Russian separatist forces in Ukraine, primarily the People's Militias of the

Donetsk People's Republic The Donetsk People's Republic (DPR; , ) is Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine, occupied territory in Ukraine that the Russian Federation has claimed to annex and declared as a Republics of Russia, republic of Russia, comprising parts o ...

(DPR) and the

Luhansk People's Republic The Luhansk People's Republic (LPR; , ) is a disputed territory administered as a republic of Russia in the occupied parts of eastern Ukraine's Luhansk Oblast, with its capital in Luhansk. The LPR was proclaimed by Russian-backed paramilitar ...

(LPR), were pro-Russian

paramilitaries A paramilitary is a military that is not a part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the use of the term "paramilitary" as far back as 1934. Overview Though a paramilitary is, by definiti ...

in the

Donbas The Donbas (, ; ) or Donbass ( ) is a historical, cultural, and economic region in eastern Ukraine. The majority of the Donbas is occupied by Russia as a result of the Russo-Ukrainian War. The word ''Donbas'' is a portmanteau formed fr ...

region of eastern Ukraine. They were under the overall control of the

Russian Federation Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

. They were also referred to as Russian proxy forces. They were active during the

war in Donbas The war in Donbas, or the Donbas war, was a phase of the Russo-Ukrainian War in the eastern Donbas region of Ukraine. The war Timeline of the war in Donbas (2014), began in April 2014, when Russian separatist forces in Ukraine, Russian para ...

(2014–2022), the first stage of the

Russo-Ukrainian War The Russo-Ukrainian War began in February 2014 and is ongoing. Following Ukraine's Revolution of Dignity, Russia Russian occupation of Crimea, occupied and Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, annexed Crimea from Ukraine. It then ...

. They then supported the

Russian Armed Forces The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, commonly referred to as the Russian Armed Forces, are the military of Russia. They are organized into three service branches—the Russian Ground Forces, Ground Forces, Russian Navy, Navy, and Russi ...

against the

Ukrainian Armed Forces The Armed Forces of Ukraine (AFU) are the Military, military forces of Ukraine. All military and security forces, including the Armed Forces, are under the command of the president of Ukraine and subject to oversight by a permanent Verkhovna Rad ...

during the 2022 Russian invasion. In September 2022, Russia annexed the DPR and LPR, and began integrating the paramilitaries into its armed forces. They are designated as terrorist groups by the

government of Ukraine The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (), commonly referred to as the Government of Ukraine (), is the highest body of state Executive (government), executive power in Ukraine. As the Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republi ...

. The separatist paramilitaries were formed during the

2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine From the end of February 2014, in the aftermath of the Euromaidan and the Revolution of Dignity, which resulted in the ousting of Russian-leaning President of Ukraine, Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych, demonstrations by Russian-backed, ...

. The Donbas People's Militia was formed in March 2014 by Pavel Gubarev, who proclaimed himself "People's Governor" of

Donetsk Oblast Donetsk Oblast, also referred to as Donechchyna (, ), is an Oblasts of Ukraine, oblast in eastern Ukraine. It is Ukraine's most populous province, with around 4.1 million residents. Its capital city, administrative centre is Donetsk, though d ...

, while the Army of the South-East was formed in

Luhansk Oblast Luhansk Oblast (; ), also referred to as Luhanshchyna (), is the easternmost Administrative divisions of Ukraine, oblast (province) of Ukraine. Its administrative center is the city of Luhansk. The oblast was established in 1938 and bore the n ...

. The Donbas war began in April 2014 after these groups seized Ukrainian government buildings in the Donbas, leading the Ukrainian military to launch its Anti-Terrorist Operation against them. During the Donbas war, Russian

far-right Far-right politics, often termed right-wing extremism, encompasses a range of ideologies that are marked by ultraconservatism, authoritarianism, ultranationalism, and nativism. This political spectrum situates itself on the far end of the ...

groups were heavily involved in recruiting for the separatists, and many far-right activists joined them and formed volunteer units. The Russian separatists have been held responsible for

war crimes A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hos ...

, among them the shootdown of

Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17/MAS17) was a scheduled passenger flight from Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Kuala Lumpur that was shot down by Russian-backed forces with a Buk missile system, Bu ...

and the Mariupol rocket attacks, which they have denied. The militias were also responsible for illegal abductions, detention, and torture of civilians of the Donbas. The separatist paramilitaries were supported by, and were proxies of, the Russian Armed Forces.
Ukraine conflict: Deadly flare-up on eastern front line

BBC News BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs in the UK and around the world. The department is the world's largest broad ...

(18 February 2020) Ukraine, the United States, and some analysts deemed them to be under the command of Russia's 8th Combined Arms Army. Although the

Russian government The Russian Government () or fully titled the Government of the Russian Federation () is the highest federal executive governmental body of the Russian Federation. It is accountable to the president of the Russian Federation and controlled by ...

often denied direct involvement, evidence suggested otherwise. The separatists admitted receiving weaponry and supplies from Russia, being trained there, and having thousands of Russian citizens in their ranks. By September 2015, the separatist units, at the battalion level and up, were acting under the command of

Russian Army The Russian Ground Forces (), also known as the Russian Army in English, are the Army, land forces of the Russian Armed Forces. The primary responsibilities of the Russian Ground Forces are the protection of the state borders, combat on land, ...

officers. In 2023, Russia acknowledged separatists who fought in the Donbas war as being eligible to receive Russian combat veteran status. Although called "

militia A militia ( ) is a military or paramilitary force that comprises civilian members, as opposed to a professional standing army of regular, full-time military personnel. Militias may be raised in times of need to support regular troops or se ...

s", shortly before the 2022 Russian invasion, the separatist republics began forced conscription of men to fight for Russia. The Donbas conscripts have been described as the " cannon fodder" of the Russian forces; by November 2022 the casualty rate of the separatist units was almost 50%, according to official separatist sources.

History

On 3 March 2014, during the

, groups of protesters took control of the regional administration building in

Donetsk Donetsk ( , ; ; ), formerly known as Aleksandrovka, Yuzivka (or Hughesovka), Stalin, and Stalino, is an industrial city in eastern Ukraine located on the Kalmius River in Donetsk Oblast, which is currently occupied by Russia as the capita ...

