Roma (people)

{{Infobox ethnic group
, group = Romani people
, image =
, image_caption =
, flag = Roma flag.svg
, flag_caption = Romani flag created in 1933 and accepted at the 1971 World Romani Congress
, pop = 2–12 million
, region2 = United States
, pop2 = 1 million estimated with Romani ancestry{{efn, 5,400 per 2000 census.
, ref2 = {{cite news , first=Kayla , last=Webley , url=http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2025316,00.html , title=Hounded in Europe, Roma in the U.S. Keep a Low Profile , agency=Time , date=13 October 2010 , access-date=3 October 2015 , quote=Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million.
, region3 = Brazil
, pop3 = 800,000 (0.4%)
, ref3 =
, region4 = Spain
, pop4 = 750,000–1.5 million (1.5–3.7%)
, ref4 = {{cite web , url=http://www.mscbs.gob.es/ssi/familiasInfancia/inclusionSocial/poblacionGitana/docs/diagnosticosocial_autores.pdf , title=Diagnóstico social de la comunidad gitana en España: Un análisis contrastado de la Encuesta del CIS a Hogares de Población Gitana 2007 , website=mscbs.gob.es , year=2007 , quote=Tabla 1. La comunidad gitana de España en el contexto de la población romaní de la Unión Europea. Población Romaní: 750.000{{nbsp ..Por 100 habitantes: 1.87%{{nbsp ..se podrían llegar a barajar cifras{{nbsp ..de 1.100.000 personas , access-date=8 March 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808120335/http://www.mscbs.gob.es/ssi/familiasInfancia/inclusionSocial/poblacionGitana/docs/diagnosticosocial_autores.pdf , archive-date=8 August 2019
, region5 = Romania
, pop5 = 569,500–1.85 million (3.4–8.32%)
, region6 = Turkey
, pop6 = 500,000–2.75 million (0.57–3.2%)
, ref6 = {{cite web , url=http://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=0900001680088ea9 , title=Roma and Travellers Team. Tools and Texts of Reference. Estimates on Roma population in European countries (excel spreadsheet) , work=rm.coe.int Council of Europe Roma and Travellers Division{{cite web , url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/turkiye-deki-kurtlerin-sayisi-/yasam/magazindetay/06.06.2008/873452/default.htm , title=Türkiye'deki Kürtlerin sayısı! , trans-title=The number of Kurds in Turkey! , date=6 June 2008 , access-date=2 January 2016 , language=tr
, region7 = Bulgaria
, pop7 = 325,343{{efn, This is a census figure. Some 736,981 (10% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities. In a Bulgarian government report on the census, the ethnic results are identified as a "gross manipulation".–750,000 (4.9–10.3%)
, ref7 = {{cite web , url=http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Census/Reports/2/2/R7.aspx , script-title=bg:Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група , trans-title=Population by place of residence, age and ethnic group , language=bg , publisher= Bulgarian National Statistical Institute , access-date=22 June 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602032148/http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Census/Reports/2/2/R7.aspx , archive-date=2 June 2012 Self declared
, region8 = Hungary
, pop8 = 309,632{{efn, This is a census figure. There was an option to declare multiple ethnicities, so this figure includes Roma of multiple backgrounds. According to the 2016 microcensus 99.1% of Hungarian Roma declared Hungarian ethnic identity also.–870,000 (3.21–9%)
, ref8 = {{cite book , last=Vukovich , first=Gabriella , url=http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/mikrocenzus2016/mikrocenzus_2016_12.pdf , title=Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok , trans-title=2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data , language=hu , publisher=Hungarian Central Statistical Office , location=Budapest , year=2018 , access-date=9 January 2019 , isbn=978-963-235-542-9
, region9 = France
, pop9 = 300,000–1.2 million (0.21%)
, ref9 = {{cite news , first=Bernard , last=Gorce , url=http://www.la-croix.com/Actualite/France/Roms-gens-du-voyage-deux-realites-differentes-_NG_-2010-07-22-603910 , title=Roms, gens du voyage, deux réalités différentes , newspaper= La Croix , date=22 July 2010 , access-date=21 October 2016 , quote=anual Translation/small> The ban prevents statistics on ethnicity to give a precise figure of French Roma, but we often quote the number 350,000. For travellers, the administration counted 160,000 circulation titles in 2006 issued to people aged 16 to 80 years. Among the travellers, some have chosen to buy a family plot where they dock their caravans around a local section (authorized since the Besson Act of 1990).
, region10 = Argentina
, pop10 = 300,000
, ref10 = {{efn, Approximate estimate.{{cite web , url=http://www.latinolife.co.uk/node/289 , title=The Roma Gypsies of Latin America , author=Hazel Marsh , access-date=27 November 2017 , publisher=latinolife.co.uk , archive-date=23 April 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423164035/https://www.latinolife.co.uk/node/289
, region11 = United Kingdom
, pop11 = 225,000 (0.4%)
, ref11 =
, region12 = Russia
, pop12 = 205,007{{efn, name=census, This is a census figure.–825,000 (0.6%)
, ref12 =
, region13 = Serbia
, pop13 = 131,936{{efn, This is a census figure from 2022 (2% percent of the population). Some 136,198 (2.1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity, with the unknown number 322,013, that in total makes 458,211 (or 6.9% of the population)
, ref13 =
, region14 = Italy
, pop14 = 120,000–180,000 (0.3%)
, ref14 = {{cite web , url=http://www.21luglio.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Rapporto-annuale-Associazione-21-luglio.pdf , title=Giornata Internazionale dei rom e sinti: presentato il Rapporto Annuale 2014 (PDF) , access-date=23 December 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203064522/http://www.21luglio.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Rapporto-annuale-Associazione-21-luglio.pdf , archive-date=3 February 2017
, region15 = Greece
, pop15 = 111,000–300,000 (2.7%)
, ref15 =
, region16 = Germany
, pop16 = 105,000 (0.1%)
, ref16 =
, region17 = Slovakia
, pop17 = 105,738{{efn, This is a census figure. Some 408,777 (7.5% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.–490,000 (2.1–9%)
, ref17 =
, region18 = Albania
, pop18 = 9,813 (2023 census)
, ref18 = {{cite web , publisher= Instituti i Statistikës (INSTAT) , title=Population and Housing Census 2023, url=https://shqiptarja.com/uploads/ckeditor/667eb96647c4bcens-2023.pdf
, region19 = Iran
, pop19 = 2,000–110,000
, ref19 =
, region20 = North Macedonia
, pop20 = 46,433 (2.53%)
, ref20 =
, region21 = Sweden
, pop21 = 50,000–100,000
, ref21 =
, region22 = Ukraine
, pop22 = 47,587{{efn, This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.–260,000 (0.6%)
, ref22 =
, region23 = Portugal
, pop23 = 52,000 (0.5%)
, ref23 = Roma /Gypsies: A European Minority
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515231943/https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/old-site-downloads/download-127-RomaGypsies-A-European-Minority.pdf , date=15 May 2020, Minority Rights Group International.
, region24 = Austria
, pop24 = 40,000–50,000 (0.6%)
, ref24 =
, region25 = Kosovo
, pop25 = 36,000{{efn, This is a census figure including Romani, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians. (2%)
, ref25 =
, region26 = Netherlands
, pop26 = 32,000–40,000 (0.2%)
, ref26 =
, region27 = Poland
, pop27 = 17,049{{efn, name=census–32,500 (0.1%)
, ref27 =
, region28 = Croatia
, pop28 = 16,975{{efn, name=census–35,000 (0.8%)
, ref28 =
, region29 = Mexico
, pop29 = 15,850
, ref29 =
, region30 = Chile
, pop30 = 15,000–20,000
, ref30 =
, region31 = Moldova
, pop31 = 12,778{{efn, name=census–250,000 (3.0–7.05%)
, ref31 =
, region32 = Finland
, pop32 = 10,000–12,000 est. (0.2%)
, ref32 =
, region33 = Bosnia and Herzegovina
, pop33 = 8,864{{efn, name=census–58,000 (1.5%)
, ref33 =
, region34 = Colombia
, pop34 = 2,649–8,000
, ref34 =
, region35 = Belarus
, pop35 = 7,316{{efn, name=census–47,500 (0.5%)
, ref35 =
, region36 = Latvia
, pop36 = 7,193{{efn, name=census–12,500 (0.6%)
, ref36 =
, region37 = Canada
, pop37 = 5,255–80,000
, ref37 =
, region38 = Montenegro
, pop38 = 5,629
, ref38 = {{cite web , url=http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf , title=Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011 , date=12 July 2011 , access-date=13 July 2011
, region39 = Czech Republic
, pop39 = 5,199{{efn, This is a census figure. Some 25% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.–40,370{{efn, name=census ( Romani speakers)–250,000 (1.9%)
, region40 = Australia
, pop40 = 5,000–25,000
, ref40 =
, region41 = Slovenia
, pop41 = 3,246
, ref41 =
, region42 = Lithuania
, pop42 = 2,571
, ref42 =
, region43 = Denmark
, pop43 = 5,500
, ref43 =
, region44 = Ireland
, pop44 = 22,435
, ref44 =
, region45 = Georgia
, pop45 = 1,200
, ref45 =
, region46 = Belgium
, pop46 = 30,000
, ref46 =
, region47 = Cyprus
, pop47 = 1,250
, ref47 =
, region48 = Switzerland
, pop48 = 25,000–35,000
, ref48 =
, languages = Romani (Para-Romani){{·Official languages of native countries
, religions = Mostly Christianity{{Citation , editor-last=Gall , editor-first=Timothy L , title=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Culture & Daily Life , volume=4. Europe , place=Cleveland, OH , publisher=Eastword , year=1998 , pages=316, 318 , quote='Religion: An underlay of Hinduism with an overlay of either Christianity or Islam (host country religion)'; Roma religious beliefs are rooted in Hinduism. Roma believe in a universal balance, called kuntari. ... Despite a 1,000-year separation from India, Roma still practice 'shaktism', the worship of a god through his female consort...
(Catholic{{·Orthodox{{·Protestant)

Minorities:
Irreligious{{·Islam{{· Shaktist Hinduism{{·Buddhism{{cite web , last1=Vishvapani , title=Hungary's Gypsy Buddhists & Religious Discrimination , url=https://www.wiseattention.org/blog/2011/11/29/gypsy-buddhists/ , website=wiseattention.org , date=29 November 2011 , access-date=4 June 2021{{cite journal , last1=Bhalesain , first1=Pravin , title=Gypsies embracing Buddhism:A step forward for Building a Harmonious Society in Europe , journal=Undv.org/Vesak2011/Panel2 , date=2011 , url=http://www.undv.org/vesak2011/panel2/14PBhalesainFINAL.pdf , access-date=4 June 2021{{·Judaism (through marital conversions){{· Romani mythology
, related-c = Ghorbati{{·Doms{{· Lom{{·Ḍoma{{·Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians{{·other Indo-Aryan peoples
, native_name =
, native_name_lang =
, related_groups =

{{Romani people
The Romani people{{efn, Also spelled Romany or Rromani. ({{IPAc-en, ˈ, r, oʊ, m, ə, n, i, audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Romani people.wav or {{IPAc-en, ˈ, r, ɒ, m, ə, n, i), also known as the Roma ({{singular: Rom) or the Romani, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group who traditionally lived a nomadic, itinerant lifestyle. Linguistic and genetic evidence reveals that the Romani people originated in South Asia, likely in the regions of present-day Punjab, Rajasthan and Sindh.{{Cite journal , last1=Melegh , first1=Bela I. , last2=Banfai , first2=Zsolt , last3=Hadzsiev , first3=Kinga , last4=Miseta , first4=Attila , last5=Melegh , first5=Bela , date=2017-08-31 , title=Refining the South Asian Origin of the Romani people , journal=BMC Genetics , language=en , volume=18 , issue=1 , doi=10.1186/s12863-017-0547-x , doi-access=free , issn=1471-2156 , pmc=5580230 , pmid=28859608 , quote=Our results show that Northwest India could play an important role in the South Asian ancestry of Roma, however, the origin of Romani people might include the area of Pakistan as well.{{Cite journal , last1=Ena , first1=Giacomo Francesco , last2=Aizpurua-Iraola , first2=Julen , last3=Font-Porterias , first3=Neus , last4=Calafell , first4=Francesc , last5=Comas , first5=David , date=2022-11-08 , title=Population Genetics of the European Roma—A Review , journal=Genes , volume=13 , issue=11 , pages=2068 , doi=10.3390/genes13112068 , doi-access=free , issn=2073-4425 , pmc=9690732 , pmid=36360305 , quote=Based on genome-wide SNP arrays and whole-genome sequences, it has been determined that the Romani people carry approximately 20–35% South Asian ancestry ,7 and North-West India constitutes the major source of this component ,7,54{nbsp ..In general, Romani people carry approximately 65–80% West Eurasian (European, Middle Eastern and Caucasian) ancestry, estimated to have been acquired by extensive gene flow.{{Cite web , last=Hernández-Arrieta , first=Stefany , date=2023-08-07 , title=The definition of being Romani , url=https://ellipse.prbb.org/the-definition-of-being-romani/ , access-date=2024-02-16 , website=Barcelona Biomedical Research Park (PRBB) – El·lipse , quote=This population{{nbsp ..migrated from northern India to Europe over 1,500 years ago{{nbsp ..The Romani community are genetically diverse, and Romani groups established in different locations are highly varied.{{Cite news , last=Beňo , first=Matúš , date=2022-11-05 , title=Romani disappearing from Roma communities , url=https://spectator.sme.sk/c/23061966/romani-disappearing-from-roma-communities.html , access-date=2024-02-16 , work=The Slovak Spectator , quote=What is the current state of the language? It is used less and less today in Romani communities. The young generation in some localities, such as Humenné, Michalovce, or Trebišov in eastern Slovakia, no longer speak the language at all.

