, and lead to depression and sometimes suicide.


Physical examinations

Future IOC president
Avery Brundage Avery Brundage (; September 28, 1887 – May 8, 1975) was the fifth president of the International Olympic Committee, serving from 1952 to 1972, the only American and first non-European to attain that position. Brundage is remembered as a z ...
requested, during or shortly after the
1936 Summer Olympics The 1936 Summer Olympics (), officially the Games of the XI Olympiad () and officially branded as Berlin 1936, were an international multi-sport event held from 1 to 16 August 1936 in Berlin, then capital of Nazi Germany. Berlin won the bid to ...
in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
, that a system be established to examine female athletes. According to a ''
Time Time is the continuous progression of existence that occurs in an apparently irreversible process, irreversible succession from the past, through the present, and into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequ ...
'' magazine article about
intersex people Intersex people are those born with any of several Sexual characteristics, sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or sex organ, genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human ...
, Brundage felt the need to clarify "sex ambiguities" after observing the performance of Czechoslovak runner and jumper Zdeňka Koubková and English shotputter and javelin thrower Mary Edith Louise Weston. Both individuals later had gender reassignment surgery and legally changed their names, to Zdeněk Koubek and Mark Weston, respectively. File:Zdenka Koubkova 1936.jpg, Zdeněk Koubek File:Mary Edith Louise Weston 1936b.jpg, Mark Weston Sex verification tests began in 1950 with the IAAF, using physical examinations. "Sex segregation and verification are mutually interdependent because, if there were no claims or basis for having separate male and female sporting events, there would be no need for sex verification testing." Initially, women athletes "were asked to parade nude before a panel of doctors". For a period of time these tests were mandatory for female athletes, due to fears that male athletes would pose as female athletes and have an unfair advantage over their competitors. Additionally, fears increased in the mid-20th Century about female athletes not being "true" women as it became more acceptable for women to compete in sporting events. At the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, the IAAF required that all female athletes undergo a gynaecological examination to confirm they possessed female
genitalia A sex organ, also known as a reproductive organ, is a part of an organism that is involved in sexual reproduction. Sex organs constitute the primary sex characteristics of an organism. Sex organs are responsible for producing and transporting ...
. Two weeks later, at the
1966 European Athletics Championships The 8th European Athletics Championships were held from 30 August to 4 September 1966 in the Stadium Puskás Ferenc, Nép Stadium in Budapest, Hungarian People's Republic, Hungary. Contemporaneous reports on the event were given in the Glasgow Hera ...
, they conducted visual examinations. This process was deemed the "nude parade" and many athletes reported feeling humiliated by these procedures. The
International Olympic Committee The International Olympic Committee (IOC; , CIO) is the international, non-governmental, sports governing body of the modern Olympic Games. Founded in 1894 by Pierre de Coubertin and Demetrios Vikelas, it is based i ...
(IOC) never adopted these methods.