. An armed opposition group named the Donbas People's Militia, led by Pavel Gubarev, participated. This happened when 11 Ukrainian cities with significant populations of

ethnic Russians Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...

erupted in demonstrations against the new Ukrainian government. On 6 April 2014, 2,000 pro-Russian protesters rallied outside the regional administration building. On the same day, groups of protesters in

Eastern Ukraine Eastern Ukraine or East Ukraine (; ) is primarily the territory of Ukraine east of the Dnipro (or Dnieper) river, particularly Kharkiv, Luhansk and Donetsk oblasts (provinces). Dnipropetrovsk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts are often also regarded as ...

stormed the regional administration building in

Kharkiv Kharkiv, also known as Kharkov, is the second-largest List of cities in Ukraine, city in Ukraine.

, and the SBU headquarters in

Luhansk Luhansk (, ; , ), also known as Lugansk (, ; , ), is a city in the Donbas in eastern Ukraine. As of 2022, the population was estimated to be making Luhansk the Cities in Ukraine, 12th-largest city in Ukraine. Luhansk served as the administra ...

. The groups created a people's council and demanded a

referendum A referendum, plebiscite, or ballot measure is a Direct democracy, direct vote by the Constituency, electorate (rather than their Representative democracy, representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either bin ...

like the one held in Crimea.

Donbas war

On 12 April, armed members of the Donbas People's Militia seized government buildings in Kramatorsk and Sloviansk, and set up checkpoints and barricades. The same day, former members of the Donetsk " Berkut" unit joined the ranks of the Donbas People's Militia. On 13 April, the newly established Ukrainian government gave the separatists a deadline to disarm or face a "full-scale anti-terrorist campaign" in the region. Later that day, the first reports came in of fighting between the people's militia and Ukrainian troops near Sloviansk, with casualties on both sides. * On 14 April, members of the Donbas People's Militia blocked Ukrainian military

KrAZ KrAZ (, ''Kremenchutskyi Avtomobilnyi Zavod'', Kremenchuk Automobile Plant, АвтоКрА́З or AvtoKrAZ) is a factory in Kremenchuk, Ukraine, that produces trucks and other special-purpose vehicles, particularly heavy-duty off-road models. Th ...

trucks armed with Grad missiles from entering the city. On 15 April, a full scale " Anti-Terrorist Operation" was launched by the Ukrainian government with aim of restoring their authority over the areas seized by the militia. 2014-04-14 Sloviansk city council - 2

On 16 April, the militia entered Sloviansk with six BMD airborne amphibious tracked

infantry fighting vehicle An infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), also known as a mechanized infantry combat vehicle (MICV), is a type of armoured fighting vehicle and armoured personnel carrier used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire, direct-fire suppo ...

s they had obtained from elements of the 25th Airborne Brigade who had switched allegiance. A Ukrainian military column was disarmed after the vehicles were blockaded by locals in Kramatorsk. The militia also received a 2S9 "Nona-S" self-propelled 120 mm mortar. On April 20, an unidentified armed group in civilian clothes attacked a militia checkpoint at the entrance to the city of Sloviansk. Three attackers and three members of the militia were killed. On May 14, eight members of the militia seized an IMR armored vehicle from Novokramatorsky Mashinostroitelny Zavod. DPR Somalia Battalion fighter

On May 15, the Donbas People's Militia sent an ultimatum to Kyiv. They demanded the withdrawal of all Ukrainian troops from

Donetsk oblast Donetsk Oblast, also referred to as Donechchyna (, ), is an Oblasts of Ukraine, oblast in eastern Ukraine. It is Ukraine's most populous province, with around 4.1 million residents. Its capital city, administrative centre is Donetsk, though d ...

. On May 17, several members of the militia seized two BRDM unarmed armored vehicles from Severodonetsk and

Lysychansk Lysychansk ( , ; , ; , ) is a city in Sievierodonetsk Raion, Luhansk Oblast, eastern Ukraine. It is located on the high right bank of the Donets River, approximately from the administrative center of the oblast, Luhansk. It faces Sievierodonet ...

(

) On May 22, the Federal State of Novorossiya was declared. On May 23, several members of the people's militia seized another BRDM-RKh unarmed armored vehicle from Loskutovka (

) In July 2014, the estimated manpower of the separatists was around 10,000–20,000.Ukraine's next battle is Donetsk, but no bombs, please
''USA Today''. 12 July 2014. The militia were widely suspected to have been involved in the downing of a civilian airliner,

, on 17 July 2014. On August 8, the militia claimed that after battles near the Russian border, they had captured 67 pieces of equipment in varying conditions (serviceable equipment lacking ammunition or fuel, with faults, damaged in battle and completely unusable), including 18 "Grad" multiple rocket launching systems, 15

tank A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy firepower, strong armour, and battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful engine; ...

s and

armored personnel carriers An armoured personnel carrier (APC) is a broad type of armoured military vehicle designed to transport personnel and equipment in combat zones. Since World War I, APCs have become a very common piece of military equipment around the world. Acc ...

howitzer The howitzer () is an artillery weapon that falls between a cannon (or field gun) and a mortar. It is capable of both low angle fire like a field gun and high angle fire like a mortar, given the distinction between low and high angle fire break ...

MANPADS Man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS or MPADS) are portable shoulder-launched surface-to-air missiles. They are guided weapons and are a threat to low-flying aircraft, especially helicopters and also used against low-flying cruise missi ...

, etc. As of August 12, the militia had at least 200 armored vehicles. July and early August were disastrous for the militias, with many analysts saying they were on the verge of defeat, before a sudden counteroffensive, which the Ukrainian government said was supported by Russian troops, encircled thousands of Ukrainian troops and forced them into a retreat. The militias soon re-captured several strategic positions such as Savur-Mohyla and Luhansk International Airport. In September 2014, the DNR and LNR People's Militias became the 1st Army Corps and 2nd Army Corps of the United Armed Forces of Novorossiya (; acronym NAF), which was to be the army of the proposed Novorossiya (New Russia) political union. Lieutenant General Ivan Korsun became its commander-in-chief. The Novorossiya project was suspended in May 2015 due to infighting, but the two separatist armies would still operate in an unified manner. On 2 February 2015, Head of the DPR, Alexander Zakharchenko, announced that there would be a general mobilization in the DPR of 10,000 volunteers, and he aimed to eventually expand the NAF to 100,000 soldiers. In March 2015, the estimated manpower of the separatists rose to 30,000–35,000 personnel. On 20 May 2015 the leadership of the Federal State of Novorossiya announced the termination of the confederation 'project' but the United Armed Forces was retained as the joint armed service of the DPR and LPR.Euan MacDonald: Divide and re-conquer?

Kyiv Post The ''Kyiv Post'' is Ukraine’s first and most prominent English-language newspaper. It was founded in 1995 in Kyiv by American businessman Jed Sunden. In 2018, the publication was acquired by prominent Ukrainian businessman Adnan Kivan, foun ...