Their westward migration occurred in waves, with the first wave believed to have taken place sometime between the 5th and 11th centuries.{{Cite web , last=Popov , first=Shakir M. , date=2023 , editor-last=Marushiakova , editor-first=Elena , editor2-last=Popov , editor2-first=Vesselin , editor3-last=Kovacheva , editor3-first=Lilyana , title=History of the Gypsies in Bulgaria and Europe: Roma , url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/28142/Marushiakova_Popova_2023_Shakir_M_Pashov_History_CC.pdf;jsessionid=E5C04B2635D5C17D562DE4FD75B0E37D?sequence=1 , website=University of St. Andrews , pages=8–12 They are believed to have first arrived in Europe sometime between the 7th and 14th centuries. Although they are widely dispersed, their most concentrated populations are believed to be in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, and Slovakia.

In the English language, Romani people have long been known by the exonym Gypsies or Gipsies and this remains the most common English term for the group."Now sometimes considered derogatory or offensive, the term Gypsy has been steadily replaced in official contexts by Romani or (in plural) Roma. Nevertheless, Gypsy remains the most widely used term for this group among English-speakers." “Gypsy, N. & Adj.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, December 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1201363216. Some Roma use and embrace this term while others consider it to be derogatory or an ethnic slur.{{cite web , title=Terminology , url=https://www.errc.org/what-we-do/advocacy-research/terminology , website=European Roma Rights Center , access-date=7 December 2024

The Romani language is an Indo-Aryan language with strong Balkan influence.{{Sfn, Matras, 2002, p=240 It is divided into several dialects, which together are estimated to have over 2 million speakers.{{sfn, Matras, 2002, p=239 Because the language has traditionally been oral, many Roma are native speakers of the dominant language in their country of residence, or else of mixed languages that combine the dominant language with a dialect of Romani in varieties sometimes called para-Romani.

Names

{{Main, Names of the Romani people

Romani-language endonyms

The English word ''Rom'' derives from Romani ''Rom'', meaning 'man, husband' (plural ''romá''). The etymology of the word is unclear. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' says it likely derives from Sanskrit ''ḍomba'', meaning ' lower-caste person working as a wandering musician', itself deriving from a Dravidian word, such as ''domba'', ''ḍomba'' ('caste of acrobats, jugglers, clowns'). The development of the word was also influenced by Byzantine Greek Ῥωμ- (for example Ῥώμη 'a name of Rome and Constantinople').“Rom, N. (2) & Adj.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, September 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1117377491.

In English, the form ''Roma'' is often reinterpreted as singular and a new plural, ''Romas'', is formed.

''Romani'' is the feminine adjective, while ''Romano'' is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use ''Rom'' or ''Roma'' as an ethnic name, while others (such as the Sinti, or the Romanichal) do not use this term as a self-description for the entire ethnic group.{{sfn, Hancock, 2002, p=xix

Sometimes, ''rom'' and ''romani'' are spelled with a double ''r'', i.e., ''rrom'' and ''rromani''. In this case ''rr'' is used to represent the phoneme {{IPA, /ʀ/, cat=no (also written as ''ř'' and ''rh''), which in some Romani dialects has remained different from the one written with a single ''r''. The ''rr'' spelling is common in certain institutions (such as the INALCO Institute in Paris), or used in certain countries, e.g., Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians (''sg. român, pl. români'').{{sfn, Hancock, 2002, p=xxi

In Norway, ''Romani'' is used exclusively for an older Northern Romani-speaking population (which arrived in the 16th century) while ''Rom/Romanes'' is used to describe Vlax Romani-speaking groups that migrated since the 19th century.

English-language endonyms

In the English language (according to the Oxford English Dictionary), ''Rom'' is both a noun (with the plural ''Roma'' or ''Roms'') and an adjective. Similarly, ''Romani'' (''Romany'') is both a noun (with the plural ''Romani'', ''the Romani'', ''Romanies'', or ''Romanis'') and an adjective. Both ''Rom'' and ''Romani'' have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for ''Gypsy''. ''Romani'' was sometimes spelled ''Rommany'', but more often ''Romany'', while today ''Romani'' is the most popular spelling. Occasionally, the double ''r'' spelling (e.g., ''Rroma'', ''Rromani'') mentioned above is also encountered in English texts.

The term ''Roma'' is increasingly encountered as a generic term for the Roma.{{cite book , first=Bryan A , last=Garner , title=Dictionary of Legal Usage , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwLiALrHLCEC&pg=PA400 , year=2011 , publisher=Oxford University Press , isbn=978-0-19-538420-8 , page=400

Because not all Roma use the word ''Romani'' as an adjective, the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group.{{sfn, Hancock, 2002, p=xx Today, the term ''Romani'' is used by some organizations, including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress.{{sfn, Hancock, 2002, p=xxi However, the Council of Europe and other organizations consider that ''Roma'' is the correct term referring to all related groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend that ''Romani'' be restricted to the language and culture: Romani language, Romani culture.{{Citation , contribution-url=http://www.inotherwords-project.eu/content/project/media-analysis/terminology/terminology-concerning-roma , contribution=Roma, Sinti, Gypsies, Travellers...The Correct Terminology about Roma , title=In Other Words project , publisher=Web Observatory & Review for Discrimination alerts & Stereotypes deconstruction , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005191238/http://www.inotherwords-project.eu/content/project/media-analysis/terminology/terminology-concerning-roma , archive-date=5 October 2012 The British government uses the term "Roma" as a sub-group of "White" in its ethnic classification system.

The standard assumption is that the demonyms of the Roma, Lom and Dom, share the same origin.

Other designations

In English, the exonym ''Gypsy'' (or ''Gipsy'') is the most commonly used word for the group. It originates from the Middle English {{lang, enm, gypcian, short for {{lang, enm, Egipcien. The Spanish term {{lang, es, Gitano and French {{lang, fr, Gitan have similar etymologies. They are ultimately derived from the Greek {{transliteration, grc, Aigyptioi ({{lang, grc, Αιγύπτιοι), meaning 'Egyptian', via Latin. This designation owes its existence to the belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Roma, or some related group (such as the Indian Dom people), were itinerant Egyptians.{{Citation , last=Soulis , first=G. , year=1961 , title=The Gypsies in the Byzantine Empire and the Balkans in the Late Middle Ages , series=Dumbarton Oaks Papers , publisher=Trustees for Harvard University , pages=15, 141–165{{cite journal , url=http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/goudenhoorn/72karin.html , title=Metal-workers, agriculturists, acrobats, military-people and fortune-tellers: Roma (Gypsies) in and around the Byzantine empire , first=Karin , last=White , year=1999 , journal=Golden Horn , volume=7 , issue=2 , access-date=26 August 2007 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010320210002/http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/goudenhoorn/72karin.html , archive-date=20 March 2001 This belief appears to be derived from verses in the Book of Ezekiel (29:6, 29:12–13) which refer to the Egyptians being scattered among the nations by an angry God. According to one narrative, they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for allegedly harbouring the infant Jesus.{{sfn, Fraser, 1992 In his book '' The Zincali'', George Borrow notes that when they first appeared in Germany, it was under the character of Egyptians doing penance for their having refused hospitality to Mary and her son. As described in Victor Hugo's novel ''The Hunchback of Notre-Dame'', the medieval French referred to the Romanies as {{lang, fr, Égyptiens.

These exonyms are sometimes written with capital letter, to show that they designate an ethnic group. While some Roma use the term, some Roma consider it derogatory because of negative and stereotypical associations."In Romania in 2009, following an IMAS study, at the demand of the National Agency for the Roma (NAR), sixty-six percent of respondents identified themselves as "gypsies," thirty percent as "Roma," and the remaining four percent did not know or refused to answer. The situation is similar with other countries. The natural question, starting from these results, is whether, in the unifying process (one name, one people, one history), the Roma leaders and organizations take into account the desire of the community as it is expressed in censuses or surveys." Iov, Claudia Anamaria. 2020. ''Rethinking (In)Security in the European Union: The Migration-Identity-Security Nexus'', p. 119. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.{{Citation , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105000222/http://www.paveepoint.ie/pdf/Roma_Report.pdf , archive-date=5 November 2013 , publisher=Pavee point , url=http://www.paveepoint.ie/pdf/Roma_Report.pdf , title=Report in Roma Educational Needs in Ireland The Council of Europe consider that "Gypsy" or equivalent terms, as well as administrative terms such as "Gens du Voyage", are not in line with European recommendations. In Britain, many Roma proudly identify as "Gypsies",{{cite web , title=Tackling inequalities faced by Gypsy, Roma and Traveller communities , last=House of Commons Women & Equalities Committee , date=5 April 2019 , url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmwomeq/360/full-report.html#heading-6 , publisher=UK Parliament , access-date=13 May 2021 and, as part of the Gypsy, Roma and Traveller grouping, this is the name used to describe all para-Romani groups in official contexts.{{cite web , title=Gypsy, Roma and Irish Traveller ethnicity summary , url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/summaries/gypsy-roma-irish-traveller#the-gypsy-roma-traveller-group , website=gov.uk , publisher=His Majesty's Government , access-date=24 May 2023 In North America, the word ''Gypsy'' is most commonly used as a reference to Romani ethnicity, though lifestyle and fashion are at times also referenced by using this word.

Another designation of the Roma is ''Cingane'' (alternatively Çingene, Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner, Tschingaren), likely deriving from the Persian word {{lang, fa, چنگانه ({{lang, fa-Latn, chingane), derived from the Turkic word {{lang, trk, çıgañ, meaning poor person. It is also possible that the origin of this word is '' Athinganoi'', the name of a Christian sect with whom the Roma (or some related group) could have become associated in the past.{{Citation , last=Starr , first=J. , year=1936 , title=An Eastern Christian Sect: the Athinganoi , series=Dumbarton Oaks Papers , publisher=Trustees for Harvard University , pages=29, 93–106

Population and subgroups

Romani populations

There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide. Many Roma refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for a variety of reasons, such as fear of discrimination. Others are descendants of intermarriage with local populations, some who no longer identify only as Romani and some who do not identify as Romani at all. Then, too, some countries do not collect data by ethnicity.

Despite these challenges to getting an accurate picture of the Romani dispersal, there were an estimated 10 million in Europe (as of 2019), although some Romani organizations have given earlier estimates as high as 14 million. Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkans and throughout Europe. In the European Union, there are an estimated 6 million Roma.

Outside Europe there may be several million more Roma, particularly in the Americas, following migrations from Europe beginning in the late 19th century.{{cite book , last1=Pan , first1=Christoph , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gRU_AQAAIAAJ , title=National Minorities in Europe: Handbook , last2=Pfeil , first2=Beate Sibylle , publisher=Braumüller , year=2003 , isbn=978-3-7003-1443-1 , page=27f

Romani subgroups

Romani people may belong to distinct subgroups based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences, and self-designation.{{sfn, Hancock, 2001, p=2{{sfn, Matras, 2002, p=5{{cite web , last=Dosoftei , first=Alin , date=24 December 2007 , title=Names of the Romani People , url=http://desicritics.org/2007/12/24/012125.php , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507070621/http://desicritics.org/2007/12/24/012125.php , archive-date=7 May 2008 , access-date=30 January 2009 , publisher=Desicritics

Romani subgroups may have more than one ethnonym. They may use more than one endonym and be commonly known by an exonym or erroneously by the endonym of another subgroup. The only name approaching an all-encompassing self-description is ''Rom''.{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003 Even when subgroups do not use the name, they all acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy between themselves and '' Gadjo'' (non-Roma).{{sfn , Hübshmanová, 2003 For instance, while the main group of Roma in German-speaking countries refer to themselves as Sinti, their name for their original language is ''Romanes''.

Subgroups have been described as, in part, a result of the castes and subcastes in India, which the founding population of ''Rom'' almost certainly experienced in their south Asian ''urheimat''.{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003

Many subgroups use names derived from the Romani word ''kalo'' or ''calo'', meaning "black" or "absorbing all light". This closely resembles words for "black" or "dark" in Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Sanskrit काल ''kāla'': "black", "of a dark colour").{{sfn , Hübshmanová, 2003 Likewise, the name of the Dom or Domba people of north India—with whom the Roma have genetic, cultural and linguistic links—has come to imply "dark-skinned" in some Indian languages. Hence, names such as ''kale'' and ''calé'' may have originated as an exonym or a euphemism for ''Roma''.