Chromosome testing

From 1958 to 1992, all female athletes underwent mandatory sex verification tests before taking part in any IAAF or IOC event.
Barr body A Barr body (named after discoverer Murray Barr) or X-chromatin is an inactive X chromosome. In species with XY sex-determination (including humans), females typically have two X chromosomes, and one is rendered inactive in a process calle ...
tests were conducted by taking samples from inside the cheek to find evidence of XX chromosomes, supposedly indicating the athlete was female. This test was first conducted by the IAAF in 1967 at the European Cup Track and Field event in Kiev, Soviet Union. Those who passed the tests and verified as females were provided femininity certificates which they could use at all future international competitions. Compulsory sex verification tests were commonplace and not many female athletes questioned the practice until the late 1980s. Chromosome testing was criticized by scientists, such as de la Chapelle, Ferguson-Smith, Ferris, Ljungqvist, and Simpson. They, among others, argued the Barr body test did not take into account
gonad A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland is a Heterocrine gland, mixed gland and sex organ that produces the gametes and sex hormones of an organism. Female reproductive cells are egg cells, and male reproductive cells are sperm. The male gon ...
al, morphological, and psychological sex attributes. Ultimately, a central contention was whether a Y chromosome yields a competitive advantage because it is not always accompanied by "manly" attributes that provide greater strength, power, or flexibility. In 1985, runner Maria José Martínez-Patiño failed her sex verification at the World University Games in Kobe, Japan, after passing the test at the
1983 World Championships in Athletics The 1st World Championships in Athletics (; ) were run under the auspices of the International Association of Athletics Federations and were held at the Olympic Stadium (Helsinki), Olympic Stadium in Helsinki, Finland between 7 and 14 August 1983 ...
. Martínez-Patiño was told to retire discreetly due to her results, which was commonplace among athletes who failed gender verification tests. However, she refused to retire, leading to immense public scrutiny. Finnish geneticist Albert de la Chapelle worked alongside Martínez-Patiño to appeal the decision to the IAAF. De la Chapelle protested sex testing in sports for years, arguing that the Barr body test incorrectly identified intersex women. Furthermore, he pointed out that the finding of the abnormal sex chromatin and exclusion of these athletes from women's sporting events violated their rights and caused psychological damage. With de la Chapelle's support, the IAAF reinstated Martínez-Patiño in 1988. Martínez-Patiño's case, and later advocacy, led to the elimination of chromosomal sex verification tests. This method of testing was later abolished, as it was shown to be inconclusive in identifying maleness. The
International Association of Athletics Federations World Athletics, formerly known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation and International Association of Athletics Federations and formerly abbreviated as the IAAF, is the international governing body for the sport of athletics, coverin ...
ceased sex screening for all athletes in 1992, but retained the option of assessing the sex of a participant should suspicions arise. As well, in 1992, the IOC continued compulsory sex verification, but switched from the Barr body test to a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test to look for "male-related genetic material" through DNA samples collected from a buccal swab. This test was still subject to criticism and several medical associations opposed gender verification by the late 1990s. A resolution was passed at the 1996 International Olympic Committee (IOC) World Conference on Women and Health "to discontinue the current process of gender verification during the Olympic Games". The
International Olympic Committee The International Olympic Committee (IOC; , CIO) is the international, non-governmental, sports governing body of the modern Olympic Games. Founded in 1894 by Pierre de Coubertin and Demetrios Vikelas, it is based i ...
's board voted to discontinue the practice in June 1999. Chromosome testing was last performed at the Atlanta Olympic Games in 1996.


