The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominalization, nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cul ...

epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. ''Ramayana'' is one of the two important epics of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or ''dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global po ...

, the other being the ''

Mahābhārata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuru ...

''. The epic, traditionally ascribed to the

Maharishi Maharishi is a Sanskrit word, written as "महर्षि" in Devanagari (formed from the prefix mahā- meaning "great" and r̥ṣi - sage, poet or a singer of sacred hymns), indicating members of the highest order of ancient Indian sages, po ...

Valmiki Valmiki (; Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि, ) is celebrated as the harbinger-poet in Sanskrit literature. The epic ''Ramayana'', dated variously from the 5th century BCE to first century BCE, is attributed to him, based on the attributi ...

, narrates the life of

Sita Sita (; ) also called as Janaki and Vaidehi is a Hindu goddess and the female protagonist of the Hindu epic, '' Ramayana''. She is the consort of Rama, the avatar of the god Vishnu, and is regarded as a form of Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi ...

, the Princess of

Janakpur Janakpurdham or Janakpur ( ne, जनकपुर, ) is a sub-metropolitan city in Dhanusha District, Madhesh Province, Nepal. The city is a hub for religious and cultural tourism. A headquarter of Dhanusha district, ''Janakpur'' is also the capi ...

, and

Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular ''avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Being ...

, a legendary prince of

Ayodhya Ayodhya (; ) is a city situated on the banks of holy river Saryu in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya, also known as Saketa, is an ancient city of India, the birthplace of Rama and setting of the great epic Ramayana. Ayodhy ...

city in the kingdom of

Kosala The Kingdom of Kosala (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indian kingdom with a rich culture, corresponding to the area within the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh to Western Odisha. It emerged as a small state during the late Vedic per ...

. The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest urged by his father King

Dasharatha Dasharatha ( Sanskrit: दशरथ, IAST: Daśaratha; born Nemi) was the king of the Kosala kingdom and a scion of the Suryavamsha dynasty in Hinduism. He ruled from this capital at Ayodhya. Dasharatha was the son of Aja and Indumati. He ...

, on the request of Rama's stepmother

Kaikeyi Kaikeyi (Sanskrit: कैकेयी, IAST: Kaikeyī) is the second consort of King Dasharatha, and a queen of Ayodhya in the Hindu epic Ramayana. Out of Dasharatha's three wives, Kaikeyi exerts the most influence. Formerly the princess of ...

; his travels across forests in the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India ...

with his wife

and brother

Lakshmana Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja () ...

, the kidnapping of Sita by

Ravana Ravana (; , , ) is a rakshasa king of the island of Lanka, and the chief antagonist of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'' and its adaptations. In the ''Ramayana'', Ravana is described to be the eldest son of sage Vishrava and rakshasi Kaikesi. ...

– the king of

Lanka Lanka (, ) is the name given in Hindu epics to the island fortress capital of the legendary asura king Ravana in the epics of the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata''. The fortress was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks kn ...

, that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return to

to be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration. The ''Ramayana'' is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the

Shloka Shloka or śloka ( sa, श्लोक , from the root , Macdonell, Arthur A., ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'', Appendix II, p. 232 (Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1927). in a broader sense, according to Monier-Williams's dictionary, is ...

/ Anustubh meter), divided into seven Khanda (parts) the first and the seventh being later additions. It belongs to the genre of ''

Itihasa Itihasa () refers to the collection of written descriptions of important events in Hinduism. It includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata includes the story of the Kurukshetra War and preserves the traditions o ...

'', narratives of past events (), interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life. There are many versions of ''Ramayana'' in Indian languages, besides

Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

Sikh Sikhs ( or ; pa, ਸਿੱਖ, ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism (Sikhi), a monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The term ' ...

and

Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

adaptations. There are also Cambodian (

Reamker ''Reamker'' ( km, រាមកេរ្តិ៍, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ; ) is a Cambodian epic poem, based on the Sanskrit's Rāmāyana epic. The name means "Glory of Rama". It is the national epic of Cambodia. The earliest mention of this epic's ...