(11 June 2016) The Ukrainian government in mid-2015 claimed there were about 42,500 fighters on the separatists' side, which include 9,000 Russian soldiers.

2022 Russian invasion

During the

prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine In March and April 2021, prior to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Armed Forces began massing thousands of personnel and military equipment near Russia–Ukraine border, Russia's border with Ukraine and in Crimea, repres ...

, the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republic started a process of

mass mobilization Mass mobilization (also known as social mobilization or popular mobilization) refers to mobilization of civilian population as part of contentious politics. Mass mobilization is defined as a process that engages and motivates a wide range of partne ...

of its population in order to build an army for the Russian invasion. As there weren't enough volunteers in the separatist army, and the Russian government wasn't willing to start mobilization of its own population, men from ages 18 until 65 from any background were conscripted to form the separatist army. Groups of DPR/LPR officers roamed the streets searching for men at the age range, arresting and sending to conscription offices any they found. In some regions, up to 80% of employees of local enterprises were called up, which led to the shutdown of mines (the main source of employment in the Donbas) and public transport, resulting in the paralysis of city and public services. Most of the Donbas conscripts are unexperienced, received little-to-no training and were badly equipped, and suffered from morale issues and heavy casualties. The role of Donbas conscripts by Russian forces has been described as " cannon fodder". There were reports of conscipts being issued antiquated equipment such as

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

-era Mosin–Nagant rifles and the early

Cold War The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...

-era

T-62 The T-62 is a Soviet main battle tank that was first introduced in 1961. As a further development of the T-55 series, the T-62 retained many similar design elements of its predecessor including low profile and thick turret armour. In contra ...

tanks. By November, the DPR ombudsman reported that the DPR militia suffered almost 20,000 casualties (both

wounded in action Wounded in action (WIA) describes combatants who have been wounded while fighting in a combat zone during wartime, but have not been killed. Typically, it implies that they are temporarily or permanently incapable of bearing arms or continuing ...

and

killed in action Killed in action (KIA) is a casualty classification generally used by militaries to describe the deaths of their personnel at the hands of enemy or hostile forces at the moment of action. The United States Department of Defense, for example, ...

), translating into a staggering 50% casualty rate, with outside observers believing it could possibly be higher. The mass conscription has been considered a

war crime A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hostage ...

by some, as the Article 51 of the

Fourth Geneva Convention The Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (), more commonly referred to as the Fourth Geneva Convention and abbreviated as GCIV, is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. It was adopted in August 1 ...

bans the forceful conscription of soldiers from occupied territory, but Russian authorities claimed they are part of the independent sovereign nations of the

and

Troops_of_pro-Russian_separatist_forces_advance_towards_Lisichansk

After the leaders of the Russian proxy republics signed treaties of annexation with the Russian president on September 30, 2022, the Russian State Duma approved legislation on October 3 mandating the integration of the "people's militias" into the Russian military, backdated to the date of annexation. Upon the "annexation" of Ukrainian territories in September 2022, Russian occupation officials began forcibly conscripting Ukrainian men in occupied parts of Kherson oblast, and were reportedly ready to mobilize 3,000 in occupied Zaporizhzhia oblast. On 31 December 2022, Putin visited the Southern Military District headquarters in

Rostov-on-Don Rostov-on-Don is a port city and the administrative centre of Rostov Oblast and the Southern Federal District of Russia. It lies in the southeastern part of the East European Plain on the Don River, from the Sea of Azov, directly north of t ...

to present battle colours to representatives of the militias and a command academy in Donetsk, referring to them as the 1st Donetsk Army Corps and 2nd Guards Luhansk-Sievierodonetsk Army Corps. In January 2023 the Russian defence ministry announced that "self-sufficient force groupings" would be established in Ukraine, and in February that four Russian-claimed oblasts in southeastern Ukraine were placed under command of the

Southern Military District The Order of the Red Banner Southern Military District () is a military district of Russia. It is one of the five military districts of the Russian Armed Forces, with its jurisdiction primarily within the North Caucasus region of the country ...

of the

Russian Ground Forces The Russian Ground Forces (), also known as the Russian Army in English, are the Army, land forces of the Russian Armed Forces. The primary responsibilities of the Russian Ground Forces are the protection of the state borders, combat on land, ...

, part of a long-term effort to integrate various irregular forces. On February 19, the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Militias were formally integrated into the command structure of the Russian Armed Forces.

Structure

The militias consist of different armed groups, sworn to the

and

. Militant groups which refused to do so were disarmed as gangs in the DPR. Other groups are autonomous forces. According to '' Ukrainskyi Tyzhden'', a Donetsk Operative Command set up in May 2016 by Russia coordinates the military efforts of the Donetsk People's Republic. The tank battalions they claim Russia can deploy include the DPR Diesel Battalion, and LPR August Battalion. Euromaidan Press reported in September 2018 that the United Armed Forces of Novorossiya comprised two army

corps Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was formally introduced March 1, 1800, when Napoleon ordered Gener ...

: the 1st Corps, called the "People's Militia of the DNR" and the 2nd Corps, called "People's Militia of the LNR".Who is who in the Kremlin proxy "Luhansk People's Republic"
Euromaidan Press (7 September 2018) On 28 December 2018 commander of the

Ukrainian Navy The Ukrainian Navy (), is the Navy, maritime force of Ukraine and one of the eight Military branch, service branches of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The naval forces consist of five components: surface forces, submarine forces, Ukrainian Naval ...

Ihor Voronchenko claimed that the DPR had created a

flotilla A flotilla (from Spanish, meaning a small ''flota'' ( fleet) of ships), or naval flotilla, is a formation of small warships that may be part of a larger fleet. Composition A flotilla is usually composed of a homogeneous group of the same cla ...

stationed at Novoazovsk, made up of about 25 converted fishing boats. According to Voronchenko, the DPR had named this flotilla the "9th Regiment of the Marine Corps".The militants created a "flotilla" in the Azov Sea – Voronchenko

Ukrayinska Pravda ''Ukrainska Pravda'' is a Ukrainian socio-political online media outlet founded by Heorhii Gongadze in April 2000. After Gongadze’s death in September 2000, the editorial team was led by co-founder Olena Prytula, who remained the editor-in ...

(28 December 2018) Flag of the Sparta Battalion

Donetsk People's Republic

People's Militia of the Donetsk People's Republic (), or 1st Army Corps (DPR) – Formed on 14 November 2014. *Militia forces ** 1st Slavyansk Brigade () – Brigade formerly commanded by Igor "Strelkov" Girkin. He was the Minister of Defense of allied separatist militias in the DPR and LPR from 16 May to 14 August 2014. Strelkov's name was later revealed to be Igor Girkin, a

Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...