Other endonyms for Roma include, for example:
* ''Arlije'' (also ''Erlides'', ''Yerli'', meaning "local", from the Turkish word ''Yerli'') in the Balkans and Turkey to describe sedentary Muslim Roma.
* ''Bashaldé'' – Hungarian-Slovak Roma diaspora in the US from the late 19th century.
* '' Bergitka Roma'' (also ''Carpathian Roma''), Poland, mainly Goral lands. {{See also, Romani people in Poland
* ''Çerge'' also ''Čergarja'' (nomad), Nomadic Lifestyle Muslim Roma in the Balkans and Turkey.
* ''Calé'', the endonym used by both the Spanish Roma ({{lang, es, gitanos) and Portuguese Roma (''ciganos''). Caló is the language spoken by the Calé.
* ''Dasikane'' or ''Daskane'', meaning "slaves" or "servants"; a religionym and confessionym for Orthodox Christian Roma in the Balkans.{{sfn , Hübshmanová, 2003
* '' Garachi'' Shia Islam followers Roma people in Azerbaijan
* ''Gurbeti'' Muslim Roma in Northern Cyprus, Turkey and Balkans.
* ''Horahane'' or ''Xoraxai'', also known as "Turkish Roma" or "Muslim Roma", a religionym and confessionym in the Balkans for Muslim Roma.{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003
* '' Kaale'' or ''Kàlo'' in Finland and Sweden.{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003
* ''Kale'', ''Kalé, Kalá'', or ''Valshanange'' – a Welsh English endonym used by some Roma in Wales.{{efn, The Welsh language alphabet lacks the letter ''k''. (Romanichal also live in Wales).
* ''Lalleri'', from Austria, Germany, and the western Czech Republic (including the former Sudetenland).
* ''Lovari'', chiefly in Central Europe, speaking a dialect of Romani influenced by Hungarian; known in Serbia as ''Machvaya'', ''Machavaya'', ''Machwaya'' or ''Macwaia''.{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003
* ''Lyuli'', in Central Asian countries.
* ''Polska Roma'', largest Romani subgroup in Poland. {{See also, Romani people in Poland
* ''Rom'' in Italy.
* ''Roma'' in Romania, commonly known by ethnic Romanians as ''țigani'', including many subgroups defined by occupation:
** ''Argintari'' "silversmiths."{{cite web , author=Research Directorate , title=Romania: Traditional Roma name for the various Roma clans and description of their traditional occupations; whether these occupations still exist today; distinguishing characteristics of the clans , location=Canada , publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada , year=2001 , url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df4be9c20.html , access-date=July 27, 2021
** ''Aurari'' "goldsmiths."
** ''Boyash'', also known as ''Băieși'', ''Lingurari'', ''Ludar'', ''Ludari'', or ''Rudari'', who coalesced in the Apuseni Mountains of Transylvania. ''Băieși'' is a Romanian word for "miners." ''Lingurari'' means "spoon makers", and ''Ludar'' (sing.), ''Ludari'' (pl.), and ''Rudari'' may mean "woodworkers" or "miners". (There is a semantic overlap due to the homophony or merging of lemmas with different meanings from at least two languages: the Serbian ''rudar'' "miner", and ''ruda'' "stick", "staff", "rod", "bar", "pole" (in Hungarian, ''rúd'', and in Romanian, ''rudă''.)
** ''Churari'' (from Romanian ''ciurari'' "sieve-makers")
** ''Colari'' "carpet dealers"
** ''Florari'' " flower-sellers."
** ''Kalderash'', from Romanian ''căldărar'', literally "bucket-maker", meaning "kettle-maker", "tinsmith", "tinker"; also in Poland, Moldova and Ukraine.
** ''Lăutari'' "musicians" (lăută = lute).
** ''Ungaritza'' (blacksmiths, bladesmiths).
** ''Ursari'' " "dancing bears" trainers" (from Romanian ''urs'' "bear").{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003
** ''Zlătari'' "goldsmiths."{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003
* ''Roma'' or ''Romové'', Czech Republic.
* ''Roma'' or ''Rómovia'', Slovakia.
* ''Romanichal'', in the United Kingdom,{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003 emigrated also to the United States, Canada and Australia.

* ''Romanisæl'', in Norway and Sweden.
*'' Romanlar'', Turkish-speaking Muslim Roma in Turkey, also called Çingene or Şopar, with all subgroups, who are named after their professions, like:
** ''Ayıcı ( bear-leader)''
** ''Cambaz'' (acrobatics and horse trading)
** ''Çiçekçi'' ( flower-seller)
** ''Demirci'' (blacksmith)
** ''Kalaycı'' (tinsmith)
** ''Kuyumcu'' (goldsmith)
** ''Müzisyen (musician)''
** ''Sepetçi ( basket-maker)''
** ''Subaşı'' (soldier or butler)
** ''Sünnetçi'' ( circumciser)
** ''Şarkıcı'' (singer) etc., but the majority of Turkish Roma work as day laborers too.{{sfn , Hübshmanová, 2003
* ''Roms'' or ''Manouche'' (from ''manush'', "people" in Romani) in France.{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003
* ''Romungro'' or Carpathian Roma from eastern Hungary and neighbouring parts of the Carpathians.
* ''Sepečides'', meaning "basket-maker"; Muslim Roma in West Thrace, Greece.
* ''Sinti'' or ''Zinti'', predominantly in Germany,{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003{{cite journal , last=Jurová , first=Anna , title=From Leaving The Homeland to the First Assimilation Measures , year=2003 , journal=Čačipen Pal O Roma – A Global Report on Roma in Slovakia , access-date=7 September 2013 , url=http://www.eurac.it/en/research/institutes/imr/Documents/romaglob_final.pdf , page=17 , editor1-last=Vaščka , editor1-first=Michal , editor2-first=Martina , editor2-last=Jurásková , editor3-first=Tom , editor3-last=Nicholson , place=Slovakia , quote=the Sinti lived in German territory, the Manusha in France, the Romanitsel in England, the Kale in Spain and Portugal, and the Kaale in Finland. , archive-date=3 December 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203125146/http://www.eurac.it/en/research/institutes/imr/Documents/romaglob_final.pdf , url-status=dead{{cite journal , last1=Kalaydjieva , first1=Luba , last2=Gresham , first2=David , last3=Calafell , first3=Francesc , title=Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A Review , journal=BMC Medical Genetics , date=2 April 2001 , volume=2 , issue=5 , page=5 , doi=10.1186/1471-2350-2-5 , pmid=11299048 , pmc=31389 , doi-access=free and northern Italy; while ''Sinti'' are a Romani subgroup, they do not refer to themselves by the name ''Roma''.{{sfn, Hübshmanová, 2003
* '' Zargari people'', Shia Muslim Roma in Iran, who once came from Rumelia/Southern Bulgaria from the Maritsa Valley in Ottoman times and settled in Persia.

Diaspora

{{Main, Romani diaspora

The Romani people have a number of distinct populations throughout Europe.{{cite journal , last1=Mendizabal , first1=Isabel , last2=Lao , first2=Oscar , last3=Marigorta , first3=Urko M. , last4=Wollstein , first4=Andreas , last5=Gusmão , first5=Leonor , last6=Ferak , first6=Vladimir , last7=Ioana , first7=Mihai , last8=Jordanova , first8=Albena , last9=Kaneva , first9=Radka , last10=Kouvatsi , first10=Anastasia , last11=Kučinskas , first11=Vaidutis , last12=Makukh , first12=Halyna , last13=Metspalu , first13=Andres , last14=Netea , first14=Mihai G. , last15=de Pablo , first15=Rosario , last16=Pamjav , first16=Horolma , last17=Radojkovic , first17=Dragica , last18=Rolleston , first18=Sarah J.H. , last19=Sertic , first19=Jadranka , last20=Macek , first20=Milan , last21=Comas , first21=David , last22=Kayser , first22=Manfred , title=Reconstructing the Population History of European Romani from Genome-wide Data , journal=Current Biology , date=December 2012 , volume=22 , issue=24 , pages=2342–2349 , doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.10.039 , pmid=23219723 , doi-access=free , bibcode=2012CBio...22.2342M , hdl=10230/25348 , hdl-access=free{{cite news , author=Sindya N. Bhanoo , url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/11/science/genomic-study-traces-roma-to-northern-india.html?_r=0 , title=Genomic Study Traces Roma to Northern India , work=The New York Times , date=11 December 2012

In the 19th century, Roma began migrating from Europe to the Americas. However, Romani slaves were first shipped to the Americas with Columbus in 1498.Peter Boyd-Bowman (ed.), ''Indice geobiográfico de cuarenta mil pobladores españoles de América en el siglo XVI'', vol. 1: 1493–1519 (Bogota: Instituto Caro y Cuervo, 1964), 171. Spain sent Romani slaves to their Louisiana colony between 1762 and 1800.The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, Volume 1; Volume 7
By Junius P. Rodriguez An Afro-Romani community exists in St. Martin Parish due to intermarriage between freed African American and Romani slaves.{{cite book , title=We are the Romani People , page=27

In Brazil, the Roma are mainly called ''ciganos'' by the non-Romani population. Most of them belong to the ''Calés'' (Kale) subgroup. Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazil's president from 1956 to 1961, was 50% Romani by his mother's bloodline. Washington Luís, the last president of the First Brazilian Republic (1926–1930) also had Romani ancestry.

The Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million.{{efn, "Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million." There are between 800,000 and 1{{nbspmillion Roma in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the 19th century from Eastern Europe. Brazilian Roma are mostly descended from German/Italian Sinti (in the South/Southeast regions), and Roma and Calon people. Brazil also includes a notable Romani community descended from Sinti and Roma deportees from the Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese Inquisition.

Persecution against the Roma has led to many of the cultural practices being extinguished, hidden or modified to survive in a country that has excluded them ethnically and culturally. The very common carnivals throughout Brazil are one of the few spaces in which the Roma can still express their cultural traditions, including the so-called "carnival wedding" in which a boy is disguised as a bride and the famous "Romaní dance", picturesquely simulated with the women of the town parading in their traditional attire.

South Asian origin

{{Main, History of the Romani people
Genetic findings reveal a South Asian origin of the Romani people, likely in the regions of present-day Punjab, Rajasthan and Sindh. Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it, most hypotheses about early Romani migration are based on linguistic theory.

''Shahnameh'' legend

According to a legend reported in the Persian epic poem, the ''Shahnameh'', the Sasanian king Bahrām V Gōr learned towards the end of his reign (421–439) that the poor could not afford to enjoy music, and so he asked the king of India to send him ten thousand '' luris'', lute-playing experts. When the ''luris'' arrived, Bahrām gave each one an ox, a donkey, and a donkey-load of wheat so they could live on agriculture and play music for free for the poor. However, the ''luris'' ate the oxen and the wheat and came back a year later with their cheeks hollowed by hunger. The king, angered with their having wasted what he had given them, ordered them to pack up their bags and go wandering around the world on their donkeys.{{cite encyclopedia , last=Digard , first=Jean-Pierre , title=GYPSY i. Gypies of Persia , encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica , access-date=22 July 2013 , url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gypsy-i

Linguistic evidence

Linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a large part of the basic lexicon.{{Citation , last1=Šebková , first1=Hana , last2=Žlnayová , first2=Edita , year=1998 , url=http://rss.archives.ceu.hu/archive/00001112/01/118.pdf , title=Nástin mluvnice slovenské romštiny (pro pedagogické účely) , place=Ústí nad Labem , publisher=Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity J. E. Purkyně v Ústí nad Labem , page=4 , isbn=978-80-7044-205-0 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024041/http://rss.archives.ceu.hu/archive/00001112/01/118.pdf , archive-date=4 March 2016

Romani and Domari share some similarities: agglutination of postpositions of the second layer (or case-marking clitics) to the nominal stem, concord markers for the past tense, the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural, and the use of the oblique case as an accusative.{{sfn, Matras, 2002, p=48 This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two languages. Domari was once thought to be a "sister language" of Romani, the two languages having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent—but later research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate branches within the central zone ( Hindustani) group of languages. The Dom and the Rom, therefore, likely descend from two migration waves from India separated by several centuries.{{cite web , title=What is Domari? , publisher=University of Manchester. Romani Linguistics and Romani Language Projects , url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/atmanchester/projects/domari.shtml , access-date=23 July 2008 , archive-date=10 April 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410044633/http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/atmanchester/projects/domari.shtml , url-status=dead{{cite web , title=On romani origins and identity , url=http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_origins&lang=en&articles=true , publisher=Radoc , access-date=23 July 2008 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717140132/http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_origins&lang=en&articles=true , archive-date=17 July 2011

In phonology, the Romani language shares several isoglosses with the Central branch of Indo-Aryan languages, especially in the realization of some sounds of the Old Indo-Aryan. However, it also preserves several dental clusters. In regards to verb morphology, Romani follows exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers, lending credence to the theory of their Central Indian origin and a subsequent migration to northwestern India. Though the retention of dental clusters suggests a break from central languages during the transition from Old to Middle Indo-Aryan, the overall morphology suggests that the language participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages.
{{Rom-Dom numerals

Genetic evidence

Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Roma originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group. According to the study, the ancestors of present scheduled caste and scheduled tribe populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.

In December 2012, additional findings appeared to confirm that the "Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago". According to the study, they reached the Balkans about 900 years ago and then spread throughout Europe. The team also found that the Roma displayed genetic isolation, as well as "differential gene flow in time and space with non-Romani Europeans".

Genetic research published in the ''European Journal of Human Genetics'' "has revealed that over 70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma".{{Citation , first1=Luba , last1=Kalaydjieva , first2=Francesc , last2=Calafell , first3=Mark A , last3=Jobling , first4=Dora , last4=Angelicheva , first5=Peter , last5=de Knijff , first6=Zoe H , last6=Rosser , first7=Matthew , last7=Hurles , first8=Peter , last8=Underhill , first9=Ivailo , last9=Tournev , first10=Elena , last10=Marushiakova , first11=Vesselin , last11=Popov , title=Patterns of inter- and intra-group genetic diversity in the Vlax Roma as revealed by Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineages , journal=European Journal of Human Genetics , volume=9 , issue=2 , pages=97–104 , url=http://genetics.stanford.edu/hpgl/publications/EJHG_2001_v9_p97.pdf , doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200597 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209205422/http://genetics.stanford.edu/hpgl/publications/EJHG_2001_v9_p97.pdf , archive-date=9 December 2014 , year=2011 , pmid=11313742 , s2cid=21432405 , doi-access=free

Genetic evidence supports the medieval migration from India. The Roma have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations", while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Roma from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect". A 2020 whole-genome study confirmed the northern Indian origins, and also confirmed substantial Balkan and Middle Eastern ancestry amongst Roma in Central and Eastern Europe. The study also included a sample of Roma from Spain and Lithuania, which revealed significantly higher levels of European ancestry.