Indonesian Indonesian is anything of, from, or related to Indonesia, an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It may refer to: * Indonesians, citizens of Indonesia ** Native Indonesians, diverse groups of local inhabitants of the archipelago ** Indonesia ...

Filipino Filipino may refer to: * Something from or related to the Philippines ** Filipino language, standardized variety of 'Tagalog', the national language and one of the official languages of the Philippines. ** Filipinos, people who are citizens of th ...

, Thai (

Ramakien The ( th, รามเกียรติ์, , ; ; sometimes also spelled ) is one of Thailand's national epics, derived from the Buddhist Dasaratha Jataka. Fundamentally, it is a Thai version of the Hindu epic Ramayana. Ramakien is an import ...

), Lao, Burmese and Malay versions of the tale. The ''Ramayana'' was an important influence on later

poetry and the Hindu life and culture, and its main characters were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of South-East Asian nations, both Hindu and Buddhist. Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (from , - a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society.

Etymology

The name is composed of two words, and . , the name of the central figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda, it means 'dark, dark-coloured, black' and is related to the word which means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...

, is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'.Monier Monier Williams
राम
Sanskrit English Dictionary with EtymologyMonier Monier Williams

Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology The word means travel or journey. Thus, means "Rama's progress", with altered to due to the Sanskrit grammar rule of internal sandhi.Monier Monier Williams
अयन
Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology

Textual characteristics

Genre

The ''Ramayana'' belongs to the genre of ''

'', narratives of past events (), which includes the Mahabharata, the

Purana Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...

s, and the Ramayana. The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human life. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal husband, and the ideal king. Like the ''Mahabharata'', ''Ramayana'' presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements.

Structure

In its extant form, Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' is an epic poem of some 24,000 verses, divided into seven s (Bālakāṇḍa, Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa, Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters).

Dating

According to

Robert P. Goldman Robert Philip Goldman (born 1942)Entry
at

8th century BCE The 8th century BCE started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. The 8th century BC is a period of great change for several historically significant civilizations. In Egypt, the 23rd and 24th dynasties lead to rule from N ...

. This is due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism nor the prominence of

Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...

. The text also mentions

as the capital of

, rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital of

Shravasti Shravasti ( sa, श्रावस्ती, translit=Śrāvastī; pi, 𑀲𑀸𑀯𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀻, translit=Sāvatthī) is a city and district headquarter of Shravasti district in Indian State of Uttar Pradesh. It was the capital of the an ...

. In terms of narrative time, the action of the ''Ramayana'' predates the ''

''. Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda, respectively) seem to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi to the present toward this consensus.

Recensions

The ''Ramayana'' text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholar

Robert P. Goldman Robert Philip Goldman (born 1942)Entry
at

Romesh Chunder Dutt Romesh Chunder Dutt ( bn, রমেশচন্দ্র দত্ত; 13 August 1848 – 30 November 1909) was an Indian civil servant, economic historian, writer and translator of ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''. Dutt is considered a nation ...

writes that "the ''Ramayana'', like the ''Mahabharata'', is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind." A ''Times of India'' report dated 18 December 2015 informs about the discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the ''Ramayana'' at the Asiatic Society library,

Kolkata Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, the official name until 2001) is the Capital city, capital of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal, on the eastern ba ...

. There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) of Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' were composed by the original author. The uttarākāṇḍa, the bālakāṇḍa, although frequently counted among the main ones, is not a part of the original epic. Though Balakanda is sometimes considered in the main epic, according to many Uttarakanda is certainly a later interpolation and thus is not attributed to the work of Maharshi Valmiki. This fact is reaffirmed by the absence of these two Kāndas in the oldest manuscript. Many Hindus don't believe they are integral parts of the scripture because of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest.