-born Russian,

Army An army, ground force or land force is an armed force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or country. It may also include aviation assets by ...

veteran and former FSB agent.Russia's Donetsk Proxies Anticipate Ukrainian Siege

Jamestown Foundation The Jamestown Foundation is a Washington, D.C.–based non-partisan defense policy think tank. Founded in 1984 as a platform to support Soviet defectors, its stated mission is to inform and educate policy makers about events and trends, which ...

, Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 11 Issue: 149. 13 August 2014 ** AA Regiment ** Danube Group ** Diesel Battalion SSI

Diesel Battalion () – Separate tank battalion formed in 2015, equipped with Soviet equipment, including

T-72 The T-72 is a family of Soviet Union, Soviet main battle tanks that entered production in 1973. The T-72 was a development based on the T-64 using thought and design of the previous Object 167M. About 25,000 T-72 tanks have been built, and refu ...

B1s. ** Dome Group ** Horlivka Group ** Oplot Brigade SSI

Oplot 5th Separate Infantry Brigade or Oplot Brigade (, meaning "Bulwark Battalion") – First commanded by Alexander Zakharchenko. Originally a Donbas People's Militia battalion, it expanded to a brigade by September 2014 during the DPR militia restructuring. ** Kolchuga Group ** Russian Imperial Legion () is the military arm of the Russian Imperial Movement, a Russian white supremacist Orthodox nationalist organization that has recruited thousands to fight for the separatists. Imperial Legion and RIM have been recognized as a terrorist movement by

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...

and

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

for their links to neo-fascist terrorists. ** Novoazovsk Group ** Oplot Group ** Reconnaissance Battalion ** SSI of the Sparta Battalion

Sparta Battalion () – Special forces battalion formed and led by Arsen Pavlov, known as Motorola, until his assassination in 2016. His successor was Vladimir Zhoga, from Sloviansk, and known by Voha. Zhoga was killed in battle in March 2022 during Russia's invasion of Ukraine. ** SSI of the Somalia Battalion

1st Separate Battalion-Tactical Group "Somalia" or Somalia Battalion () – Tactical group led by Lieutenant colonel Mikhail Tolstykh, known as Givi until his assassination in 2017. In 2022 the Battalion's leader was Lieutenant Colonel Timur Kurilkin. ** Typhoon unit *Special forces ** 1st Battalion Khan ** 3rd Battalion ** DShRG Rusich () – Special forces-type company affiliated with the Kremlin-backed Wagner Group and commanded by Aleksey Milchakov, a Russian Neo Nazi. Made up of far-right Russian and other European volunteers. On July 10, 2015, Milchakov announced that the Rusich Company would be withdrawing from Donbas for retraining and refitting. In April 2022, it was reported that Rusich had returned to eastern Ukraine, this time as part of the private military company

Wagner Group The Wagner Group (), officially known as PMC Wagner (, ), is a Russian state-funded private military company (PMC) controlled 2023 Wagner Group plane crash, until 2023 by Yevgeny Prigozhin, a former close ally of Russia's president Vladimir Pu ...

. *** Reconnaissance unit Zimargl ** Kalmius Brigade () – Special forces brigade commanded by Sergei Petrovskiy. ** Rapid Response Team ** Vostok Brigade (, meaning "East Brigade") – Special forces brigade founded and led by Alexander Khodakovsky. It has foreign volunteers including Russians and North Ossetians. Begun as a battalion, as of June 2014 it had about 500 men, according to Khodakovsky. It later expanded to a brigade. *Rear forces ** Engineering Battalion ** Patriotic Forces of Donbass () ** Electric Warfare unit ** Steppe Battalion () ** Emblem-RG-DPR

DPR Republican Guard () – Elite unit created by Alexander Zakharchenko on January 12, 2015. Commanded by Major-general Ivan Kondratov, and composed of six battalions that total more than 3,000 fighters. ** ReceBogaSwargi

Slavic Unification and Revival Battalion or Svarozhich Battalion – formed by members of the

Rodnovery The Slavic Native Faith, commonly known as Rodnovery and sometimes as Slavic Neopaganism, is a modern Paganism, modern Pagan religion. Classified as a new religious movement, its practitioners hearken back to the Slavic paganism, historica ...

(Slavic native faith) movement, at its peak 1,200 fighters, now part of the Vostok Brigade. ** Repair Battalion ** International Brigade "Pyatnashka" (, meaning "15th Brigade") – International brigade commanded by Akhra Avidzba, known by Abkhaz. DPR positions in Marinka are held by this unit. ** Support Battalion **

Mariupol-Khingan Naval Infantry () – Formed in 2016. The name is based on the Soviet

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

221st Infantry Mariupol-Khingan Red Banner Order of Suvorov Rifle Division. ** Vikings Battalion – Motorized infantry unit formed in 2015. ** DPR Security Service Battalion () – Security Service of the Donetsk People's Republic. ** Horlivka Group *Territorial defence ** 1st Battalion ** 2nd Territorial Defense Battalion "Miner's Division" () – Reorganized into a territorial defensive battalion after September 2014. ** 3rd Battalion ** 4th Battalion ** 5th Battalion ** 6th Battalion *Militia Regiments ** 1252nd regiment (from Mordovia) ** 1439th regiment

Luhansk People's Republic

People's Militia of the Luhansk People's Republic (), or 2nd Lugansk-Severodonetsk Guards Army Corps (LPR) – Formed on 7 October 2014. *Militia forces ** 1st Separate Mechanized Brigade "August" or August Battalion – The only tank battalion in the LPR People's Militia. ** 2nd Guards Motorized Rifle Brigade named after

Kliment Voroshilov Kliment Yefremovich Voroshilov ( ; ), popularly known as Klim Voroshilov (; 4 February 1881 – 2 December 1969), was a prominent Soviet Military of the Soviet Union, military officer and politician during the Stalinism, Stalin era (1924–195 ...

. ** 4th Guards Motorized Rifle Brigade ** 4th Separate Motorized Rifle Brigade ** 6th Separate Cossack Motorized Rifle Brigade named after

Ataman Ataman (variants: ''otaman'', ''wataman'', ''vataman''; ; ) was a title of Cossack and haidamak leaders of various kinds. In the Russian Empire, the term was the official title of the supreme military commanders of the Cossack armies. The Ukra ...