A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".{{Cite journal , last1=Gresham , first1=D , last2=Morar , first2=B , last3=Underhill , first3=PA , last4=Passarino , first4=G , last5=Lin , first5=AA , last6=Wise , first6=C , last7=Angelicheva , first7=D , last8=Calafell , first8=F , last9=Oefner , first9=PJ , title=Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies) , journal=American Journal of Human Genetics , volume=69 , issue=6 , pages=1314–31 , year=2001 , pmid=11704928 , pmc=1235543 , doi=10.1086/324681 , last10 = Shen, first10 = Peidong , last11=Tournev , first11=Ivailo , last12=De Pablo , first12=Rosario , last13=Kuĉinskas , first13=Vaidutis , last14=Perez-Lezaun , first14=Anna , last15=Marushiakova , first15=Elena , last16=Popov , first16=Vesselin , last17=Kalaydjieva , first17=Luba The same study found that "a single lineage... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males". A 2004 study of Roma in Central and Eastern Europe and Spain by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".{{cite journal , last1=Morar , first1=Bharti , last2=Gresham , first2=David , last3=Angelicheva , first3=Dora , last4=Tournev , first4=Ivailo , last5=Gooding , first5=Rebecca , last6=Guergueltcheva , first6=Velina , last7=Schmidt , first7=Carolin , last8=Abicht , first8=Angela , last9=Lochmüller , first9=Hanns , last10=Tordai , first10=Attila , last11=Kalmár , first11=Lajos , last12=Nagy , first12=Melinda , last13=Karcagi , first13=Veronika , last14=Jeanpierre , first14=Marc , last15=Herczegfalvi , first15=Agnes , last16=Beeson , first16=David , last17=Venkataraman , first17=Viswanathan , last18=Warwick Carter , first18=Kim , last19=Reeve , first19=Jeff , last20=de Pablo , first20=Rosario , last21=Kučinskas , first21=Vaidutis , last22=Kalaydjieva , first22=Luba , title=Mutation History of the Roma/Gypsies , journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics , date=October 2004 , volume=75 , issue=4 , pages=596–609 , doi=10.1086/424759 , pmid=15322984 , pmc=1182047

Haplogroup H-M82 is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group, accounting for approximately 60% of the total. Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.

A study of 444 people representing three ethnic groups in North Macedonia found mtDNA haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies (13.7% and 10.3%, respectively).

Y-DNA composition of Muslim Roma from Šuto Orizari Municipality in North Macedonia, based on 57 samples:{{cite journal , last1=Peričić , first1=Marijana , last2=Lauc , first2=Lovorka Barać , last3=Klarić , first3=Irena Martinović , last4=Rootsi , first4=Siiri , last5=Janićijević , first5=Branka , last6=Rudan , first6=Igor , last7=Terzić , first7=Rifet , last8=Čolak , first8=Ivanka , last9=Kvesić , first9=Ante , last10=Popović , first10=Dan , last11=Šijački , first11=Ana , last12=Behluli , first12=Ibrahim , last13=Đorđević , first13=Dobrivoje , last14=Efremovska , first14=Ljudmila , last15=Bajec , first15=Đorđe D. , last16=Stefanović , first16=Branislav D. , last17=Villems , first17=Richard , last18=Rudan , first18=Pavao , title=High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations , journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution , date=October 2005 , volume=22 , issue=10 , pages=1964–1975 , pmid=15944443 , doi=10.1093/molbev/msi185 , doi-access=free
* Haplogroup H – 59.6%
* Haplogroup E – 29.8%
* Haplogroup I – 5.3%
* Haplogroup R – 3.%, of which the half are R1b and many are R1a
* Haplogroup G – 1.8%

Y-DNA Haplogroup H1a occurs in Roma at frequencies 7–70%. Unlike ethnic Hungarians, among Hungarian and Slovakian Roma subpopulations Haplogroup E-M78 and I1 usually occur above 10% and sometimes over 20%, while among Slovakian and Tiszavasvari Roma, the dominant haplogroup is H1a; among Tokaj Roma it is Haplogroup J2a (23%); and among Taktaharkány Roma, it is Haplogroup I2a (21%).{{cite web , url=http://s009.radikal.ru/i308/1411/9e/fcf1cc38d1fa.png , format=PDF , title=Y chromosonal haplogroup distributionanddiversities in seven populations investigated , website=S009.radikal.ru , access-date=20 December 2016 , archive-date=26 September 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926061221/http://s009.radikal.ru/i308/1411/9e/fcf1cc38d1fa.png

Five rather consistent founder lineages throughout the subpopulations were found among Roma – J-M67 and J-M92 (J2), H-M52 (H1a1), and I-P259 (I1). Haplogroup I-P259 as H is not found at frequencies of over 3% among host populations, while haplogroups E and I are absent in south Asia. The lineages E-V13, I-P37 (I2a) and R-M17 (R1a) may represent gene flow from the host populations. Bulgarian, Romanian and Greek Roma are dominated by Haplogroup H-M82 (H1a1), while among Spanish Roma J2 is prevalent.{{cite journal , last1=Martínez-Cruz , first1=Begoña , last2=Mendizabal , first2=Isabel , last3=Harmant , first3=Christine , last4=de Pablo , first4=Rosario , last5=Ioana , first5=Mihai , last6=Angelicheva , first6=Dora , last7=Kouvatsi , first7=Anastasia , last8=Makukh , first8=Halyna , last9=Netea , first9=Mihai G , last10=Pamjav , first10=Horolma , last11=Zalán , first11=Andrea , last12=Tournev , first12=Ivailo , last13=Marushiakova , first13=Elena , last14=Popov , first14=Vesselin , last15=Bertranpetit , first15=Jaume , last16=Kalaydjieva , first16=Luba , last17=Quintana-Murci , first17=Lluis , last18=Comas , first18=David , title=Origins, admixture and founder lineages in European Roma , journal=European Journal of Human Genetics , date=June 2016 , volume=24 , issue=6 , pages=937–943 , doi=10.1038/ejhg.2015.201 , pmid=26374132 , pmc=4867443 In Serbia among Kosovo and Belgrade Roma Haplogroup H prevails, while among Vojvodina Roma, H drops to 7 percent and E-V13 rises to a prevailing level.

Among non-Roma Europeans, Haplogroup H is extremely rare, peaking at 7% among Albanians from Tirana and 11% among Bulgarian Turks. It occurs at 5% among Hungarians, although the carriers might be of Romani origin. Among non-Roma-speaking Europeans, it occurs at 2% among Slovaks,{{cite journal , last1=Petrejcíková , first1=Eva , last2=Soták , first2=Miroslav , last3=Bernasovská , first3=Jarmila , last4=Bernasovský , first4=Ivan , last5=Sovicová , first5=Adriana , last6=Bôziková , first6=Alexandra , last7=Boronová , first7=Iveta , last8=Gabriková , first8=Dana , last9=Švícková , first9=Petra , last10=Maceková , first10=Sona , last11=Cverhová , first11=Valéria , title=The genetic structure of the Slovak population revealed by Y-chromosome polymorphisms , journal=Anthropological Science , date=2010 , volume=118 , issue=1 , pages=23–30 , doi=10.1537/ase.090203 , s2cid=83899895 , doi-access=free 2% among Croats, 1% among Macedonians from Skopje, 3% among Macedonian Albanians, 1% among Serbs from Belgrade, 3% among Bulgarians from Sofia, 1% among Austrians and Swiss, 3% among Romanians from Ploiești, and 1% among Turks.

The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left a significant genetic mark on the Y-DNA of the Roma there, creating a higher frequency of Haplogroups J and E3b in Romani populations from the region.

Full genome analysis

{{See also, Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia

A full genome autosomal DNA study on 186 Roma samples from southeastern, northeastern and southwestern Europe in 2019 found that modern Romani people in these areas are characterized by a common south Asian origin and a complex admixture from Middle Eastern, Caucasus, Balkan and wider European-derived ancestries. Earlier admixture dates amongst Roma in the Balkans supports that they migrated into Europe via the Balkans. The autosomal genetic data links the proto-Roma to groups in northwest India (specifically Punjabi and Gujarati samples), as well as, Dravidian-speaking groups in southeastern India (specifically Irula). The paternal lineages of Roma are most common in southern and central India among Dravidian-speaking populations. The authors argue that this may point to a founder effect among the early Roma during their ethnogenesis or shortly after they migrated out of the Indian subcontinent. In addition, they theorized of a possible low-caste (Dalit) origin for the Proto-Roma, since they were genetically closer to the Punjabi cluster that lacks a common marker characteristic of high castes, which is West Euroasian admixing.

Possible migration route

The Roma may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BCE.{{sfn, Marinov, 2019 Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE.
It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire.{{cite book , title=The Roads of the Roma: a PEN anthology of Gypsy Writers , first1=Ian , last1=Hancock , first2=Siobhan , last2=Dowd , first3=Rajko , last3=Djurić , year=2004 , publisher=University of Hertfordshire Press , location=Hatfield, United Kingdom , isbn=978-0-900458-90-3 , pages=14–15 The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-Roma did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium.{{cite web , title=Romani , url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_Rmni_ELL.pdf , website=Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics , publisher=Oxford: Elsevier , access-date=30 August 2009 , archive-date=11 October 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011141138/http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_Rmni_ELL.pdf , url-status=dead

The first Romani people are believed to have arrived in Europe via the Balkans in the 13th or 14th century. Romani people began migrating to other parts of the continent during the 15th and 16th centuries.{{Cite web , title=Migrations of the Romani People , url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/romani_MIG.pdf , access-date=16 May 2024 , website=The National Geographic Society{{Cite web , last=King , first=Arienne , date=2023 , title=Romani Migration in the Middle Ages , url=https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16922/map-of-romani-migration-in-the-middle-ages/ , access-date=16 May 2024 , website=World History Encyclopedia

In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, then Indian Minister of External Affairs, Sushma Swaraj stated that the people of the Romani community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the government of India to recognize the Romani community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora.{{cite web , title=Can Romas be part of Indian diaspora? , publisher=khaleejtimes.com , url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/international/india/can-romas-be-part-of-indian-diaspora , date=29 February 2016 , access-date=4 March 2016

Ethnic identities conflated with the Roma

Even though genetic studies confirmed that the Romani people originated in South Asia and their language is an Indo-Aryan language,{{Sfn, Matras, 2002, p=240 they have a long history of taking on different identities of various ethnic groups.

Romaei/Eastern Romans

With the Roma fleeing the Muslim conquest of Mahmud of Ghazni in Northern India in the early 11th century,{{cite book , last1=Ahmad , first1=Dr Aijaz , title=New Dimensions of Indian Historiography : Historical Facts and Hindutva Interpretation , date=6 March 2022 , publisher=K.K. Publications , page=145 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AttiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 , language=en they arrived in the Eastern Roman Empire by the 12th century. The name Roma/Romani is similar to Romaei ({{lang, el, Ῥωμαῖοι), or Rhomaioi/Romioi (Ῥωμαῖοι/Ῥωμηοί/Ρωμιοί, "Romans") (the endonym for the Eastern Romans/Byzantines) from which the name could have originated. Roma is also similar to their original Sanskrit word {{lang, sa, डोम ({{transliteration, sa, ḍoma) meaning "drummer", with the Doma being dancers and musicians and a sub-group of the Dalit caste.

Athinganoi

In the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire the Roma also took on the identity of the ethnic religious group, the Athinganoi (Greek: Αθίγγανοι). They were a Manichaean sect regarded as Judaizing heretics who lived in Phrygia and Lycaonia but were neither Hebrews nor Gentiles. They kept the Sabbath, but were not circumcised. They were Shomer nagia. The word "Athiganoi" is where the Turkish name {{lang, tr, Ciganos as well as the Romanian name {{lang, ro, țigani come from, as the Ottoman Empire had some linguistic and cultural influence on the neighbouring medieval Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. The Turkish Ottomans Fall of Constantinople, conquered the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, hence they ruled over the Roma (Ciganos) as well. Today, Turkey has the highest Romani population.{{cite web , url=http://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=0900001680088ea9 , title=Roma and Travellers Team. Tools and Texts of Reference. Estimates on Roma population in European countries (excel spreadsheet) , work=rm.coe.int Council of Europe Roma and Travellers Division

Egyptians

Some terms for the Romani people trace their origin to conflation with Egyptians. The English term ''Gypsy'' (or ''Gipsy'') originates from the Middle English ''gypcian'', short for ''Egipcien''. The Spanish term {{lang, es, Gitano and French {{lang, fr, Gitan have similar etymologies. They are ultimately derived from the Greek language, Greek {{lang, grc, Αιγύπτιοι ({{transliteration, grc, Aigyptioi), meaning "Egyptian", via Latin. This designation owes its existence to the belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Roma, or some related group (such as the Indian Dom people), were itinerant Egyptians.

Bohemians

The Roma from Bohemia (today Czech Republic) were called wikt:Bohemian, Bohemian ({{lang, fr, bohémiens in French) because they were believed to have originated ethnically in Bohemia and later came to Western European countries such as France in the 16th century. The term wikt:bohemian, bohemian came to mean carefree, artistic people. The Roma were musicians and dancers as well as circus performers that moved place to place, having an adventurous nomadic lifestyle, away from society's conventional norms and expectations. This lifestyle inspired the 19th-century European artistic movement, Bohemianism{{cite web , url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Bohemian , title=''Bohemian'' etymology , access-date=2008-12-27 , last=Harper , first=Douglas , publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary , date=November 2001 as well as the Hippie, hippie movement of the 1950s and 1960s in the United States.