Characters

Synopsis

''Bala Kanda''

Ramayana - Marriage of Rama Bharata Lakshmana and Shatrughna

This ''Sarga'' (section) details the stories of Rama's childhood and events related to the time frame. Dasharatha was the King of Ayodhya. He had three wives: Kaushalya, Kaikeyi, and Sumitra. He did not have a son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as ''Putra-kameshti Yajna''. As a consequence, Rama was first born to Kaushalya, Bharata was born to Kaikeyi, Lakshmana and Shatrughna were born to Sumitra. These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the god

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within ...

; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon

, who was oppressing the gods, and who could only be destroyed by a mortal. The boys were reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare from Vashistha. When Rama was 16 years old, sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra and proceed to destroy

Tataka Tāṭakā is a minor ''yakṣī'' antagonist in the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. Along with her children, Mārīca and Subāhu, Tāṭakā would harass and attack sages performing yajñas in the forest. They were ultimately slain by Rāma and Lakṣm ...

and many other demons.

Janaka Janaka is a character who appears in the Hindu epic Ramayana. He is an ancient Hindu king of Videha, which was located in the Mithila region. His name at birth was Sīradhvaja, and he had a brother named Kushadhvaja. His father's name was Hr ...

was the King of

Mithila Mithila may refer to: Places * Mithilā, a synonym for the ancient Videha state ** Mithilā (ancient city), the ancient capital city of Videha * Mithila (region), a cultural region (historical and contemporary), now divided between India and Nepal ...

. One day, a female child was found in the field by the King in the deep furrow dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the King regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of God". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow. Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. The King had decided that whoever could lift and wield a heavy bow, presented to his ancestors by

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hin ...

, could marry Sita. Sage Vishwamitra takes Rama and Lakshmana to Mithila to show the bow. Then Rama desires to lift it and goes on to wield the bow and when he draws the string, it broke. Marriages were arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Rama marries Sita,

Urmila Urmila () is a princess featured in the Ramayana. She is the younger sister of Sita, and the wife of Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama. Legend Urmila is the daughter of King Janaka of Mithila and Queen Sunayana, and the younger sister ...

, Bharata to

Mandavi Mandavi () is the eldest daughter of King Kushadhwaja and Queen Chandrabhaga in the Hindu epic Ramayana. She is the wife of Bharata, a younger brother of Rama. Legend Princess Mandavi has a younger sister, Shrutakirti. Mandavi is married to ...

and

Shatrughna ''Shatrughna'' ( sa, text=शत्रुघ्न, translit=śatrughna, lit=killer of enemies) is a prince of Ayodhya, King of Madhupura and Vidisha, and a brother of Prince Rama in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He is also known as ''Ripudama ...

Shrutakirti Shrutakirti () is a princess featured in the Hindu epic Ramayana. She is the daughter of King Kushadhvaja and queen Chandrabhaga. She is the wife of Shatrughna, the younger brother of Rama. Legend Shrutakirti is the Princess of Sāṃkāśya ...

. The weddings were celebrated with great festivity in

and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.

''Ayodhya Kanda''

After Rama and Sita have been married, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi was happy about this, but was later on provoked by

Manthara ''Manthara'' ( sa, मन्थरा; lit: "humpbacked") in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'' convinced Queen Kaikeyi that the throne of maharaja belonged to her son Bharata and that her step-son—crown-prince Rama (the hero of the ''Ramayana'')� ...

, a wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands. Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story. He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me, and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me." After Rama's departure, King Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Rama leaving for fourteen years of exile from Ayodhya

Rama leaving for fourteen years of exile from Ayodhya

''Aranya Kanda''

After thirteen years of exile, Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana journey southward along the banks of the river

Godavari The Godavari (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Godāvarī'' Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �od̪aːʋəɾiː is India's second longest river after the Ganges river, Ganga river and drains into the third largest basin in Indi ...