Matvei Platov Count Matvei or Matvey Ivanovich Platov (; 8 9 Old Style and New Style dates, N.S.August 1753 – 3 5 N.S.January 1818) was a Russian general who commanded the Don Cossacks in the Napoleonic wars and founded Novocherkassk as the new ...

. ** 7th Chistyakovskaya Motorized Rifle Brigade ** Zarya Battalion (, meaning "Dawn Battalion") – First commander was Igor Plotnitsky. Commanded by Andrei Patrushev. ** AA Battalion ** Artillery Brigade ** Command Regiment ** Cossacks Motorized Brigade – Don Cossack volunteer group commanded by Rashid Shakirzanov. The group has over 4,000 fighters and access to armor and artillery. From May to November 2014, the group was commanded by

Nikolai Kozitsyn. Kozitsyn was forcibly removed from power in November 2014 and replaced by Shakirzanov. The group's headquarters is in

Antratsyt Antratsyt ( Ukrainian and Russian: ) is a city in Rovenky Raion, Luhansk Oblast (region), Ukraine. Residence of Antratsyt urban hromada. Until 1962 it was known as Bokove-Antratsyt. Its population is approximately Since early 2014, Antratsyt ...

, and their rule expands to Krasnyi Luch. Initially, this group was identified as Russian Special Forces by the U.S. State Department following the takeover of the Sloviansk city council. In November 2014, the group instated capital punishment in Perevalsk to deter crime. Kozitsyn stated that there is no more marauding, burglaries or car-jacking in the city. They refused to join the LPR's military command, but cooperate with them, remaining autonomous and controlling territory. ** Dawn Battalion ** Tank Battalion *Special forces ** Leshiy Battalion (, meaning "Forest-spirit Battalion") – Special forces battalion commanded by Aleksey Pavlov. ** Recon Battalion ** Special Forces Battalion *Rear forces ** Repair Battalion ** Support Battalion ** First Cossack Regiment SSI

First Cossack Regiment () – Don Cossack volunteer group commanded by Ataman Pavel Dryomov. The group has around 1,300 fighters, and its headquarters is in Stakhanov. Originally part of Kozitsyn's Cossack National Guard until it split in September 2014. Dryomov denounced the LPR's leadership as corrupt and "pro-oligarchic". Dryomov was killed on 12 December 2015 when his car was blown up by an unknown perpetrator the day after his wedding. **

Interbrigades The Interbrigades () is a volunteer movement organized by the unregistered Russian National Bolshevism, National Bolshevik political party The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov, "The Other Russia" to participate in the War in Donbas (2014–2022), ...

– Russian volunteers – national-bolsheviks, members of The Other Russia. ** 7th Motorized Brigade ** Mechanized Brigade "Prizrak" or Prizrak Brigade (, meaning "Ghost Brigade") –

Mechanized infantry Mechanized infantry are infantry units equipped with Armoured personnel carrier, armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) for transport and combat (see also armoured corps). As defined by the United States Army, me ...

brigade commanded by Yuri Shevchenko, formed and led by Aleksey Mozgovoy until his assassination on 23 May 2015. The group keeps its distance from LPR authorities and is based in Alchevsk and the surrounding district. ** AA Battalion ** Continental Unit () – French, Serbian and Brazilian volunteer group. ** DKO () – Volunteer Communist Detachment, an international organisation commanded by Piotr Biriukov. ** Artillery Brigade *Territorial defence ** 17th Battalion ** Ataman Battalion ** Kulkin Battalion ** Lishi Battalion ** Poid Battalion ** Prizrak Battalion ** Rim Battalion ** USSR Bryanka Battalion

Former units

''Donetsk People's Republic'' * Donbas People's Militia () – Main militia of the Donetsk People's Republic from 3 March to 16 September 2014. Forma Armii Donetskoy Narodnoy Respubliki

Forma Armii Donetskoy Narodnoy Respubliki

* Russian Orthodox Army () – A senior commander of the unit is Alexander Verin. One of the armed groups which control

, mostly composed of locals from coal mine towns. It reportedly had 100 members at its founding. According to Ukrainian sources, in June 2014 it had at least 350 fighters. According to independent sources, as fighting between separatists and the Ukrainian government worsened in

, membership rose to 4,000. In September 2014, the ROA changed its format and merged with the newly created Oplot 5th Separate Infantry Brigade of the DPR People's Militia. * North Battalion () (unofficial) * Miners' Division () – Founded shortly after the rebel withdrawal from Sloviansk and Kramatorsk, commanded by Konstantin Kuzmin. Fighters range from ages 22–60. Composed of former coal miners. Reorganized into a territorial defensive battalion after September 2014. ** Kalmius Battalion () – Special forces battalion commanded by Sergei Petrovskiy. Formerly a subsidiary of the Miner's Division, until they split post-September 2014. * Consolidated Orthodox Battalion "Voshod" or Voshod Battalion (, meaning "Sunrise Battalion") – Formed in June 2014, it had 300 fighters. * Death Battalion – Unit composed mostly of Chechen volunteers from Russia sent by Ramzan Kadyrov. It was commanded by Apti Bolotkhanov. * Jovan Šević Detachment () – Serbian

Chetnik The Chetniks,, ; formally the Chetnik Detachments of the Yugoslav Army, and also the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland; and informally colloquially the Ravna Gora Movement, was a Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Yugoslav royalist and Serbian nationalist m ...

-led group commanded by Bratislav Živković, with 450 fighters. * Orthodox Dawn () –

Bulgaria Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...

n nationalist volunteer group. * Legion of Saint Stephen () – Hungarian subgroup of international battalions. The group espouses a Hungarian nationalist platform, demanding self-determination for the Hungarian minority in

Zakarpattia Oblast Zakarpattia Oblast (Ukrainian language, Ukrainian: Закарпатська область), also referred to as simply Zakarpattia (Ukrainian language, Ukrainian: Закарпаття; Hungarian language, Hungarian: ''Kárpátalja'') or Transcar ...