Irish Travellers

Because Irish Travellers, a sub-group of the Irish (having the same ancestral genetics from within the general population of Ireland{{cite news , title=Travellers as 'genetically different' from settled Irish as Spanish , newspaper=Irish Times , url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/science/travellers-as-genetically-different-from-settled-irish-as-spanish-1.2969515) lived as nomads, the Roma and the Irish travellers came to be conflated with each other and in time some of the Roma mixed with some of the native Irish travellers (beginning in the 1650s) because of proximity and similar nomadic traditions.{{cite book , last=Gmelch , first=Sharon , year=1991 , orig-year=1986 , chapter=Preface , title=Nan: The life of an Irish Travelling woman , type=Biography , edition=Reissue with changes , location=Long Grove, IL , publisher=Waveland Press , isbn=978-0-88133-602-3 , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9foVAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 , pages=11–14

Yenish people

Similar to the Irish Travellers, the Yenish people were confused with the Roma because they were nomadic and itinerant people. The Yenish people have origins in Western Europe, mostly in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg and Belgium. The Yenish descended from members of the marginalized and vagrant poor classes of society in List of countries and territories where German is an official language, Germanic-speaking regions in Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Most of the Yenish became sedentary in the course of the mid-19th to 20th centuries. The culture of the Irish Travellers and the Yenish people in Western Europe and the culture of the Roma are different while having the nomadic and itinerant similarity.{{Sfn, Sutherland, 1986, page=14

Balkan people

Forced sterilisation carried out in several European countries, such as Norway, Sweden, Czech Republic and Slovakia, in the mid to late 20th century led to a decrease in Roma populations in those countries. Countries in South Eastern Europe that had not carried out forced sterilisation, such as Romania and Bulgaria, experienced steady increases of Roma birth rates during the 20th century that continue to this day, mainly because of the Roma tradition to Child marriage, marry young (in their early teens).{{Cite news , date=2003-10-02 , title=Gypsy child couple separated , language=en-GB , url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3159818.stm , access-date=2022-08-08 Once Revolutions of 1989, communism fell in Eastern Europe and travel restrictions were lifted as well as Eastern European countries Enlargement of the European Union, joining the European Union in the 2000s, it was easier for the Eastern European Roma to Mass migration, mass migrate to Western Europe. Often, Romania is wrongly identified as the place of origin of the Roma because of the similar name Roma/Romani and Romanians. Romanians derive their name from the Latin wikt:romanus, ''romanus'', meaning "Roman people, Roman", referencing the Roman Dacia, Roman conquest of Dacia. (The Dacians were a sub-group of the Thracians.) Romanian genetics show ancient Balkan ancestry (Thracian ancestry) as well as Slavic migrations to the Balkans, Slavic ancestry{{cite journal , last1=Kushniarevich , first1=A , last2=Utevska , first2=O , last3=Chuhryaeva , first3=M , last4=Agdzhoyan , first4=A , last5=Dibirova , first5=K , last6=Uktveryte , first6=I , last7=Möls , first7=M , last8=Mulahasanovic , first8=L , last9=Pshenichnov , first9=A , last10=Frolova , first10=S , last11=Shanko , first11=A , last12=Metspalu , first12=E , last13=Reidla , first13=M , last14=Tambets , first14=K , last15=Tamm , first15=E , display-authors=29 , year=2015 , title=Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data , journal=PLOS ONE , volume=10 , issue=9 , pages=e0135820 , bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035820K , doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 , pmc=4558026 , pmid=26332464 , doi-access=free , last16=Koshel , first16=S , last17=Zaporozhchenko , first17=V , last18=Atramentova , first18=L , last19=Kučinskas , first19=V , last20=Davydenko , first20=O , last21=Goncharova , first21=O , last22=Evseeva , first22=I , last23=Churnosov , first23=M , last24=Pocheshchova , first24=E , last25=Yunusbayev , first25=B , last26=Khusnutdinova , first26=E , last27=Marjanović , first27=D , last28=Rudan , first28=P , last29=Rootsi , first29=S , last30=Yankovsky , first30=N and not Indian ancestry like the Roma.

History

{{Main, History of the Romani people

Arrival in Europe

According to a 2012 genomic study, the Roma reached the Balkans in the 12th century. A document of 1068 describing an event in Constantinople mentions "Atsingani", probably referring to Roma.{{cite book , last1=Bereznay , first1=András , title=Historical Atlas of the Gypsies: Romani History in Maps , date=2021 , publisher=Méry Ratio , isbn=978-615-6284-10-5 , page=18/1 There are also records which indicate a pre-10th century arrival.{{Cite web , last=Popov , first=Shakir M. , date=2023 , editor-last=Marushiakova , editor-first=Elena , editor2-last=Popov , editor2-first=Vesselin , editor3-last=Kovacheva , editor3-first=Lilyana , title=History of the Gypsies in Bulgaria and Europe: Roma , url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/28142/Marushiakova_Popova_2023_Shakir_M_Pashov_History_CC.pdf;jsessionid=E5C04B2635D5C17D562DE4FD75B0E37D?sequence=1 , website=University of St. Andrews , pages=8–12

Later historical records of the Roma in the Balkans are from the 14th century: in 1322, after leaving Ireland on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, Irish Franciscan friar Symon Semeonis encountered a migrant group of Roma outside the town of Candia (modern Heraklion), in Crete, calling them "the Kenites, descendants of Cain"; his account is the earliest surviving description by a western chronicler of the Roma in Europe.

In 1350, Ludolph of Saxony mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called ''Mandapolos'', a word possibly derived from the Greek word ''mantes'' (meaning prophet or fortune teller).

In the 14th century, Roma are recorded in Venetian territories, including Methoni, Messenia, Methoni and Nafplio in the Peloponnese, and Corfu. Around 1360, a fiefdom called the ''Feudum Acinganorum'' was established in Corfu, which mainly used Romani serfs and to which the Roma on the island were subservient.

By the 1440s, they were recorded in Germany; and by the 16th century, Scotland and Sweden. Some Roma migrated from Persia through north Africa, reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century. The two currents met in France.

Early modern history

Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia, they were issued safe conduct by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund in 1417. Roma were ordered expelled from the Margraviate of Meissen, Meissen region of Germany in 1416, Lucerne in 1471, Milan in 1493, France in 1504, Catalonia in 1512, Sweden in 1525, Kingdom of England, England in 1530 (see Egyptians Act 1530), and Denmark in 1536. From 1510 onwards, any Rom found in Switzerland was to be executed, while in England (beginning in 1554) and Denmark (beginning of 1589) any Rom who did not leave within a month was to be executed. Kingdom of Portugal, Portugal began deportations of Roma to its Colonial Brazil, colonies in 1538.{{Cite book , first=Donald , last=Kenrick , title=Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanis) , edition=2nd , publisher=Scarecrow Press , date=5 July 2007 , pages=xx–xxii , isbn=978-0-8108-6440-5 , url=https://archive.org/details/atozofgypsiesrom0000unse

A 1596 English statute gave Roma special privileges that other wanderers lacked. France passed a similar law in 1683. Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Roma "crown slaves" (a status superior to serfs), but also kept them out of certain parts of St. Petersburg, Russia, the capital.{{cite book , first=Norman , last=Davies , title=Europe: A History , author-link=Norman Davies , isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 , year=1996 , page
387–88
, title-link=Europe: A History , publisher=Oxford University Press In 1595, Ștefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery, and became the Voivode (List of Moldavian rulers, Prince) of Moldavia.

Since a royal edict by Charles II of Spain, Charles II in 1695, Spanish Roma had been restricted to certain towns. An official edict in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts, so that they would not be concentrated in any one region. In the Great Gypsy Round-up, Roma were arrested and imprisoned by the Spanish Monarchy in 1749.

During the latter part of the 17th century, around the Franco-Dutch War, both France and the Dutch Republic needed thousands of men to fight. Some recruitment took the form of rounding up vagrants and the poor to work the galleys and provide the armies' labour force. With this background, Roma were targets of both the French and the Dutch.{{cite web , url=https://rm.coe.int/western-europe-factsheets-on-romani-history/16808b19e4 , title=Western Europe

After the wars, and into the first decade of the 18th century, Roma were slaughtered with impunity throughout the Dutch Republic. Roma, called 'heiden' (‘heathens’) by the Dutch, wandered throughout the rural areas of Europe and became the societal pariahs of the age. ''Heidenjachten'', translated as "heathen hunt" happened throughout the Dutch Republic in an attempt to eradicate them.

Although some Roma could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until abolitionism, abolition in 1856, the majority traveled as free nomads with their wagons, as alluded to in the spoked wheel symbol in the Romani flag.{{sfn, Hancock, 2001, p=25 Elsewhere in Europe, they were subjected to ethnic cleansing, abduction of their children, and forced labour. In Britain, Roma were sometimes expelled from small communities or hanged; in France, they were branded, and their heads were shaved; in Moravia and Bohemia, the women were marked by their ears being severed. As a result, large groups of the Roma moved to the East, toward Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Poland, which was more tolerant, and Ruska Roma, Russia, where the Roma were treated more fairly as long as they paid the annual taxes.

Modern history

Roma began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small groups recorded in Virginia and Louisiana (New France), French Louisiana. Larger-scale Roma emigration to the United States began in the 1860s, with Romanichal groups from Great Britain. The most significant number immigrated in the early 20th century, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Roma also settled in South America.

World War II

{{Main, Romani Holocaust

During World War II and the Holocaust, the Nazi Germany, Nazis committed a systematic genocide against the Roma. In the Romani language, this genocide is known as the ''Porajmos''.{{cite web , url=http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles=true , title=Romanies and the holocaust: a reevaluation and an overview , website=Radoc.net , first=Ian , last=Hancock , access-date=14 February 2009 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305105001/http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles=true , archive-date=5 March 2016 Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labor and imprisonment in concentration camps. They were often killed on sight, especially by the Einsatzgruppen (paramilitary death squads) on the Eastern Front (World War II), Eastern Front. The total number of victims has been variously estimated at between 220,000 and 1,500,000.{{Cite book , chapter=True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview , chapter-url=http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles= , last=Hancock , first=Ian , title=The Historiography of the Holocaust , isbn=978-1-4039-9927-6 , pages=383–96 , year=2005 , publisher=Palgrave Macmillan , access-date=14 February 2009 , archive-date=9 June 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609233028/http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles=

The Roma were also persecuted in Nazi puppet states. In the Independent State of Croatia, the Ustaša killed almost the entire Romani population of 25,000. The concentration camp system of Jasenovac, run by the Ustaša militia and the Croat political police, was responsible for the deaths of between 15,000 and 20,000 Roma.

Post-1945

In Czechoslovakia, they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum", and Romani women Sterilization of Romani women, were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, with threats of denying future welfare payments, with misinformation, or after administering drugs.{{Sfn , Silverman , 1995{{Sfn , Helsinki Watch , 1991

An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report (December 2005), concluded that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Roma, which "included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community. The problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic, either with improper motivation or illegally, exists," said the Czech Public Defender of Rights, recommending state compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991.{{cite news , date=12 March 2007 , first=Marina , last=Denysenko , title=Sterilised Roma accuse Czechs , url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6409699.stm , work=BBC News , access-date=15 September 2017 New cases were revealed up until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Germany, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland "all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups".

Society and traditional culture

{{Main, Romani society and culture

The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family. Traditionally, virginity is essential in unmarried women. However, Eastern European Roma are more likely to find it acceptable for girls to have sex before marriage compared to other Eastern Europeans. Both men and women usually marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage. Romani law amongst some Roma, particularly the Kalaidzhi, establishes that the man's family must pay a bride price to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still follow it.

Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general, have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children.

Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Romani men wear shoulder-length hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Romani women generally have long hair, and Xoraxane Romani women often dye it blonde with henna.

Romani people have traditionally displayed a desire to live in alignment with the natural world. Cooking was often done outdoors over open fires, using hunted or foraged ingredients. Many Roma in England historically lived and travelled around the English countryside in vardos, while others settled in urban areas. Today, the vast majority are settled and live in houses.{{Cite web , title=Information about Gypsies and Travellers , url=https://www.cheshirewestandchester.gov.uk/residents/housing/gypsies-and-travellers/information-about-gypsies-and-travellers#:~:text=Whilst%20this%20is%20historically%20true,and%20heritage%20stays%20with%20them. , access-date=25 May 2025 , website=Cheshire West and Chester Council Romani were often portrayed outdoors in rural settings in historical European art and literature.

Romani social behavior has traditionally been regulated by Indian social customs ("marime" or "marhime") which are still respected by most Roma (and by most older generations of Sinti). This regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of Human anatomy, the human body are considered impure, the genital organs (because they produce emissions) and the rest of the lower body. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of Menstruation, menstruating women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth.

Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead, Romani dead must be buried. Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda, and both are widely practiced in Hinduism today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation, though some communities in modern-day south India tend to bury their dead). Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.{{sfn, Hancock, 2001, p=81

There are records of Romani women practicing fortune-telling dating back centuries, using techniques such as Palmistry, palm-reading. It often served as a means of income, and was typically passed from mother to daughter. In 1747 and later again in 1824, palm-reading was made illegal in Great Britain, Britain, which lead to it becoming a covert practice. Romani fortune tellers were traditionally known as ''drabardi''. While it was practiced as a trade aimed at non-Romani, it was virtually never practiced amongst Romani themselves.{{Cite web , date=2017-07-01 , title=Fortune Telling as Part of the Roma Culture , url=https://rozvitok.org/en/fortune-telling-as-part-of-the-roma-culture/ , access-date=2025-03-26 , website=Human Rights Fund Progress , language=en-US However, the notion that Romani people have psychic powers and that Romani women are fortune-tellers also functions as a harmful stereotype sometimes still present to this day.

Romani professions are nomadic and include horse trading, metalworking, music, fortune-telling and training animals such as bears.

Belonging and exclusion

{{Main, Romanipen, Gadjo (non-Romani)
In Romani philosophy, ''Romanipen'' (also ''romanypen'', ''romanipe'', ''romanype'', ''romanimos'', ''romaimos'', ''romaniya'') is the totality of the Romani spirit, Romani culture, Kris (Romani court), Romani Law, being a Romani, a set of Romani strains.

An ethnic Rom is considered a gadjo in Romani society if they have no ''Romanipen''. Sometimes a non-Rom may be considered a Rom if they do have ''Romanipen''. Usually this is an adopted child. It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a Cultural framework, framework of culture than a simple adherence to historically received rules.

Religion

Most Roma are Christian, but many are Muslim Romani people, Muslims; some retained their ancient faith of Hinduism from their original homeland of India, while others have their own religion and political organization. In parts of Southeast Europe, particularly in Bulgaria, some Roma who are Muslim identify as ethnic Turks, and over generations have adopted the Turkish language. Theravada Buddhism influenced by the Dalit Buddhist movement has become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma.

Some Roma practice witchcraft.