Hormone testing

In 2006, the IAAF published a new Policy on Gender Verification. This allowed the organization to subject athletes to medical examinations by gynaecologists, endocrinologists, psychologists, internal medicine specialists, and experts on gender/transgender issues if suspicions arose of the athlete's gender. The IAAF clarified the sex determinations would not be made on the sole basis of laboratory-based results. Athletes were provided with the option to undergo medical and surgical procedures to compete if they had failed the gender verification testing. Furthermore, the 2006 Policy listed conditions that would not provide advantages over other females, thus allowing the athlete to compete. These included:
androgen insensitivity syndrome Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is a condition involving the inability to respond to androgens, typically due to androgen receptor dysfunction. It affects 1 in 20,000 to 64,000 XY (karyotype, karyotypically male) births. The condition result ...
(AIS), gonadal dysgenesis,
Turner syndrome Turner syndrome (TS), commonly known as 45,X, or 45,X0,Also written as 45,XO. is a chromosomal disorder in which cells of females have only one X chromosome instead of two, or are partially missing an X chromosome (sex chromosome monosomy) lea ...
,
congenital adrenal hyperplasia Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a group of Genetic disorder#Autosomal recessive, autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol synthesis. It results from the deficiency of one of the five enzymes required for the Biosy ...
, androgen producing tumours, and
polycystic ovary syndrome Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome, (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The name is a misnomer, as not all women with this condition develop cysts on their ovaries. The name origin ...
(PCOS). In August 2009,
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
n athlete
Caster Semenya Caster Semenya Order of Ikhamanga, OIB (born 7 January 1991) is a South African middle-distance runner and winner of two Olympic medal, Olympic gold medals and three World Athletics Championships, World Championships in the women's 800 metres ...
was subjected to mandatory sex verification testing at the request of the IAAF. In the wake of the Semenya case,
testosterone Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and androgen in Male, males. In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of Male reproductive system, male reproductive tissues such as testicles and prostate, as well as promoting se ...
testing was introduced to identify cases where testosterone levels were elevated above a particular level, termed
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
, with national Olympics committees tasked by the IOC to "actively investigate any perceived deviation in sex characteristics". In 2011, the IAAF released new protocols related to testosterone and hormone testing. The protocols rejected the terms "sex testing" and "gender verification" and placed emphasized importance on testosterone levels, as certain athletes would not be eligible to compete in the female category due to hormonal characteristics. The protocols claimed that hormone levels indicated the differences in athletic performance between men and women. Investigations under the protocol were prompted by suspicion and carried out through endocrinological blood tests. These tests determined whether androgen levels were below the male range of 10 nmol/L. If the athlete was over that level, more tests would be carried out to determine if she had androgen resistance, which means she would not have a competitive advantage. If the athlete was found to have a competitive advantage, under this protocol, she was ineligible to compete until undergoing IAAF-recommended treatment. In
association football Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of 11 Football player, players who almost exclusively use their feet to propel a Ball (association football), ball around a rectangular f ...
,
FIFA The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (), more commonly known by its acronym FIFA ( ), is the international self-regulatory governing body of association football, beach soccer, and futsal. It was founded on 21 May 1904 to o ...
's current gender verification policy dates to 30 May 2011. In June 2012, in advance of the
2012 Summer Olympics The 2012 Summer Olympics, officially the Games of the XXX Olympiad and also known as London 2012, were an international multi-sport event held from 27 July to 12 August 2012 in London, England, United Kingdom. The first event, the ...
, the IOC released ''IOC Regulations on Female Hyperandrogenism'' to address these cases. It includes the statement:
"Nothing in these Regulations is intended to make any determination of sex. Instead, these Regulations are designed to identify circumstances in which a particular athlete will not be eligible (by reason of hormonal characteristics) to participate in 2012 Olympic Games (OG) Competitions in the female category. In the event that the athlete has been declared ineligible to compete in the female category, the athlete may be eligible to compete as a male athlete, if the athlete qualifies for the male event of the sport."
Policies on
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
were suspended following the case of ''
Dutee Chand Dutee Chand (born 3 February 1996) is an Indian professional sprinter and a former national champion in the women's 100 metres event. In 2013, Chand was the first Indian sprinter to reach the final of the 100m event at a global youth athletics c ...
v. Athletics Federation of India (AFI) & The International Association of Athletics Federations'', in the
Court of Arbitration for Sport The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS; , TAS) is an international body established in 1984 to settle disputes related to sport through arbitration. Its headquarters are in Lausanne, Switzerland, and its courts are located in New York City, Sy ...
, decided in July 2015. Chand had been dropped from the 2014 Commonwealth Games at the last minute after the Athletic Federation of India stated that
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
made her ineligible to compete as a female athlete. The ruling found that there was insufficient evidence that testosterone increased female athletic performance. In doing so the court immediately suspended the practice of
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
regulation used by the IAAF and declared it void unless the organization could present better evidence by July 2017. A study published in 2017 by Stéphane Bermon and Pierre-Yves Garnier analyzed 2,127 performances and hormone concentrations in male and female elite track and field athletes during the 2011 and 2013 Track and Field World Championships. When compared with women with lower levels of the hormone free testosterone (fT), women with the highest fT levels performed significantly better in the 400 m, 400 m hurdles, 800 m, hammer throw, and pole vault with margins of 2.73%, 2.78%, 1.78%, 4.53%, and 2.94%, respectively. Such a pattern was not found in any of the male athletic events. The study concluded that female athletes with high testosterone levels have a significant competitive advantage over those with low fT in 400 m, 400 m hurdles, 800 m, hammer throw, and pole vault.