, and has been accused of being close to the far-right

Jobbik The Jobbik – Movement for a Better Hungary (, ), commonly known as Jobbik (), and previously known as Conservatives () between 2023 and 2024, is a Conservatism, conservative List of political parties in Hungary, political party in Hungary. Ori ...

party in Hungary. * Carlos Palomino International Brigade (Spanish: Brigada Internacional Carlos Palomino) –

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas **Spanish cuisine **Spanish history **Spanish culture ...

antifascist Anti-fascism is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were op ...

volunteer group. * Varyag Battalion (), meaning "

Varangian The Varangians ( ; ; ; , or )Varangian
," Online Etymology Dictionary were

''Luhansk People's Republic'' * Army of the South-East () – Main militia forces of the Luhansk People's Republic from mid April to 16 September 2014. * Great Host of Don Cossacks – An international organisation that recruited volunteers from Ukraine and Russia. * Luhansk Region People's Militia () – Commanded by Aleksei Mozgovoy. Later was succeeded by the Prizrak Brigade. * Separate Brigade of Special Purpose "Odessa" () * Rapid Response Group "Batman" or Batman Battalion () – Commanded by Alexander Bednov until he was killed in an attack on his convoy on 1 January 2015. Members of the group said that the attack was ordered by head of the Luhansk People's Republic Igor Plotnitsky. According to them, Bednov and his fighters were killed "by order of Plotnitsky" because he was "ordered to sweep all intransigent commanders." Following this attack, the LPR arrested some of Bednov's men, and dissolved the battalion. Some of its personnel were dispersed into other LPR units, while DPR field commanders Givi and Motorola invited former members to join their battalions. * DShRG Ratibor () – Group that was formed by Russian nationalists. * Patch of Interunit

Interunit – A far-left military political unit build inside the Prizrak Brigade composed of internationalist volunteers formed in 2015. The bulk of the volunteers came from Spain, while it was commanded by an Italian fighter called "Nemo". It was operational until 2017.

Commanders

Donetsk People's Republic * Denis Pushilin – Head of the DPR * Alexander Zakharchenko * Vladimir Kononov * Eduard Basurin * Pavel Gubarev (former) * Sergei "Romashka" Zhurikov * Alexander Khodakovsky * Igor Bezler (former) * Alexander Verin * "Botsman" * Konstantin Kuzmin * Sergei Petrovskiy * Arsen "Motorola" Pavlov * Mikhail "Givi" Tolstykh * Akhra Avidzba * Ivan Milosevic * Roman Kutuzov, commander 1AC, major general in the Russian Ground Forces, killed 5 May 2022, in Popasna Raion, Luhansk Oblast, Ukraine Luhansk People's Republic *

Leonid Pasechnik Leonid Ivanovich Pasechnik (; ; born 15 March 1970) is a Russian politician who has served as head of the Luhansk People's Republic (LPR) since 2017. He holds the position in acting capacity ever since the Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson ...

– Head of the LPR * Igor Plotnitsky (former) * Valery Bolotov (former) * Nikolai Kozitsyn (former) * Pavel Dryomov (his car was blown up by unknown)Separatist Cossack Commander Reported Killed In Ukraine's Luhansk

Radio Free Europe Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is a media organization broadcasting news and analyses in 27 languages to 23 countries across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, the Caucasus, and the Middle East. Headquartered in Prague since 1995, RFE/RL ...

(12 December 2015) * Aleksey Mozgovoy * Alexander Bednov * Yuri Shevchenko *Oleg Bugrov , former Minister of Defence, a position which was allegedly abolished in the DPR on 1 October 2018.

Equipment

According to Armament Research Services (ARES), the rebels mostly used equipment that was available domestically before the

. However, they were also seen with weapons that were not known to have been exported to Ukraine, or otherwise be available there, including some of the latest models of

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

n military equipment, never exported outside Russia. According to the

, all of its military equipment is "hardware that we took from the Ukrainian military". However, according to the Ukrainian government and the

United States Department of State The United States Department of State (DOS), or simply the State Department, is an United States federal executive departments, executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy of the United State ...

, this is a false. They claim the separatists have received military equipment from

, including multiple rocket launch systems and tanks. Although Russian officials deny supplying arms to the militia. In August 2014 Ukrainian Defense Minister Valeriy Heletey said the proof for the weapons supply from Russia was that the fighters of the Donbas People's Militia were using Russian-made weapons never used (or bought) by the

Ukrainian army The Ukrainian Ground Forces (SVZSU, ), also referred to as the Ukrainian army, is a land force, and one of the eight Military branch, branches of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. It was formed from Ukrainian units of the Soviet Army after Declaratio ...

.Militants have Russian weapons that have never been in service with Ukrainian army – Heletei

Interfax-Ukraine Interfax-Ukraine () is a Ukrainian news agency. Founded in 1992, the company publishes in Ukrainian, Russian, English and German. The company owns a 50-seat press centre. The staff of the agency is 105 people (as of the end of February 2022) ...

(22 August 2014)
Archive
Such exclusively Russian equipment seen with pro-Russian separatists includes Russian modifications of

tanks (particularly T-72B3 and T-72BA seen destroyed in Ukraine), BTR-82AM infantry fighting vehicle (adopted in Russia in 2013), BPM-97 armored personnel carriers, sophisticated anti-aircraft system Pantsir-S1, multipurpose vehicle GAZ Vodnik (adopted in Russia in 2005), Russian modifications of

MT-LB The MT-LB (, literally "multi-purpose towing vehicle light armored") is a Soviet Union, Soviet multi-purpose, fully amphibious vehicle, amphibious, tracked Armoured fighting vehicle, armored fighting vehicle in use since the 1970s. It was also ...

, rocket-propelled flamethrower MRO-A, anti-tank missile Kornet, anti-materiel rifle ASVK, suppressed sniper rifle VSS Vintorez and others.

Military training

Higher Combined Arms Command School

The Donetsk Higher Combined Arms Command School () is a higher level institution in the ideological training of cadets. People from both the DPR and LPR can enroll at the school. It prepares future command cadres in four areas: reconnaissance, tank forces, infantry, and political officers. Upon graduation, the cadets are commissioned as lieutenants. Since the fall of 2016, the Military Lyceum is affiliated to the DHCACS.

Military-Physical Training Lyceum

The Georgy Beregovoy Military-Physical Training Lyceum () is an educational facility of the People's Militia, being akin to the Suvorov Military School or the Ivan Bohun Military High School. It was established on 15 May 1993 by decree of the

Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (), commonly referred to as the Government of Ukraine (), is the highest body of state Executive (government), executive power in Ukraine. As the Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republi ...

as the Donetsk Higher Military-Political School of Engineering and Signal Corps. From 1993 to 2000, the Lyceum was with a three-year form of study. Over two decades, 2,793 graduates graduated from the institution, more than 1,000 of them currently serve in officer posts in various power structures of

Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...

. It was renamed and converted in 2014; since then more than 300 students have graduated. The school is open to boys between 14 and 16 years old, many of whom come from military families. The cadets live at the school six days a week.