Beliefs

The modern-day Roma often adopted Christianity or Islam depending on which was the dominant religion in the regions through which they had migrated. It is likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in intermarriage.{{cite book , last1=Boretzky , first1=Norbert , title=Romani in Contact: The History, Structure and Sociology of a Language , date=1995 , publisher=John Benjamins , location=Amsterdam, Netherlands, NL , page=70 In Eastern Europe, most Roma are Eastern Orthodoxy, Orthodox Christians, Muslims or Catholics. In Bulgaria, Greece, Moldova, Romania and Serbia, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Orthodox Christians. In Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Kosovo, the majority are Muslims. In Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia, the majority are Catholics. In Western Europe, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Catholic or Protestant. In Crimea and East Thrace, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Muslim. The majority of the diaspora in the United States adhere to some branch of Christianity.

Deities and saints

Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla is recently considered a patron saint of the Roma in Roman Catholicism. Saint Sarah, or Sara e Kali, has also been venerated as a patron saint in her shrine at Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, France. Since the turn of the 21st century, Sara e Kali is understood to have been Kali, an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma; as the Roma became Christianized, she was absorbed in a syncretic way and venerated as a saint.

Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as "a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India".{{cite web , title=The Romani Goddess Kali Sara , url=http://kopachi.com/articles/the-romani-goddess-kali-sara-ronald-lee/ , website=Romano Kapachi , access-date=26 December 2012 , first=Ronald , last=Lee , year=2002{{cite book , chapter-url=http://radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_romanireligion&lang=en&articles=true , author=Ian Hancock , date=2001 , chapter=Romani ("Gypsy") Religion , title=The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature , editor1=Jeff Kaplan , editor2=Bron Taylor , editor3=Samuel S. Hill , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925154755/http://radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_romanireligion&lang=en&articles=true , archive-date=25 September 2011 , via=Radoc , access-date=12 October 2023 , url-status=live

The Balkans/Southeast Europe

For the Romani communities that have resided in Southeast Europe for numerous centuries, the following apply with regard to religious beliefs:
* Albania – The majority of the Romani population in Albania is Muslim.
* Bosnia and Herzegovina – The majority of the Romani population in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Muslim.
* Bulgaria – The majority of the Romani population in Bulgaria is Christian (mostly Orthodox). In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Christianity is the dominant faith among the Roma, and a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity among the Roma has occurred. In southeastern Bulgaria, Islam is the dominant religion among the Roma, with a smaller section of the Roma declaring themselves as "Turks", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.{{cite web , title=Roma Muslims in the Balkans , url=http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma-muslims-in-the-balkans , website=Education of Roma Children in Europe , publisher=Council of Europe , access-date=26 December 2012 , first1=Elena , last1=Marushiakova , first2=Veselin , last2=Popov , year=2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413184328/http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma-muslims-in-the-balkans , archive-date=13 April 2012

* Croatia – The majority of the Romani population in Croatia is Christian (mostly Catholic). After the Second World War, a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia, the majority moving from Kosovo. Their language differs from those living in Međimurje and those who survived Romani Holocaust.
* Greece – The majority of the Romani population in Greece is Christian.{{efn, Muslim Romas were excluded from the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey, Deportation of Muslims from Greece's new conquered territory following the First Balkan War and presently form the majority of Greece's native Muslim population. The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja, Filipidži and others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and Greek Macedonia are mostly Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population. Following the Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent population exchange between Turkey and Greece.
* Hungary – The majority of the Romani population in Hungary is Christian. The country experienced an influx of Muslim Roma during the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman period in Hungary, who later converted to Catholicism.

* Kosovo – The majority of the Romani population in Kosovo are Muslim and Speak Albanian. Some Roma in Kosovo speak Serbian and are Orthodox Christians.
* Montenegro – The majority of the Romani population in Montenegro is Muslim.
* North Macedonia –The majority of the Romani population in North Macedonia is Muslim.
* Romania – The majority of the Romani population in Romania is Christian (mostly Orthodox). In Dobruja, there is a small community that are Muslim and also speak Turkish.{{cite web , last1=Marushiakova , first1=Elena , last2=Popov , first2=Veselin , year=2012 , title=Roma Muslims in the Balkans , url=http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma-muslims-in-the-balkans , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413184328/http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma-muslims-in-the-balkans , archive-date=13 April 2012 , access-date=26 December 2012 , website=Education of Roma Children in Europe , publisher=Council of Europe
* Serbia – The majority of the Romani population in Serbia is Christian (mostly Orthodox). There are some Muslim Roma in southern Serbia, who are mainly refugees from Kosovo.
* Slovenia – The majority of the Romani population in Slovenia is Christian (mostly Catholic), although a sizeable proportion are Muslim.

Other regions

In Ukraine and Russia, the Romani populations are Christian and Muslim. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). These communities are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity.

In the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia, Romani populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and following local, cultural Catholicism as a Religious syncretism, syncretic system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the Jasna Góra Monastery.

In southern Spain, many Romanies are Pentecostal, but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times. The majority of the Romani people in France are Catholic or Protestant (mostly Pentecostal).

Music

{{Main, Romani music


Romani music plays an important role in central and eastern European countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms. The ''lăutari'' who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.

Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the ''lăutari'' tradition are Taraful Haiducilor. Bulgaria's popular "wedding music", too, is almost exclusively performed by Romani musicians such as Ivo Papasov, a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian pop-folk singer Azis.

Many famous classical musicians, such as the Hungarian people, Hungarian pianist Georges Cziffra, are Romani, as are many prominent performers of manele. Zdob și Zdub, one of the most prominent rock bands in Moldova, although not Romanies themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do Spitalul de Urgență in Romania, Shantel in Germany, Goran Bregović in Serbia, Darko Rundek in Croatia, Beirut (band), Beirut and Gogol Bordello in the United States.

Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani brass band, with such notable practitioners as Boban Marković of Serbia, and the brass ''lăutari'' groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.

The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, and flamenco (especially ''cante jondo'') in Spain.

Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influenced by the Roma.{{Citation , last1=Martinez , first1=Emma , title=Flamenco: All You Wanted to Know , date=24 February 2011 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bzd1CTtnjS8C&pg=PA21 , page=21 , publisher=Mel Bay Publications , format=Google books , isbn=978-1-60974-470-0 Antonio Cansino blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern-day Spanish dance.{{sfn, Hancock, 2002, p=129 The Dancing Cansinos popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States. Famous dancer and actress, Rita Hayworth, is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino.

European-style gypsy jazz ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti jazz") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt. Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include Stochelo Rosenberg, Biréli Lagrène, Jimmy Rosenberg, Paulus Schäfer and Tchavolo Schmitt.

The Roma in Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the darbuka, clarinet, gırnata and cümbüş.{{Citation , title=Cümbüş means fun, Birger Gesthuisen investigates the short history of a 20th-century folk instrument , url=http://www.rootsworld.com/turkey/cumbus.html , publisher=RootsWorld

Folklore

{{Main, Romani folklore
''Paramichia'' is a term used to refer to Romani legends and folktales. A popular legend among the Vlach Roma is of the hero Mundro Salamon, also known by other Roma subgroups as Wise Solomon or O Godjiaver Yanko.

Some Roma believe in the ''mulo'' or ''mullo,'' meaning "one who is dead"; the Romani version of the vampire. The Roma from Slavic countries believe in werewolves. Roma figure prominently in the 1941 film ''The Wolf Man (1941 film), The Wolf Man'' and the 2010 The Wolfman (film), remake.

Cuisine

{{Main, Romani cuisine
The Roma believe that some foods are auspicious, or lucky (''baxtalo''), such as foods with pungent tastes like garlic, lemon, tomato, and peppers, and fermented foods such as sauerkraut, pickles and sour cream. Hedgehogs are a delicacy among some Roma.

Contemporary art and culture

Romani contemporary art emerged at the climax of the process that began in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, when the interpretation of the cultural practice of minorities was enabled by a paradigm shift, commonly referred to in specialist literature as the "cultural turn". The idea of the cultural turn was introduced; and this was also the time when the notion of cultural democracy became crystallized in the debates carried on at various public forums. Civil society gained strength, and civil politics appeared, which is a prerequisite for cultural democracy. This shift of attitude in scholarly circles derived from concerns specific not only to ethnicity but also to society, gender and class.

Language

{{Main, Romani language

Most Roma speak one of several dialects of the Romani language, an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language, with roots in Sanskrit. They also often speak the languages of the countries they live in. Typically, they also incorporate loanwords and calques into Romani from the languages of those countries and especially words for terms that the Romani language does not have. Most of the ''Ciganos'' of Portugal, the {{Lang, es, Gitanos of Spain, the Romanichal of Great Britain, and the Norwegian and Swedish Travellers, Romanisael of Sweden and Norway have lost their knowledge of pure Romani, and speak the mixed languages Caló (Spanish Romani), Caló, Angloromani language, Angloromani and Scandoromani, respectively. Most of the Romani language-speaking communities in these regions consist of later immigrants from eastern or central Europe.{{cite web , last=Matras , first=Yaron , title=Romani Linguistics and Romani Language Projects , url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/whatis/status/numbers.shtml , website=Humanities , publisher=The University of Manchester , access-date=24 February 2015 , archive-date=6 November 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106012338/https://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk//whatis/status/numbers.shtml , url-status=dead

There are no concrete statistics for the number of Romani speakers, both in Europe and globally. However, a conservative estimate is 3.5 million speakers in Europe and a further 500,000 elsewhere, though the actual number may be considerably higher. This makes Romani the second-largest minority language in Europe, behind Catalan language, Catalan.

In regards to the diversity of dialects, Romani works in the same way as most other European languages.{{cite journal , last=Matras , first=Yaron , title=The status of Romani in Europe , journal=Report Submitted to the Council of Europe's Language Policy Division , date=October 2005 , page=4 , url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/1/statusofromani.pdf , access-date=4 March 2015 , archive-date=3 May 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503035937/https://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk//downloads/1/statusofromani.pdf , url-status=dead Cross-dialect communication is dominated by the following features:
* All Romani speakers are bilingual, accustomed to borrowing words or phrases from a second language; this makes it difficult to communicate with Roma from different countries
* Romani was traditionally a language shared between extended family and a close-knit community. This has resulted in the inability to comprehend dialects from other countries, and is why Romani is sometimes considered to be several different languages.
* There is no tradition or literary standard for Romani speakers to use as a guideline for their language use.

Persecutions

Roma enslavement

{{See also, Slavery in Romania

One of the most enduring persecutions against the Roma was their enslavement. Slavery in medieval Europe, Slavery was widely practiced in medieval Europe, including the territory of present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in the 13th–14th centuries.{{sfn, Achim, 2004, p=27 Legislation decreed that all the Roma living in these states, as well as any others who immigrated there, were classified as slaves. Slavery was gradually Abolitionism, abolished during the 1840s and 1850s.{{sfn, Achim, 2004, p=27

The exact origins of Slavery in Romania, slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known. There is some debate over whether the Roma came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free people or were brought there as slaves. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and he also considered their enslavement a vestige of that era, in which the Romanians took the Roma from the Mongols and preserved their status as slaves so they could use their labor. Other historians believe that the Roma were enslaved while they were being captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners of war may have also been adopted from the Mongols.{{sfn, Achim, 2004, p=27

Some Roma may have been slaves of the Mongols or the Tatars, or they may have served as auxiliary troops in the Mongol or Tatar armies. However, most of them migrated from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the founding of Wallachia. By then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and it was possibly established in both principalities. After the Roma migrated into the area, slavery became a widespread practice among the majority of the population. The Tatars, Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Romani population.

Historical persecution

{{See also, Anti-Romani sentiment

Some branches of the Roma reached western Europe in the 15th century, fleeing from the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman conquest of the Balkans as refugees. Although the Roma were refugees from the conflicts in southeastern Europe, they were often suspected of being associated with the Ottoman wars in Europe, Ottoman invasion by certain populations in the West because their physical appearance was exotic. (The Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire)#The Reichstag in the Holy Roman Empire, Imperial Diet at Landau and Freiburg in 1496–1498 declared that the Roma were spies for the Turks). In western Europe, such suspicions and discrimination against people who constituted a visible minority resulted in persecution, often violent, with attempts to commit ethnic cleansing until the modern era. In times of social tension, the Romani suffered as scapegoats; for instance, they were accused of bringing the plague during times of epidemics.{{cite web , url=http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/timeline.htm , publisher=Patrin Web Journal , title=Timeline of Romani History , access-date=26 August 2007 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111142247/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/timeline.htm , archive-date=11 November 2007

On 30 July 1749, Spain conducted The Great Roundup of Gypsies (1749), ''The Great Roundup'' of Gitanos, Roma (Gitanos) in its territory. The Spanish Crown ordered a nationwide raid that led to the break-up of families because all able-bodied men were interned in forced labor camps in an attempt to commit ethnic cleansing. The measure was eventually reversed and the Roma were freed as protests began to erupt in different communities, sedentary Roma were highly esteemed and protected in rural Spain.

Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside Europe, mostly in the English-speaking world. In 1880, Argentina prohibited immigration by Roma, as did the United States in 1885.

Forced assimilation

In the Habsburg monarchy under Maria Theresa (1740–1780), a series of decrees tried to integrate the Romanies to get them to sedentism, permanently settle, removed their rights to horse and wagon ownership (1754) to reduce citizen-mobility, renamed them "New Citizens" and obliged Romani boys into military service just as any other citizens were if they had no trade (1761, and Revision 1770), required them to register with the local authorities (1767), and another decree prohibited marriages between Romanies (1773) to integrate them into the local population. Her successor Josef II prohibited the wearing of traditional Romani clothing along with the use of the Romani language, both of which were punishable by flogging. During this time, the schools were obliged to register and integrate Romani children; this policy was the first of the modern policies of integration. In Spain, attempts to assimilate the Gitanos were under way as early as 1619, when the Gitanos were forcibly settled, the use of the Romani language was prohibited, Gitano men and women were sent to separate workhouses and their children were sent to orphanages. Charles III of Spain, King Charles III took a more progressive approach to Gitano assimilation, proclaiming that they had the same rights as Spanish citizens and ending the official denigration of them which was based on their Race (human categorization), race. While he prohibited their nomadic lifestyle, their use of the Calo language, the manufacture and wearing of Romani clothing, their trade in horses and other itinerant trades, he also forbade any form of discrimination against them and he also forbade the guilds from barring them. The use of the word ''gitano'' was also forbidden to further their assimilation, it was replaced with "New Castilian", a designation which was also applied to former History of the Jews in Spain, Jews and Islam in Spain, Muslims.