Criticism

Scholars question whether any advantage should be considered "unfair" if it occurs naturally and outside the control of the athlete. For example, elite athletes have greater aerobic capacity and endurance in comparison to the general population. Furthermore, these cases have elicited criticism of the elite sporting system by showing clear vulnerability of women athletes to unnecessary medical interventions under duress, applied even though there was no evidence of cheating and no evidence of athletic advantage. Moreover, the requirement to lower testosterone levels can have adverse impacts on athletes' health, as side effects may include: excessive thirst, urination and electrolyte imbalances, disruption of carbohydrate metabolism, headache, fatigue, nausea, hot flushes, and liver toxicity. Other commentators question the causal connection between testosterone and athletic capability, as some women who have high testosterone are prone to biological characteristics, such as obesity and short stature, that adversely impact athletic ability. As well, other factors, such as mitochondrial variations,
acromegaly Acromegaly is a disorder that results in excess growth of certain parts of the human body. It is caused by excess growth hormone (GH) after the growth plates have closed. The initial symptom is typically enlargement of the hands and feet. There ...
, a complete and balanced diet, and access to high level training at an early age, are said to be as relevant as testosterone, but are not considered. As with previous forms of sex testing, testosterone testing has been regarded by many as humiliating, unnecessary, unethical, and discriminatory. Katrina Karkazis, Rebecca Jordan-Young, Georgiann Davis and Silvia Camporesi argued that the new IAAF policies on
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
in female athletes will not protect against breaches of privacy, will require athletes to undergo unnecessary treatment in order to compete, and will intensify "
gender policing Gender policing is the imposition or enforcement of normative gender expressions on transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals. According to Judith Butler, rejection of individuals who are non-normatively gendered is a component of creating ...
". In fact, high-performing female athletes show a rate of complete AIS much higher than the general population—which shows 1 in 20,000–50,000, compared with elite athletes' 1 in 429. They recommend that athletes be able to compete in accordance with their legal gender. In November 2015, the IOC held a meeting to address both its
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
and
transgender A transgender (often shortened to trans) person has a gender identity different from that typically associated with the sex they were sex assignment, assigned at birth. The opposite of ''transgender'' is ''cisgender'', which describes perso ...
policies. In regards to
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
in female athletes, the IOC encouraged reinstatement of the IAAF policies suspended by the Court of Arbitration for Sport. It also repeated an earlier policy statement that, to "avoid discrimination, if not eligible for female competition the athlete should be eligible to compete in male competition". In February 2016, it was made known that the IOC would not introduce its own policies that would impose a maximum testosterone level for the 2016 Summer Olympics. The cases of
Dutee Chand Dutee Chand (born 3 February 1996) is an Indian professional sprinter and a former national champion in the women's 100 metres event. In 2013, Chand was the first Indian sprinter to reach the final of the 100m event at a global youth athletics c ...
and
Caster Semenya Caster Semenya Order of Ikhamanga, OIB (born 7 January 1991) is a South African middle-distance runner and winner of two Olympic medal, Olympic gold medals and three World Athletics Championships, World Championships in the women's 800 metres ...
were widely reported during the 2016 Rio Olympics. Immediately preceding the games, Genel, Simpson and de la Chapelle were again published in ''
Journal of the American Medical Association ''JAMA'' (''The Journal of the American Medical Association'') is a peer-reviewed medical journal published 48 times a year by the American Medical Association. It publishes original research, reviews, and editorials covering all aspects of ...
'' stating:


New rules in 2018

On November 1 of 2018 the IAAF adopted new criteria regarding "Differences of Sexual Development" for female athletes competing in the following races: 400 m, 800 m, 1 mile, hurdles, and events that include a combination of these distances. Athletes with testosterone levels equalling or exceeding 5 nmol/L or who are "
androgen An androgen (from Greek ''andr-'', the stem of the word meaning ) is any natural or synthetic steroid hormone that regulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors. This includes ...
sensitive" and want to participate in above-mentioned events at the global level (including recognition for setting an international record) must legally be female or intersex, must get their testosterone levels below 5 nmol/L for six consecutive months and must ensure their levels stay below this level. This new regulation replaced all previous rules implemented regarding women with
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
.