Relationship with Russia

The conclusion of the Dutch criminal investigation into the shootdown of MH17 was that the "Russian Federation exercised overall control over the DPR", referring to vast evidence of frequent contacts between the DPR and LPR officials, and the Russian presidential administration, as well as the heads of the Russian military and FSB. As the conflict intensified, the Donbas People's Militia was bolstered with many volunteers from the former Soviet Union, mainly

; including fighters from

Chechnya Chechnya, officially the Chechen Republic, is a Republics of Russia, republic of Russia. It is situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, between the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. The republic forms a part of the North Caucasian Federa ...

and

North Ossetia North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography. Etymology The word ''north'' is ...

. According to the Ukrainian government and the

the Donbas People's Militia has received military equipment from Russia, including Russian tanks and multiple rocket launchers. Russia denied supplying weapons and described the Russian citizens fighting with the Donbas People's Militia as volunteers. The

claimed on 16 August 2014 that it had received (together with 30 tanks and 120 other armoured vehicles of undisclosed origin) 1,200 "individuals who have gone through training over a four-month period on the territory of the

". Prime Minister of the DPR Alexander Zakharchenko said in August 2014 that it had not received military equipment from Russia; and that all of its military equipment was "hardware that we took from the Ukrainian military". Some injured militia members received medical care in Russia. In mid-August 2014, hospitals such as the Donetsk Central Hospital in Donetsk, Russia tended to receive between ten and twenty injured fighters daily. The Russian Emergency Ministry assisted with treatment logistics. Those questioned and registered by the (Russian)

Federal Security Service The Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation �СБ, ФСБ России (FSB) is the principal security agency of Russia and the main successor agency to the Soviet Union's KGB; its immediate predecessor was the Federal Counterin ...

and treated in Russia during this period stated that they would not return to

if the

won the

, but would, instead, engage in a partisan warfare campaign in

. According to various sources, the troops of the separatists forces are under direct control of officers of the

. Specifically the 8th Combined Arms Army, which has been recreated for this specific task since 2017. In February 2022, the UK defence ministry and the Institute for the Study of War reported that the Russian Armed Forces had officially extended the Russian

into parts of Ukraine as part of integrating the DPR and LPR people's militias into Russian forces. In April 2023, Russia granted combat veteran status to separatist militants who had fought in the Donbas war since 2014.

Ideology of the forces

A 2016 report by the French Institute of International Relations (IFRI) noted that Russian ethnic and imperialist nationalism has shaped the official ideology of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics. During the

, especially at the beginning, far-right groups played an important role on the pro-Russian side, arguably more so than on the Ukrainian side. According to Marlène Laruelle, separatists in Donbas espoused a mixture of three strands of

Russian nationalism Russian nationalism () is a form of nationalism that promotes Russian cultural identity and unity. Russian nationalism first rose to prominence as a Pan-Slavism, Pan-Slavic enterprise during the 19th century Russian Empire, and was repressed duri ...

Fascist Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...

, Orthodox and

Soviet The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

Far-right

Members and former members of neo-Nazi group

Russian National Unity Russian National Unity (RNU; transcribed Russkoe natsionalnoe edinstvo RNE) or All-Russian civic patriotic movement "Russian National Unity" () was an unregistered neo-Nazi, irredentist group based in Russia and formerly operating in states wit ...

(RNU), as well as the National Bolshevik Party and the Eurasian Youth Union, formed branches to recruit volunteers for the pro-Russia separatists.Yudina, Natalia (2015)
"Russian nationalists fight Ukrainian war"
in: ''Journal on Baltic Security'', Volume 1, Issue 1 (

de Gruyter Walter de Gruyter GmbH, known as De Gruyter (), is a German scholarly publishing house specializing in academic literature. History The roots of the company go back to 1749 when Frederick the Great granted the Königliche Realschule in Be ...

). pp.47–69. doi:10.1515/jobs-2016-0012. A former RNU member, Pavel Gubarev, was founder of the Donbas People's Militia and first "governor" of the Donetsk People's Republic. RNU is particularly linked to the Russian Orthodox Army, one of a number of separatist units described as "pro-Tsarist" and "extremist Orthodox" nationalists. In June 2014, the Russian Orthodox Army was accused of murdering four Pentecostals in Sloviansk. The men were accused of spying for the Ukrainian government, but the case has been cited as part of a policy of

religious persecution Religious persecution is the systematic oppression of an individual or a group of individuals as a response to their religion, religious beliefs or affiliations or their irreligion, lack thereof. The tendency of societies or groups within socie ...

by the separatists. Openly Neo-Nazi units such as ' Rusich', 'Varyag' and 'Svarozhich' fought as part of the Russian paramilitaries from early 2014 and used Slavic

swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍, ) is a symbol used in various Eurasian religions and cultures, as well as a few Indigenous peoples of Africa, African and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, American cultures. In the Western world, it is widely rec ...

s on their badges, although some, such as 'Varyag', have since been disbanded. 'Rusich' is led by self-proclaimed neo-Nazi Alexey Milchakov and is part of the

, a Russian private military company which has been linked to far-right extremism. Some of the most influential far-right Russian separatists are neo-imperialists, who seek to revive the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...

. These included Igor 'Strelkov' Girkin, first "minister of defence" of the Donetsk People's Republic, who espouses Russian neo-imperialism and ethno-nationalism. The Russian Imperial Movement, a

white supremacist White supremacy is the belief that white people are superior to those of other races. The belief favors the maintenance and defense of any power and privilege held by white people. White supremacy has roots in the now-discredited doctrine ...

militant group, has trained and recruited thousands of volunteers to join the separatists through its 'Russian Imperial Legion'. Some separatists have flown the black-yellow-white Russian imperial flag, such as the Sparta Battalion and the (now disbanded) 'Ratibor' unit. In 2014, volunteers from the National Liberation Movement joined the Donetsk People's Militia bearing portraits of

Tsar Tsar (; also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar''; ; ; sr-Cyrl-Latn, цар, car) is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word '' caesar'', which was intended to mean ''emperor'' in the Euro ...

Nicholas II. Other Russian nationalist volunteers involved in separatist militias included members of the banned Russian neo-nazi group Slavic Union and the Movement Against Illegal Immigration. Another Russian separatist paramilitary unit, the

, is made up of activists from the National Bolshevik (Nazbol) group Other Russia. An article in ''

Dissent Dissent is an opinion, philosophy or sentiment of non-agreement or opposition to a prevailing idea or policy enforced under the authority of a government, political party or other entity or individual. A dissenting person may be referred to as ...