Most historians believe that Charles III's Pragmatic sanction, pragmática failed for three main reasons, reasons which were ultimately derived from its implementation outside major cities as well as in marginal areas: The difficulty which the Gitano community faced in changing its nomadic lifestyle, the marginal lifestyle to which the community had been driven by society and the serious difficulties of applying the pragmática in the fields of education and work. One author ascribes its failure to the overall rejection of the integration of the Gitanos by the wider population.{{cite web , url=http://rombase.uni-graz.at//cgi-bin/art.cgi?src=data%2Fhist%2Fmodern%2Fmaria.en.xml , title=Maria Theresia and Joseph II: Policies of Assimilation in the Age of Enlightened Absolutism , publisher=Karl-Franzens-Universitaet Graz , website=Rombase , date=December 2001 , first=Helmut , last=Samer , access-date=3 October 2015 , archive-date=6 April 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406004922/http://rombase.uni-graz.at//cgi-bin/art.cgi?src=data%2Fhist%2Fmodern%2Fmaria.en.xml

Other policies of forced assimilation were implemented in other countries, one of these countries was Norway, where a law which permitted the state to remove children from their parents and place them in state institutions was passed in 1896. This resulted in some 1,500 Romani children being taken from their parents in the 20th century.

Porajmos (Romani Holocaust)

{{Main, Romani Holocaust
During World War II and the Holocaust, the persecution of the Roma reached a peak during the Romani Holocaust (the Porajmos), the genocide which was perpetrated against them by Nazi Germany. In 1935, Roma living in Germany were stripped of citizenship by the Nuremberg laws and subsequently subjected to violence and imprisonment in Nazi concentration camps, concentration camps. During the war, the policy was extended to areas under German occupation, and it was also implemented by other axis countries, most notably, by the Independent State of Croatia, Romania in World War II, Romania, and Hungary in World War II, Hungary. From 1942, Roma were subjected to genocide in extermination camps.

Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Roma, the actual number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust cannot be assessed. Estimates range from 90,000 victims to as high as 4,000,000, with a majority falling between 200,000 and 500,000. Lower estimates do not include those Roma who were killed in all Axis powers, Axis-controlled countries. A detailed study by Sybil Milton, a former senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, contained an estimate of at least 220,000, possibly as many as 500,000. Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000.

Contemporary issues

{{Main, Anti-Romani sentiment#Contemporary antiziganism

In Europe, Roma are associated with poverty, high crime rates, and behavior that is considered antisocial or inappropriate by the rest of the European population. Partly for this reason, discrimination against the Roma has continued to be practiced to the present day, although efforts are being made to address it.

Amnesty International reports continued to document instances of Antizigan discrimination during the late 20th century, particularly in Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, and Kosovo. The European Union has recognized that discrimination against Roma must be addressed, and with the national Roma integration strategy they encourage member states to work towards greater Romani inclusion and upholding the rights of the Roma in the European Union.
{{bar box
, title=Roma estimate percentage of population in European countries{{cite news , url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/romania/10636448/Roma-on-the-rubbish-dump-British-religious-leaders-call-on-Romanian-mayor-to-reverse-forced-evictions.html , title=Roma on the rubbish dump , publisher=CIA World Factbook , access-date=21 February 2014 , date=17 February 2014 , last1=Alexander , first1=Harriet
, titlebar=#ddd
, left1=Country
, right1=Percent
, float=right
, bars=
{{bar percent, Bulgaria, blue, 10.33
{{bar percent, North Macedonia, blue, 9.59
{{bar percent, Slovakia, blue, 9.17
{{bar percent, Romania, blue, 8.32
{{bar percent, Serbia*, blue, 8.18
{{bar percent, Hungary, blue, 7.05
{{bar percent, Turkey, blue, 5.97
{{bar percent, Spain, blue, 3.21
{{bar percent, Albania, blue, 3.18
{{bar percent, Montenegro, blue, 2.95
{{bar percent, Moldova, blue, 2.49
{{bar percent, Greece, blue, 2.47
{{bar percent, Czech Republic, blue, 1.96
{{bar percent, Kosovo, blue, 1.47
*projections for Serbia also include up to 97.000 IDPs, Roma IDPs in Serbia

In eastern Europe, Romani children often attend Roma Special Schools, separate from non-Romani children; these schools tend to offer a lower quality of education than the traditional education options accessible by non-Romani children, putting the Romani children at an educational disadvantage.{{cite book , last1=Ringold , first1=Dena , last2=Orenstein , first2=Mitchell Alexander , last3=Wilkens , first3=Erika , title=Roma in an Expanding Europe – Breaking the Poverty Cycle , date=2005 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Usd7XU6a29oC , publisher=World Bank , isbn=0-8213-5457-4{{rp, 83

The Roma of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by Kosovo Albanians, ethnic Albanians since the end of the Kosovo War, and for the most part, the region's Romani community has been annihilated.

Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women, starting in 1973. The dissidents of the Charter 77 denounced it in 1977–78 as a genocide, but the practice continued through the Velvet Revolution of 1989. A 2005 report by the Czech Republic's independent ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, identified dozens of cases of coercive sterilization between 1979 and 2001, and called for criminal investigations and possible prosecution against several health care workers and administrators.

In 2008, following the rape and subsequent murder of an Italian woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani encampment, the Italian government declared that Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and it also declared that it was required to take swift action to address the ''emergenza nomadi'' (''nomad emergency''). Specifically, officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas.

The 2008 Death of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic, deaths of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic, two Romani children who drowned while Italian beach-goers remained unperturbed, brought international attention to the relationship between Italians and Roma. Reviewing the situation in 2012, one Belgian magazine observed:{{blockquote, On International Roma Day, which falls on 8 April, the significant proportion of Europe's 12 million Roma who live in deplorable conditions will not have much to celebrate. And poverty is not the only worry for the community. Ethnic tensions are on the rise. In 2008, Roma camps came under attack in Italy, intimidation by racist parliamentarians is the norm in Hungary. Speaking in 1993, Václav Havel prophetically remarked that "the treatment of the Roma is a litmus test (politics), litmus test for democracy": and democracy has been found wanting. The consequences of the transition to capitalism have been disastrous for the Roma. Under communism they had jobs, free housing and schooling. Now many are unemployed, many are losing their homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with impunity.{{cite web , url=http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/1757331-bleak-horizon , title=Bleak horizon , first=Hellen , last=Kooijman , place=EU , date=6 April 2012 , publisher=Presseurop , access-date=6 April 2012 , archive-date=7 April 2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407105800/http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/1757331-bleak-horizon , url-status=dead

The 2016 Pew Research Center, Pew Research poll found that Italians, in particular, hold strong anti-Roma views, with 82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about Roma. In Greece, 67%, in Hungary 64%, in France 61%, in Spain 49%, in Poland 47%, in the UK 45%, in Sweden 42%, in Germany 40%, and in the Netherlands 37% had an unfavourable view of Roma. The 2019 Pew Research poll found that 83% of Italians, 76% of Slovaks, 72% of Greeks, 68% of Bulgarians, 66% of Czechs, 61% of Lithuanians, 61% of Hungarians, 54% of Ukrainians, 52% of Russians, 51% of Poles, 44% of French, 40% of Spaniards, and 37% of Germans held unfavorable views of Roma. IRES published in 2020 a survey which revealed that 72% of Romanians have a negative opinion about them.

As of 2019, reports of anti-Roma incidents are increasing across Europe. Discrimination against Roma remains widespread in Kosovo, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and the Czech Republic, against which the European Court of Human Rights has ruled in Romani advocates' favor on the subject of discriminatory and segregationist education and housing practices. Romani communities across Ukraine have been the target of violent attacks.

Roma refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have faced discrimination in Europe, including in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Moldova.

Concerning employment, a 2019 report by the Fundamental Rights Agency, FRA revealed that, across the European states that were surveyed, on average 34% of Romani men and 16% of Romani women were in paid work.

Romani children are overrepresented as victims of human trafficking and have a higher vulnerability to sexual exploitation.

Many Roma in the European Union, EU have no national health insurance and around 57% do not have a job or a form of paid employment. A third of households don’t have tap water, a toilet or a shower.

Forced repatriation

{{Main, Expulsion of Romani people from France
In the summer of 2010, French authorities demolished at least 51 Roma camps and began the French Romani repatriation, process of repatriating their residents to their countries of origin. This followed tensions between the French state and Romani communities, which had been heightened after a traveller drove through a French police checkpoint, hit an officer, attempted to hit two more officers, and was then shot and killed by the police. In retaliation a group of Roma, armed with hatchets and iron bars, attacked the police station of Saint-Aignan, toppled traffic lights and road signs and burned three cars. The French government has been accused of perpetrating these actions to pursue its political agenda. European Commissioner for Justice and Consumers, EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding stated that the European Commission should take legal action against France over the issue, calling the deportations "a disgrace". A leaked file dated 5 August, sent from the Minister of the Interior (France), Interior Ministry to regional police chiefs, included the instruction: "Three hundred camps or illegal settlements must be cleared within three months, Roma camps are a priority."

Voluntarily assimilated groups

Some Romani people have been known to assimilate en masse with and even be absorbed by other ethnic groups. Assimilated Romani people often keep their identity a secret from outsiders, so it is very hard to determine the extent to which Romani peoples voluntarily assimilate into Gadjo society.{{cite news , last=Webley , first=Kayla , date=October 13, 2010 , title=Hounded in Europe, Roma in the U.S. Keep a Low Profile , url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2025316,00.html , url-status=dead , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019220031/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2025316,00.html , archive-date=2010-10-19 , work=Time Magazine

The most notable case of large-scale Romani assimilation is of the Crimean Roma, Romani Crimean Tatars. Several independent waves of Romani people undertook complete or near-complete assimilation into the Crimean Tatar people.{{cite journal , last=Kizilov , first=Mikhail , author-link=Mikhail Kizilov , year=2021 , title=Уничтожение цыган Симферополя и «решение» цыганского вопроса в оккупированном Крыму , url=https://www.academia.edu/73013777 , journal=Историческое наследие Крыма , language=ru , issue=32 Romani Crimean Tatars are the fourth largest subethnic group of the Crimean Tatar nation.{{Cite book , last1=Geisenhainer , first1=Katja , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMcUo-lweX0C&pg=PA430 , title=Bewegliche Horizonte: Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Bernhard Streck , last2=Lange , first2=Katharina , date=2005 , publisher=Leipziger Universitätsverlag , isbn=978-3-86583-078-4 , language=de For centuries, the Crimean Roma have worked as artisans, musicians, entertainers, and in a variety of blue-collar professions such as porters and blacksmiths.{{Cite web , date=28 July 2019 , title=Крымские цыгане, или чингене: кто они? , url=https://avdet.org/ru/2019/07/28/krymskie-tsygane-ili-chingene-kto-oni/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802170505/https://avdet.org/ru/2019/07/28/krymskie-tsygane-ili-chingene-kto-oni/ , archive-date=2019-08-02 , access-date=2019-12-27 , publisher=Avdet , language=ru Almost all Romani Crimean Tatars living in Crimea today are legally Gadjo because they are recorded as ethnic Crimean Tatars, not Gypsies, in their internal passports and national censuses and consider their Crimean Tatar identity to be their primary identity.{{Cite journal , last1=Marushiakova , first1=Elena , last2=Popov , first2=Vesselin , date=2004 , title=Segmentation vs. consolidation: The example of four Gypsy groups in CIS , url=https://montescalearning.com/GLOBVillage/files/SMILE/MUS_49_Segmentation.pdf , journal=Romani Studies , volume=14 , issue=2 , pages=145–191 , doi=10.3828/rs.2004.6 Mixed marriages between Romani Crimean Tatars and other Crimean Tatars without Romani backgrounds are accepted by the Crimean Roma. Many prominent Crimean Tatars, Crimean Tatar celebrities are of Romani descent, such as Enver Sherfedinov and Sabriye Erecepova.{{cite news , last=Mamchits , first=Roman , date=20 March 2010 , title=Крымская Атлантида: урмачели Часть I. Племя скрипачей , url=http://www.chaskor.ru/article/krymskaya_atlantida_16096 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329121849/http://www.chaskor.ru/article/krymskaya_atlantida_16096 , archive-date=2010-03-29 , work=chaskor.ru Historian Olga Kucherenko postulates that while Crimean Tatars were in Deportation of the Crimean Tatars, exile, additional Romani people of non-Crimean origin were also absorbed into the Romani Crimean Tatars.

In Basque Country, the Erromintxela people are assimilated descendants of a 15th-century wave of Kalderash, Kalderash Roma, who entered the Basque Country via France.Brea, Unai ''Hiretzat goli kherautzen dinat, erromeetako gazi mindroa'' Argia, San Sebastián (03-2008) Both ethnically, linguistically, and culturally, they are distinct from the Caló-speaking Gitanos, Romani people in Spain and the Cascarots, Cascarot Romani people of the French Basque Country, Northern Basque Country. Over time the Erromintxela replaced many of their Romani customs with Gadjo Basque customs. Their Erromintxela language is a mixture of Basque and the Romani languages, but there are very few speakers left due to assimilation. The younger generation of Erromintxela Roma are overwhelmingly shifting away from their Erromintxela language in favor of the Basque and Spanish languages.