Medical opposition

The
World Medical Association The World Medical Association (WMA) is an international and independent confederation of free professional medical associations representing physicians worldwide. WMA was formally established on September 17, 1947 and has grown to 115 national me ...
(WMA) demanded the withdrawal of these regulations arguing that they discriminate based on gender variation of female athletes. The Association also expressed concerns with physicians treating athletes with high levels of
endogenous Endogeny, in biology, refers to the property of originating or developing from within an organism, tissue, or cell. For example, ''endogenous substances'', and ''endogenous processes'' are those that originate within a living system (e.g. an ...
testosterone when the condition is not
pathological Pathology is the study of disease. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in the context of modern medical treatme ...
.


Hormone testing in post-secondary education

In 2011, the NCAA made a statement of inclusivity for Transgender athletes competing in college athletics. Through this statement, the NCAA was able to structure an implementation plan for transgender athletes to participate in college sports, and some policies that would ensure an equitable opportunity for every athlete. The following are the specific guidelines for transgender athletes incorporated into the NCAA in 2011:
1. A trans male (FTM) student-athlete who has received a medical exception for treatment with testosterone for diagnosed Gender Identity Disorder or gender dysphoria and/or Transsexualism, for purposes of NCAA competition may compete on a men's team, but is no longer eligible to compete on a women's team without changing that team status to a mixed team. 2. A trans female (MTF) student-athlete being treated with testosterone suppression medication for Gender Identity Disorder or gender dysphoria and/or Transsexualism, for the purposes of NCAA competition may continue to compete on a men's team but may not compete on a women's team without changing it to a mixed team status until completing one calendar year of testosterone suppression treatment.
In 2021, however, the NCAA adjusted the previous policy of requiring one calendar year of testosterone suppressing therapy for transgender female athletes. Instead, now there is more frequent testosterone testing. The following passage describes these additional requirements:
Starting with the 2022-23 academic year, transgender student-athletes will need documented levels at the beginning of their season and a second documentation six months after the first. They will also need documented testosterone levels four weeks before championship selections. Full implementation would begin with the 2023-24 academic year.
More frequent hormone testing is seen in the IOC policy for sex verification. The motives behind these new implementations, according to the NCAA, is so that there is "consistency and further strengthens the relationship between college sports and U.S. Olympics". Overall, the topic and policies of transgender athletes in post secondary sports is highly controversial. The amount of open transgender athletes competing in college athletics in the United States is extremely small, as only 32 athletes are reportedly transgender. But some of these specific examples grab the public's attention.