, where they build cottages and live off the land. At the

Panchavati Nashik (, Marathi: aːʃik, also called as Nasik ) is a city in the northern region of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Situated on the banks of river Godavari, Nashik is the third largest city in Maharashtra, after Mumbai and Pune. Nashik ...

forest they are visited by a

rakshasi Rakshasas ( sa, राक्षस, IAST: : Pali: ''rakkhaso'') lit. 'preservers' are a race of usually malevolent demigods prominently featured in Hindu mythology. According to the Brahmanda Purana, the rakshasas were created by Brahma when ...

named

Shurpanakha Shurpanakha (Sanskrit: शूर्पणखा, , ), also known as Meenakshi, is a ''rakshasi'' (demoness) in Hindu Mythology. Her legends are mainly narrated in the epic ''Ramayana'' and its other versions. She was the sister of Lanka's king ...

, sister of Ravana. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothers Khara and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas. When the news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the ''rakshasa''

Maricha In the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'', Maricha, or Mareecha (Sanskrit: मारीच, IAST: ) is a demon, who was killed by Rama, the hero of the epic and an avatar of Lord Vishnu. He is mentioned as an ally of Ravana, the antagonist of the epic. H ...

. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Rama, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time, Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama cannot be hurt that easily and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshman's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rama. With the coast finally clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sita is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Ravana.

Jatayu Jatayu ( sa, जटायुः, IAST: ) is a demigod in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'', who has the form of either an eagle or a vulture. He is the younger son of Aruṇa and his wife Shyeni, the brother of Sampati, as well as the nephew of Garud ...

, a

vulture A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture (including Condors). Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North a ...

, tries to rescue Sita but is mortally wounded. In Lanka, Sita is kept under the guard of ''rakshasis''. Ravana asks Sita to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet

Kabandha In Hinduism, Kabandha (, , lit. "headless torso") is a Rakshasa (demon) who is killed and freed from a curse by the god Rama – an Avatar of Vishnu – and his brother Lakshmana. Kabandha's legend appears in the Hindu epics ''Ramayana'' and ''Ma ...

and the ascetic

Shabari Sabari (, sa, शबरी) is an elderly woman ascetic in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. She is described as an ardently devoted woman who received Rama's darshana and blessing due to her bhakti to him. Story Shabari was a woman from a villa ...

, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.

''Kishkindha Kanda''

Stone bas relief at Banteay Srei in Cambodia

Citadel ''Kishkindha Kanda'' is set in the place of

Vanara In Hindu, Vanara ( sa, वानर, , forest-dwellers) are either monkeys, apes, or a race of forest-dwelling people. In the epic the ''Ramayana'', the Vanaras help Rama defeat Ravana. They are generally depicted as humanoid apes, or human- ...

s (Vana-nara) - Forest dwelling humans. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the biggest devotee of Rama, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of

Sugriva ''This character is about the vanara, in the Ramayana.'' Sugriva ( sa, सुग्रीव, , ) is a character In the ancient Indian epic Ramayana. He is the younger brother of Vali (Ramayana), Vali, whom he succeeded as ruler of the vanara ...

, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha. Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kishkindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita. However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tara (wife of Vali) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership of

Angada Angada ( Sanskrit: अङ्गदः, IAST: Aṅgada) is a legendary vanara in Hinduism. He helps Rama find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana, in the epic Ramayana. He is the prince of Kishkindha, and is later crowned as the ...

and Hanuman learns from a vulture named

Sampati Sampati ( sa, सम्पाति; IAST: ') is a demigod in Hinduism. He is the elder son of Aruṇa and Shyeni. He is the elder brother of Jatayu. He has the form of either a vulture or an eagle. According to the Brahma Purana, Sampati is ...

(elder brother of Jatayu), that Sita was taken to Lanka.

''Sundara Kanda''

''Sundara Kanda'' forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of

Hanuman Hanuman (; sa, हनुमान, ), also called Anjaneya (), is a Hindu god and a divine '' vanara'' companion of the god Rama. Hanuman is one of the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He is an ardent devotee of Rama and ...

's heroics. After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing a

Gandharva A gandharva () is a member of a class of celestial beings in Dharmic religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, whose males are divine performers such as musicians and singers, and the females are divine dancers. In Hinduism, they are ...