In the United States, there are an estimated one million Romani Americans, Americans who are of Romani descent, although most are not open about their background and keep a low profile. Most Americans know very little about Romani people, so they face less discrimination in the US than Europe, although they can still be victims of anti-Romani racism. Prominent Americans of Romani descent include Charlie Chaplin and President Bill Clinton.{{sfn, Hancock, 2002,
xiii
}

Organizations and projects

* World Romani Congress
* European Roma Rights Centre
* Gypsy Lore Society{{cite web , title=The Gypsy Lore Society , format=Journal , url=http://www.gypsyloresociety.org/
* International Romani Union
* Decade of Roma Inclusion, multinational project
* International Romani Day (8 April)
* Contact Point for Roma and Sinti Issues
* National Advisory Board on Romani Affairs (Finland)

Artistic representations

{{Main, Romani people in fiction
Many depictions of the Roma in literature and art present romanticized narratives of the mystical powers of fortune telling or as people who have an irascible or passionate temper paired with an indomitable love of freedom and a habit of criminality. The Roma were a popular subject in Venetian painting from the time of Giorgione at the start of the 16th century. The inclusion of such a figure adds an exotic oriental flavor to scenes. A Venice, Venetian Renaissance art, Renaissance painting by Paris Bordone (c. 1530, Strasbourg) of the Holy Family in Egypt makes Elizabeth (biblical figure), Elizabeth a Romani fortune-teller; the scene is otherwise located in a distinctly European landscape.{{cite book , last=Jacquot , first=Dominique , title=Le musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg — Cinq siècles de peinture , date=2006 , publisher=Éditions des Musées de Strasbourg , location=Strasbourg , isbn=978-2-901833-78-9 , page=76

File:Muchacha Gitana.jpg, Boccaccio Boccaccino: ''Gypsy Girl'' (c.1504-1505)
File:The Visit of the Gypsies 01.jpg, An excerpt from ''The Visit of the Gypsies'' (c.1510, tapestry from wool and silk), Currier Museum of Art
File:Vouet, Simon - The Fortune Teller.jpg, Simon Vouet: ''The Fortune Teller'' (1617)
File:David Teniers (II) - Four gypsies with a child, one telling a peasant his fortune.jpg, David Teniers the Younger, David Teniers - ''Four gypsies with a child, one telling a peasant his fortune'' (c.1630-1690)
File:Jan van der Venne - Gypsy family.jpg, Jan van de Venne - ''Gypsy family'' (c.1631-1651)
File:Sarah Egerton as Meg Merrilies.png, Meg Merrilies from Walter Scott's ''Guy Mannering'', illustrated 1821
File:Pongrácz F Három cigány.jpg, Ferencz Pongrácz: ''Three Gypsies'' (1836)
File:Alfred Dehodencq A Gypsy Dance in the Gardens of the Alcázar.jpg, Alfred Dehodencq: ''A Gypsy Dance in the Gardens of Alcázar'' (1851)
File:Narcisse Diaz de la Peña - The Gypsy Princesses, San Antonio Museum of Art.jpg, Narcisse Virgilio Díaz: ''The Gypsy Princesses'' (c.1865-1870), San Antonio Museum of Art
File:GYPSY Kazimierz Alchimowicz.jpg, Kazimierz Alchimowicz: ''Gypsy'' (c.1870-1879)
File:Franz von Defregger Halbbildnis eines Zigeunerjungen.jpg, Franz von Defregger: ''Half portrait of a gypsy boy'' (1873, gouache)
File:Gypsy Girl with Mandolin, by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot.jpg, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot: ''Gypsy Girl with Mandolin'' (1874)
File:"Famille de gitanos, a Totana" (19911858846).jpg, Gustave Doré: ''Family of Gypsies, to Totana'' (1874)
File:Renoir - gypsy-girl-1879.jpg!PinterestLarge.jpg, Pierre-Auguste Renoir: ''Gypsy Girl'' (1879)
File:Jozef Van Lerius - Moza, the Gypsy woman.jpg, Jozef Van Lerius: ''Moza, the Gypsy woman'' (1880)
File:La Esmeralda from Victor Hugo and His Time.jpg, Esméralda (The Hunchback of Notre-Dame), Esméralda, illustrated 1882
File:Gypsy family (1884 by Mihály Munkácsy.jpg, Mihály Munkácsy: ''Gypsy Family'' (1884, oil on canvas)
File:August von Pettenkofen - Gipsy Children - WGA17393.jpg, August von Pettenkofen: ''Gypsy Children'' (1885), Hermitage Museum
File:Carmen (Bibliothèque-Musée de lOpéra) (4568143185).jpg, Célestine Galli-Marié as Carmen (novella), Carmen (1886)
File:Antoni Kozakiewicz - Cygańska Rodzina (01).jpg, Antoni Kozakiewicz: ''Gypsy Family'' (c.1886)
File:Vincent van Gogh - Les roulottes, campement de bohémiens.jpg, Vincent van Gogh: ''The Caravans – Gypsy Camp near Arles'' (1888, oil on canvas)
File:Nicolae Grigorescu - Ursăreasa din Bolduri.jpg, Nicolae Grigorescu: ''Gypsy from Boldu'' (1897), Palace of Culture (Iași), Art Museum of Iași
File:Henri - gypsy-girl-in-white-1916.jpg, Robert Henri: ''Gypsy Girl in White'' (1916)
File:Amedeo Modigliani - Gypsy Woman with Baby (1919).jpg, Amedeo Modigliani: ''Gypsy Woman with Baby'' (1919)
File:Gypsy, 1928.jpg, Felix Nussbaum: ''Gypsy'' (1928)
File:Iványi Gypsies at Balatonlelle 1935.jpg, Béla Iványi-Grünwald: ''Gypsies at Balatonlelle'' (1935)

See also

{{Columns-list, colwidth=20em,
* History of the Romani people
* Gitanos
* Gypsy Scourge
* King of the Gypsies
* Romani studies
* Romani society and culture
* Romani literature
* Romani dress
* Romani diaspora
* Racism in Europe
* Ethnic groups in Europe
* Environmental racism in Europe
* Romani folklore
* Romani cuisine
* Sinti people
* The Blond Angel Case

General
* Traveler (disambiguation)
* Itinerant groups in Europe
* Nomadic tribes in India
* Dalit

Lists
* List of Romani people
* List of Romani settlements

Other
* Dom people
* Lom people
* South Asian people
* South Asian diaspora
* Lori people
* Indo-Roman relations

Notes

{{Notelist

References

{{Reflist

Sources

* {{cite book , last=Achim , first=Viorel , year=2004 , title=The Roma in Romanian History , place=Budapest , publisher=Central European University Press , isbn=978-963-9241-84-8
* {{Citation , last=Fraser , first=Angus , title=The Gypsies , publisher=Blackwell , place=Oxford, UK , year=1992 , isbn=978-0-631-15967-4
* {{citation , last=Hancock , first=Ian , year=2001 , title=Ame sam e rromane džene , publisher=The Open Society Institute , place=New York
* {{cite book , last=Hancock , first=Ian , year=2002 , orig-date=2001 , title=Ame Sam E Rromane Dz̆ene , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG0ahVw-kdwC , publisher=Univ of Hertfordshire Press , isbn=978-1-902806-19-8
* {{Citation , author=Helsinki Watch , publisher=Helsinki Watch , year=1991 , title=Struggling for Ethnic Identity: Czechoslovakia's Endangered Gypsies , place=New York
* {{cite web , last=Hübshmanová , first=Milena , year=2003 , url=http://rombase.uni-graz.at//cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data%2Fethn%2Ftopics%2Fnames.en.xml , title=Roma – Sub Ethnic Groups , publisher=Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz , website=Rombase , access-date=3 October 2015 , archive-date=11 December 2022 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211164439/http://rombase.uni-graz.at//cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data%2Fethn%2Ftopics%2Fnames.en.xml
* {{cite book , last=Lemon , first=Alaina , year=2000 , title=Between Two Fires: Gypsy Performance and Romani Memory from Pushkin to Post-Socialism , publisher=Durham: Duke University Press , isbn=978-0-8223-2456-0
* {{cite book , last1=Matras , first1=Yaron , last2=Popov , first2=Vesselin , year=2001 , title=Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire , publisher=Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press
* {{cite book , last=Matras , first=Yaron , year=2005 , title=Romani: A Linguistic Introduction , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=978-0-521-02330-6
* {{cite book , last=Matras , first=Yaron , year=2002 , title=Romani: A Linguistic Introduction , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=978-0-521-63165-5
* {{Citation , title=Gypsies, The World's Outsiders , newspaper=National Geographic , date=April 2001 , pages=72–101
* {{cite book , last=Nemeth , first=David J. , year=2002 , title=The Gypsy-American , publisher=Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen
* {{cite book , last=Sutherland , first=Ann , title=Gypsies: The Hidden Americans , publisher=Waveland , year=1986 , isbn=978-0-88133-235-3 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYQfAAAAQBAJ
* {{cite journal , last=Silverman , first=Carol , title=Persecution and Politicization: Roma (Gypsies) of Eastern Europe , journal=Cultural Survival Quarterly , year=1995

Further reading

* Leland, Charles (1891).
Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune Telling
'
* Leland, Charles (1882).
The Gypsies
'
* {{cite book , author1=Kalwant Bhopal , author-link1=Kalwant Bhopal , author2=Martin Myers , title=Insiders, Outsiders and Others: Gypsies and Identity , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlqFBR50PPMC , year=2008 , publisher=Univ of Hertfordshire Press , isbn=978-1-902806-71-6
* {{cite book , author=Werner Cohn , title=The Gypsies , url=http://www.wernercohn.com/Resources/The_Gypsies.pdf , year=1973 , publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Company , isbn=978-0-201-11362-4
* {{cite report , last1=De Soto , first1=Hermine , last2=Beddies , first2=Sabine , last3=Gedeshi , first3=Ilir , title=Roma and Egyptians in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion , place=Washington, DC , publisher=World Bank Publications , year=2005 , url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/1a560799-6e27-59e8-9e92-aae74c6d3a11
* {{cite book , last=Fonseca , first=Isabel , title=Bury me standing: the Gypsies and their journey , url=https://archive.org/details/burymestandinggy00fons , url-access=registration , place=New York , publisher=AA Knopf , year=1995 , isbn=978-0-679-40678-5
* {{cite book , author1=V. Glajar , author2=D. Radulescu , title=Gypsies in European Literature and Culture , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LZDFAAAAQBAJ , year=2008 , publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US , isbn=978-0-230-61163-4
* {{cite journal , last1=Gray , first1=RD , last2=Atkinson , first2=QD , year=2003 , title=Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin , journal=Nature (journal), Nature , doi=10.1038/nature02029 , volume=426 , issue=6965 , pages=435–439 , pmid=14647380 , bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G , title-link=Indo-European languages , s2cid=42340
* {{cite journal , last1=Gresham , first1=David , last2=Morar , first2=Bharti , last3=Underhill , first3=Peter A. , last4=Passarino , first4=Giuseppe , last5=Lin , first5=Alice A. , last6=Wise , first6=Cheryl , last7=Angelicheva , first7=Dora , last8=Calafell , first8=Francesc , last9=Oefner , first9=Peter J. , last10=Shen , first10=Peidong , last11=Tournev , first11=Ivailo , last12=de Pablo , first12=Rosario , last13=Kuĉinskas , first13=Vaidutis , last14=Perez-Lezaun , first14=Anna , last15=Marushiakova , first15=Elena , last16=Popov , first16=Vesselin , last17=Kalaydjieva , first17=Luba , title=Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies) , journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics , date=December 2001 , volume=69 , issue=6 , pages=1314–1331 , doi=10.1086/324681 , pmid=11704928 , pmc=1235543
* {{cite journal , last1=Kalaydjieva , first1=Luba , last2=Calafell , first2=Francesc , last3=Jobling , first3=Mark A , last4=Angelicheva , first4=Dora , last5=de Knijff , first5=Peter , last6=Rosser , first6=ZoëH , last7=Hurles , first7=Matthew E , last8=Underhill , first8=Peter , last9=Tournev , first9=Ivailo , last10=Marushiakova , first10=Elena , last11=Popov , first11=Vesselin , title=Patterns of inter- and intra-group genetic diversity in the Vlax Roma as revealed by Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineages , journal=European Journal of Human Genetics , date=February 2001 , volume=9 , issue=2 , pages=97–104 , doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200597 , pmid=11313742 , s2cid=21432405 , doi-access=free
* {{citation , last=Ringold , first=Dena , title=Roma & the Transition in Central & Eastern Europe: Trends & Challenges , place=Washington, DC , publisher=World Bank , year=2000.
* {{citation , last=Turner , first=Ralph L , year=1926 , title=The Position of Romani in Indo-Aryan , journal=Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society , series=3rd , volume=5 , number=4 , pages=145–188
* {{cite book , last=McDowell , first=Bart , title=Gypsies, wanderers of the world , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0heTAAAAIAAJ , year=1970 , publisher=National Geographic Society. Special Publications Division , isbn=978-0-87044-088-5
* Sancar Seckiner's comprehensible book South (Güney), 2013, consists of 12 article and essays. One of them, ''Ikiçeşmelik'', highlights Turkish Romani life. Ref. {{ISBN, 978-605-4579-45-7.
* Sancar Seckiner' s new book ''Thilda's House'' (Thilda'nın Evi), 2017, underlines the struggle of the Romani in Istanbul who have been swept away from nearby Kadikoy. Ref. {{ISBN, 978-605-4160-88-4.
* {{cite book , author=Radenez Julien , title=Recherches sur l'histoire des Tsiganes , year=2014 , url=http://www.youscribe.com/catalogue/tous/savoirs/recherches-sur-l-histoire-des-tsiganes-2754759
* {{Citation , last=Auzias , first=Claire , title=Les funambules de l'histoire , place=Baye , publisher=La Digitale , edition=Éditions la Digitale , year=2002 , language=fr

External links

* {{Commons category-inline

{{Romani topics

{{Authority control

Romani people,
Romani,
Ethnic groups in Europe
Indo-Aryan peoples
Nomadic groups in Eurasia
Ethnic groups in the Middle East
Ethnic groups in South Asia
Ethnic groups in North Africa
Stateless nationalism
Ethnic groups in South America
Romani people in art
Indian diaspora in Europe
Indigenous peoples of South Asia