20th century

* Perhaps the earliest known case is that of
Stanisława Walasiewicz Stanisława Walasiewicz (3 April 1911 – 4 December 1980), also known as Stefania Walasiewicz, and Stella Walsh, was a Polish-American track and field athlete, who became a women's Olympic champion in the 100 metres. Born in Poland and raised ...
(aka Stella Walsh), a Polish athlete who won a gold medal in the women's
100 m The 100 metres, or 100-meter dash, is a sprint race in track and field competitions. The shortest common outdoor running distance, the dash is one of the most popular and prestigious events in the sport of athletics. It has been contested at ...
at the
1932 Summer Olympics The 1932 Summer Olympics (officially the Games of the X Olympiad and also known as Los Angeles 1932) were an international multi-sport event held from July 30 to August 14, 1932, in Los Angeles, California, United States. The Games were held du ...
in
Los Angeles Los Angeles, often referred to by its initials L.A., is the List of municipalities in California, most populous city in the U.S. state of California, and the commercial, Financial District, Los Angeles, financial, and Culture of Los Angeles, ...
, but who after her death in 1980 was discovered to have had partially developed male genitalia. * Before the advent of sexual verification tests, German athlete Dora Ratjen competed in the 1936 Olympic Games in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
and placed fourth in the women's high jump. Ratjen later competed and set a world record for the women's high jump at the 1938
European Championships A European Championship is the top level international sports competition between European athletes or sports teams representing their respective countries or professional sports clubs. In the plural, the European Championships also refers t ...
before tests by the German police concluded that Ratjen was a man. Ratjen was likely an
intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
individual, based on the physician's description who conducted the examination. Though raised as a girl, Ratjen later took the name Heinrich Ratjen following an official registry change. This case played a great role in being the first sparking public interest in Sex Verification and the gender of athletes. Some speculate that the need for Ratjen's sex verification resulted from them competing for Germany when it was under the rule of Nazis - and Ratjen was forced to compete as a woman to ensure an Olympic medal for the nation. * Other cases of sex verification at the 1936 Olympic Games involved track athletes Helen Stephens (U.S) and Stella Walsh (Poland), winning gold and silver in the 100m, respectively. Both displayed body characteristics that reflected the male body and were forced to participate in a physical exam. Neither tests resulted in either athlete being identified as a male. * In the 1940s, all female athletes competing in top levels of their sports were then required to provide evidence of their sex by submitting a medical certificate prior to their competition. * The Dutch sprinter
Foekje Dillema Foekje Dillema (; 18 September 19265 December 2007) was a Dutch track and field athlete. She competed in Sprint (running), sprinting where she was a rival of Fanny Blankers-Koen. When she refused a Sex verification in sports, sex verification te ...
was expelled from the 1950 national team after she refused a mandatory sex test in July 1950; later investigations revealed a Y-chromosome in her body cells, and the analysis showed that she probably was a 46,XX/46,XY mosaic female. * Sisters Tamara and Irina Press won five track and field Olympic gold medals for the Soviet Union and set 26 world records in the 1960s. They abruptly ended their careers before the introduction of gender testing in 1966. Although both sisters were alleged to have been men or intersex, there is no evidence of an intersex condition in these cases.Robert Pool, ''"Eve's Rib - Searching for the Biological Roots of Sex Differences"'', Crown Publishers,
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
, 1994,
* Polish athlete Ewa Kłobukowska, who won the gold medal in women's 4 × 100 m relay and the bronze medal in women's 100 m sprint at the
1964 Summer Olympics The , officially the and commonly known as Tokyo 1964 (), were an international multi-sport event held from 10 to 24 October 1964 in Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo had been awarded the organization of the 1940 Summer Olympics, but this honor was subseq ...
in
Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...
, is the first athlete to fail a gender test in 1967. She was found to have the rare genetic condition of XX/XXY mosaicism and was banned from competing in Olympic and professional sports. * In 1967 the IOC disqualified the Austrian 1966 Female World Champion in downhill skiing, Erik Schinegger (then named Erika), from the 1968 Winter Games in Grenoble after determining Schinegger had internal male sex organs. Schinegger later transitioned to mal

* In 1986, Spanish hurdler Maria José Martínez-Patiño was dismissed and publicly shamed after failing a chromosomal test. She fought the ruling against her, arguing that she could not have a competitive advantage because her intersex variation resulted in her having no functional testosterone. Two years later, the IAAF gave Martínez-Patiño the green light to compete again. Her plight brought attention to the issue of gender testing, which helped lead to the end of mandatory tests a decade later. File:Stanisława Walasiewicz na fotografii portretowej.jpg,
Stanisława Walasiewicz Stanisława Walasiewicz (3 April 1911 – 4 December 1980), also known as Stefania Walasiewicz, and Stella Walsh, was a Polish-American track and field athlete, who became a women's Olympic champion in the 100 metres. Born in Poland and raised ...
(aka Stella Walsh) File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-C10379, Hermann Ratjen alias "Dora Ratjen".jpg, Dora Ratjen File:Foekje Dillema.jpg,
Foekje Dillema Foekje Dillema (; 18 September 19265 December 2007) was a Dutch track and field athlete. She competed in Sprint (running), sprinting where she was a rival of Fanny Blankers-Koen. When she refused a Sex verification in sports, sex verification te ...
File:Tamara and Irina Press 1964.jpg, Sisters Tamara and Irina Press File:EwaKlobukowska.JPG, Ewa Kłobukowska File:20140321 Dancing Stars Erik Schinegger 4198.jpg, Erik Schinegger in 2014