Kanya who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Mainakudu who offers Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Hanuman refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sita. After entering Lanka, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of Lanka. Hanuman fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lanka. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lanka nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanuman explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. Hanuman reassures Sita, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign that Rama is still alive. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramayana will not have significance if Hanuman carries her to Rama – "When Rama is not there Ravana carried Sita forcibly and when Ravana was not there, Hanuman carried Sita back to Rama". She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanuman her comb as a token to prove that she is still alive. Hanuman takes leave of Sita. Before he leaves Lanka to go back to Rama and tell him of Sita's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lanka by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.

''Yuddha Kanda''

Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, Udaipur, 1649-53

Also known as ''Lanka Kanda'', this book describes the war between the army of Rama and the army of Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's renegade brother

Vibhishana Vibhishana () is the younger brother of Ravana, the King of Lanka, in the ancient Indian epic Ramayana. Though a rakshasa himself, Vibhishana turned his back on Ravana, and defected to Rama's side, owing to his dharma. After Rama defeated R ...

. The apes named

Nala Nala (Sanskrit: नल) is a character in the '' Vana Parva'' book of the ''Mahabharata''. He was the king of Nishadha Kingdom and the son of Veerasena. Nala was known for his skill with horses and for his culinary expertise. He married princ ...

and

Nila Nila may refer to: * Nila, alternate name of Nileh Safid, a village in Iran * Baby Nila, Leela’s little sister on Sesame Street * Nila River or Bharathapuzha, is a river in the Indian state of Kerala * Pulau Nila, a small Indonesian volcanic isl ...

construct a floating bridge (known as

Rama Setu Adam's Bridge, '; ta, ஆதாம் பாலம் ' also known as Rama's Bridge or ''Rama Setu'', '; ta, ராமர் பாலம் '; sa, रामसेतु ' is a chain of natural limestone shoals, between Pamban Island, ...

) across the sea, using stones that floated on water because they had Rama's name written on them and one story also tells that they had been ''cursed'' by a sage that whatever they will throw in a water body will not sink rather it will float. The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son

Indrajit Meghanada (), also referred to by his epithet Indrajita , according to Hindu texts, was the crown prince of Lanka, who conquered Indraloka (Heaven). He is regarded as one of the greatest warriors in Hindu texts. He is a major character menti ...

hurls a powerful weapon at Lakshmana, who is badly wounded. So Hanuman assumes a gigantic form and flies from Lanka to the Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sumeru, Hanuman was unable to identify the herb that could cure Lakshmana and so decided to bring the entire mountain back to Lanka. Eventually, the war ends when Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka. On meeting Sita, Rama said, "the dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Ravana have been wiped off, by his victory over the enemy with the assistance of Hanuman, Sugreeva and Vibhishana". However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom, Rama disowns her and asks her to seek shelter elsewhere. Sita requests Lakshmana to prepare a pile of fire for her to enter. When Lakshmana prepares a pyre, Sita prays to the god Agni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from the burning pyre, carrying Sita in his arms and restores her to Rama, testifying to her purity. Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode of ''Agni Pariksha'' varies in the versions of ''Ramayana'' by Valmiki and

Tulsidas Tulsidas (; born Rambola Dubey; also known as Goswami Tulsidas; c.1511pp. 23–34.–1623) was a Ramanandi Vaishnava Hindu saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. He wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi, but ...

. In

Ramacharitamanas ''Ramcharitmanas'' ( deva, श्रीरामचरितमानस, Rāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the Awadhi language, based on the ''Ramayana'', and composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623). This ...

, Sita was under the protection of Agni (see

Maya Sita In some adaptations of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'', Maya Sita ( sa, माया सीता, "illusional Sita") or Chaya Sita (, "shadow Sita") is the illusionary duplicate of the goddess Sita (the heroine in the texts), who is abducted by t ...

) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama.

''Uttara Kanda''

Considered by several scholars to be an interpolation to the original six chapters, this kanda narrates Rama's reign of

, the birth of

Lava Lava is molten or partially molten rock ( magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or ...

and

Kusha Kusha was a Suryavansha The Solar dynasty ( IAST: Suryavaṃśa or Ravivaṃśa in Sanskrit) or the Ikshvaku dynasty was founded by the legendary king Ikshvaku.Geography of Rigvedic India, M.L. Bhargava, Lucknow 1964, pp. 15-18, 46-49, 92-98 ...