'' noted that "despite their neo-Stalinist paraphernalia, many of the Russian-speaking nationalists Russia supports in the Donbass are just as right-wing as their counterparts from the Azov Battalion". Dobrovoljci-sa-novorus

Far-right nationalists from other countries have also fought for the Russian separatists, such as the Hungarian nationalist 'Legion of Saint Stephen', the Bulgarian nationalist 'Orthodox Dawn' and the Serbian

'Jovan Šević Detachment', as well as members of Serbian Action. According to the Italian newspaper ''

la Repubblica (; English: "the Republic") is an Italian daily general-interest newspaper with an average circulation of 151,309 copies in May 2023. It was founded in 1976 in Rome by Gruppo Editoriale L'Espresso (now known as GEDI Gruppo Editoriale) and l ...

'', well-known Italian neo-fascist Andrea Palmeri (former member of the far-right New Force party) has been fighting for the Donetsk People's Republic since 2014 and was praised by its leader Gubarev as a "real fascist". Professor Anton Shekhovtsov, an expert on far-right movements in Russia and abroad, reported in 2014 that members of Polish neo-fascist group "Falanga" and Italian far-right group "Millennium" had joined the Donbas separatists. French Eurasianists, notably the far-right organization "Continental Unity", have also been accused of recruiting far-right extremists across Europe to fight for the Donbas separatists. Swedish and Finnish far-right groups, such as the " Power Belongs to the People" party, reportedly recruited volunteers to fight for the separatists, while members of the neo-Nazi " Nordic Resistance Movement" were seen attending paramilitary training in Russia. Other far-right foreign fighters from Europe and North America have fought alongside the pro-Russian separatists in Donbas, including white nationalists, neo-Nazis, neo-fascists and

Christian nationalists A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the world. The words ''Christ'' and ''Ch ...

. Motivations for these fighters have included the belief that they are fighting America and Western interests and that Vladimir Putin is a bulwark for "traditional white European values" who they must support against the "decadent West". In April 2022, a video posted on Donetsk People's Republic's website showed Denis Pushilin awarding a medal to Lieutenant Roman Vorobyov ( Somalia Battalion), who was wearing patches affiliated with

neo-Nazism Neo-Nazism comprises the post–World War II militant, social, and political movements that seek to revive and reinstate Nazism, Nazi ideology. Neo-Nazis employ their ideology to promote hatred and Supremacism#Racial, racial supremacy (ofte ...

: the '' Totenkopf'', used by the 3rd SS Panzer Division, and the '' valknut'', a German neo-pagan simbol sometimes used by neo-nazis and white supremacists. The video did not show Vorobyov getting his medal when it was posted on Pushilin's website.: "Video shared by Storyful shows a soldier, named as Lieutenant Roman Vorobyov from the "Somalia" motorized rifle battalion, receiving the "St. George's Cross II" award while wearing far-right insignia." While far-right activists played a key role in the early days of the conflict, their importance was often exaggerated, and their importance on both sides of the conflict declined over time. The political climate in Donetsk further pushed far-right groups into the margins.

Far-left

Far-left volunteers have also fought for pro-Russian forces, echoing Russian claims of Ukraine being a "fascist state" and seeking to engage in an "

anti-fascist Anti-fascism is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were op ...

struggle". However, these leftist volunteers have co-operated with far-right groups in Donbas. Among the early volunteers were members of the

Communist Party of Ukraine The Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU or KPU) is a banned political party in Ukraine. It was founded in 1993 and claimed to be the successor to the Soviet-era Communist Party of Ukraine, which had been banned in 1991. In 2002 it held a "unifi ...

, as well as some members of

trade union A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment, such as attaining better wages ...

s and labor organizations opposed to the new government that emerged after the Ukrainian Revolution. A small number of Spanish socialists travelled to Ukraine to fight for the separatists, with some explaining they were "repaying the favour" to Russia for the USSR's support to Republicans during the

Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...

. They were also enlisting in solidarity with those who died in the Unions House fire. Spanish fighters established the 'Carlos Palomino International Brigade', which flew the flag of the

Second Spanish Republic The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of democratic government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII. ...

. In 2015, it reportedly had less than ten members, and was later disbanded.

Beness Aijo Benes Khristoferovich Ayo (, ; born 8 June 1979), also known by his nickname "Black Lenin" (), is a Latvian-born Russian political activist and soldier. He has been active in the National Bolshevik movement since 1998 and has been repeatedly ar ...

, a Latvian National Bolshevik of

Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...

n and

Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...

descent, was arrested in Donetsk in 2014 for fighting with separatist forces and the National Bolshevik

. A female member of the Israeli Communist Party also reportedly joined the separatists in 2015. Other examples were the 'DKO' (Volunteer Communist Unit) and the Interunit, both composed of foreign communist volunteers; the Interunit has been inactive since 2017.

War crime allegations

An 18 November 2014

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...

report on

eastern Ukraine Eastern Ukraine or East Ukraine (; ) is primarily the territory of Ukraine east of the Dnipro (or Dnieper) river, particularly Kharkiv, Luhansk and Donetsk oblasts (provinces). Dnipropetrovsk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts are often also regarded as ...

stated that the DPR was in a state of "total breakdown of law and order". The report noted "cases of serious human rights abuses by the armed groups continued to be reported, including torture, arbitrary and incommunicado detention,

summary execution In civil and military jurisprudence, summary execution is the putting to death of a person accused of a crime without the benefit of a free and fair trial. The term results from the legal concept of summary justice to punish a summary offense, a ...

s, forced labour, sexual violence, as well as the destruction and illegal seizure of property may amount to

crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity are certain serious crimes committed as part of a large-scale attack against civilians. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during both peace and war and against a state's own nationals as well as ...

".Almost 1,000 dead since east Ukraine truce – UN
,

(21 November 2014)
Ukraine death toll rises to more than 4,300 despite ceasefire – U.N.
,

Reuters Reuters ( ) is a news agency owned by Thomson Reuters. It employs around 2,500 journalists and 600 photojournalists in about 200 locations worldwide writing in 16 languages. Reuters is one of the largest news agencies in the world. The agency ...

(21 November 2014) In September 2015,

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is a regional security-oriented intergovernmental organization comprising member states in Europe, North America, and Asia. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, the p ...

(OSCE) published a report on the testimonies of victims held in places of illegal detention in Donbas. In December 2015, a team led by Małgorzata Gosiewska published a comprehensive report on war crimes in Donbas.

Notes

References

{{War in Donbas Separatist forces of the war in Donbas 2014 establishments in Ukraine * Military units and formations established in 2014 Organizations based in Europe designated as terrorist Novorossiya (confederation) Military units and formations of Russia in the Russian invasion of Ukraine Donetsk People's Republic Luhansk People's Republic