21st century

* In 2001, Indian athlete and swimmer Pratima Gaonkar committed suicide after disclosure and public commentary on her failed sex verification test. *
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
n middle-distance runner Santhi Soundarajan, who won the silver medal in 800 m at the 2006 Asian Games in
Doha Doha ( ) is the capital city and main financial hub of Qatar. Located on the Persian Gulf coast in the east of the country, north of Al Wakrah and south of Al Khor (city), Al Khor and Lusail, it is home to most of the country's population. It ...
,
Qatar Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a country in West Asia. It occupies the Geography of Qatar, Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East; it shares Qatar–Saudi Arabia border, its sole land b ...
, failed the sex verification test and subsequently stripped of her medal; leading her to attempt suicide. *
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
n middle-distance runner
Caster Semenya Caster Semenya Order of Ikhamanga, OIB (born 7 January 1991) is a South African middle-distance runner and winner of two Olympic medal, Olympic gold medals and three World Athletics Championships, World Championships in the women's 800 metres ...
won the 800 meters at the
2009 World Championships in Athletics The 12th IAAF World Championships in Athletics () were held in Berlin, Germany from 15 to 23 August 2009. The majority of events took place in the Olympiastadion, while the marathon and racewalking events started and finished at the Brandenbu ...
in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
. After her victory at the 2009 World Championships, it was announced that she had been subjected to gender testing. The IAAF confirmed that Semenya had agreed to a sex-testing process that began in South Africa and would continue in
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
. On 6 July 2010, the IAAF confirmed that Semenya was cleared to continue competing as a woman. The results of the gender testing were never officially released for privacy reasons. In 2018, the IAAF announced new rules that once again prevented Semenya from running. This included lowering the allowable level of testosterone from 10nmol/L to 5nmol/L. * In 2012, after female Indian track athlete Pinki Pramanik was accused by a female roommate of rape and later charged, she was gender tested and declared a male although she and other medical experts dispute the claims. Pramanik disagreed with these results and police ordered a separate government-led test as part of the trial. The SSKM Government Hospital declared the results to be inconclusive. The Court then directed a chromosome pattern test. * Four unnamed women athletes from poor rural regions, were screened and identified with DSD in France. They were given treatment for DSD and gender related surgeries to normalize them more with their identity (including a gonadectomy and optional surgery that did not impact requirements to compete as female) The female athletes were discovered to have an undiagnosed intersex trait during testosterone testing; the case was first published in 2013. *
Dutee Chand Dutee Chand (born 3 February 1996) is an Indian professional sprinter and a former national champion in the women's 100 metres event. In 2013, Chand was the first Indian sprinter to reach the final of the 100m event at a global youth athletics c ...
was dropped from the 2014 Commonwealth Games at the last minute after the Athletic Federation of India stated that
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
made her ineligible to compete as a female athlete. Chand took a case to the
Court of Arbitration for Sport The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS; , TAS) is an international body established in 1984 to settle disputes related to sport through arbitration. Its headquarters are in Lausanne, Switzerland, and its courts are located in New York City, Sy ...
and won an interim judgment in mid-2015. In February 2016, it was made known that the IOC would not impose a maximum testosterone level for the 2016 Summer Olympics. In June 2016, Chand qualified to compete in the 100 metres race at the Summer Olympics. Notably, all three medalists in the women's 800 m showed intersex characteristics, the 4th, 5th, and 6th placers expressed disappointment and concern. * In 2018,
Caster Semenya Caster Semenya Order of Ikhamanga, OIB (born 7 January 1991) is a South African middle-distance runner and winner of two Olympic medal, Olympic gold medals and three World Athletics Championships, World Championships in the women's 800 metres ...
brought criticisms from the WMA against the
IAAF World Athletics, formerly known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation and International Association of Athletics Federations and formerly abbreviated as the IAAF, is the international sports governing body, governing body for the sport ...
to the CAS. The Court upheld the IAAF's new regulations, as they deemed the differential treatment proportionate. The CAS stated the treatments the relevant athletes must undergo did not outweigh the objective of protecting fair competition in the female category. * In 2019,
World Athletics World Athletics, formerly known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation and International Association of Athletics Federations and formerly abbreviated as the IAAF, is the international sports governing body, governing body for the sport ...
opted to set a maximum testosterone level for the 400, 800, and one-mile women's races in the
2020 Summer Olympics The officially the and officially branded as were an international multi-sport event that was held from 23 July to 8 August 2021 in Tokyo, Japan, with some of the preliminary sporting events beginning on 21 July 2021. Tokyo ...
.
Caster Semenya Caster Semenya Order of Ikhamanga, OIB (born 7 January 1991) is a South African middle-distance runner and winner of two Olympic medal, Olympic gold medals and three World Athletics Championships, World Championships in the women's 800 metres ...
, an intersex woman who won gold in the women's 800 m in both the 2012 and 2016 Olympics, filed to appeal the decision, which would effectively ban her from competing in middle-distance races due to
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
. She subsequently attempted to compete in the women's 5k, but failed to qualify by the June deadline. * In 2020,
Human Rights Watch Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Headquartered in New York City, the group investigates and reports on issues including War crime, war crimes, crim ...
reported that Ugandan runner, Annet Negesa, was misinformed about hormone testing by the IAAF. The IAAF referred her to a French medical clinic, which specialized in intersex conditions. There she underwent more testing and surgery to remove her internal testes. However, before the surgery, Negesa was told it would be "like an injection" and was not informed of the extent of the procedure.


Transgender athletes

In November 2015, the IOC held a meeting to address both its transgender and
hyperandrogenism Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infre ...
policies. In regard to transgender athletes it stated that transgender athletes cannot be excluded from an opportunity to participate in sporting competition. Transgender athletes who identified themselves as female would be allowed to compete in that category as long as their testosterone levels were below 10 nmol/L for at least 12 months prior to the competition. There would be no restrictions on transgender athletes who identify and compete as male since their condition is disadvantageous. In 2018, the IAAF lowered the maximum level to 5 nmol/L. Transgender athletes who wish to compete in the female category are allowed to do so if their testosterone levels are in accordance with the required levels. However, the IOC stated that requiring surgical anatomical changes as a requirement for participation may be considered a violation of human rights. Athletics may for some transgender people engage them within greater society in affirming ways. However, others opposed to the participation of transgender athletes on women's teams state that the argument is unsound. Athletes who have faced opposition include Mianne Bagger, Martine Delaney (who participated in "Soccer Tasmanian's women's league") and Lana Lawless. * Professional tennis player Renée Richards, a transgender woman, was barred from playing as a woman at the 1976 US Open unless she submitted to chromosome testing. She sued the
United States Tennis Association The United States Tennis Association (USTA) is the national governing body for tennis in the United States. A not-for-profit organization with more than 700,000 members, it invests 100% of its proceeds to promote and develop the growth of tenn ...
and in 1977 won the right to play as a woman without submitting to testing. *American Collegiate athlete Lia Thomas, is a transgender woman. In 2022, Thomas achieved top honours in swimming the women's 500-yard freestyle, as she was crowned first place in her final NCAA competition.


See also

*
Gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
*
Intersex human rights Intersex people are born with sex characteristics, such as chromosomes, gonads, or genitals, that, according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies." Intersex pe ...
*
Sexual differentiation Sexual differentiation is the process of development of the sex differences between males and females from an undifferentiated zygote. Sex differentiation is usually distinct from sex determination; sex determination is the designation of the de ...
*
Transgender people in sports The participation of transgender people in competitive sports, a traditionally sex-segregated institution, has become a subject of debate and discussion. Particularly, the inclusion of transgender women and girls in women's sports. Opponent ...
* Testosterone regulations in women's athletics * Sex verification and intersex athletes at the Olympic Games * LGBT issues at the Olympic and Paralympic Games


Notes


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sex Verification In Sports