, the

Ashvamedha The Ashvamedha ( sa, अश्वमेध, aśvamedha, translit-std=IAST) was a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty: a horse accomp ...

yajna Yajna ( sa, यज्ञ, yajña, translit-std=IAST, sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering) refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.SG Nigal (1986), Axiological Approach to the Vedas, Northern Book ...

, and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called '' Rama-Rajya'' (a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). After hearing from his ministers that his subjects were unhappy with the fact that their king had chosen to recouncile with a woman who had lived in the house of another man, Rama is furious as Sita had proved to everyone she was pure through the agnipariksha. In order to uphold his rank as the champion of dharma, Sita, who was pregnant was sent to exile into the forest. She finds refuge in Sage

's ashram, where she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha. Meanwhile, Rama conducts an

Ashvamedha yajna The Ashvamedha ( sa, अश्वमेध, aśvamedha, translit-std=IAST) was a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty: a horse accompa ...

(A Vedic, royal assertion of sovereignty) and in absence of Sita, places a golden statue of her. Lava and Kusha capture the horse (the vehicle of the yajna), and defeat the whole army of Ayodhya that had accompanied the horse. Later on, the brothers defeat

, Bharata,

, and other warriors and take Hanuman as prisoner. Finally, Rama himself arrives and defeats the two mighty brothers. Valmiki updates Sita about this development and advises both the brothers to go to Ayodhya and tell the story of Sita's sacrifice to the common folk. Both brothers arrive at Ayodhya, but face many difficulties while convincing the people. Hanuman helps both the brothers in this task. At some point, Valmiki brings Sita forward. Seeing Sita, Rama is teary-eyed and realises that Lava and Kusha are his own sons. Nagarasen (one of the ministers who instigated the hatred towards Sita) challenges Sita's character and asks her to prove her purity. Sita is overwhelmed with emotion, and decides to go back to the Earth from where she emerged. She says that, "If I am pure, this earth will open and swallow me whole." At that very moment, the earth opens up and swallows Sita. Rama rules Ayodhya for many years and finally takes Samadhi into

Sarayu The Sarayu is a river that originates at a ridge south of Nanda Kot mountain in Bageshwar district in Uttarakhand, India. It flows through Kapkot, Bageshwar, and Seraghat towns before discharging into the Sharda River at Pancheshwar at th ...

river along with his three brothers and leaves the world. He goes back to

Vaikuntha Vaikuntha ( sa, वैकुण्ठ, lit=without anxiety, translit=Vaikuṇṭha), also called Vishnuloka (), and Tirunatu (Tirunāṭu) in Tamil, is the abode of Vishnu, the supreme deity in the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism,Gavin Flood, A ...

in his

form (Lakshmana as

Adishesha Shesha ( Sanskrit: शेष; ) , also known as Sheshanaga ( Sanskrit: शेषनाग; ) or Adishesha (), is a serpentine demigod ( Naga) and Nagaraja (King of all serpents), as well as a primordial being of creation in Hinduism. In the ...

, Bharata as his conch, and Shatrughana as the Sudarshana Chakra) and meets Sita there, who by then had assumed her true form of

Lakshmi Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with ''Maya'' ("Illusion"). Alo ...

Versions

As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the ''Ramayana'' survive. In particular, the ''Ramayana'' related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on ''Ramayana'' in

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...

Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailan ...

Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...

Malaysia Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...

, Laos,

Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making it ...

and

Maldives The Maldives, officially the Republic of Maldives,, ) and historically known as the Maldive Islands, is a country and archipelagic state in South Asia in the Indian Ocean. The Maldives is southwest of Sri Lanka and India, about from the A ...

India

There are diverse regional versions of the ''Ramayana'' written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents the epic without two of its kandas. During the 12th century,

Kamban Kambar or Kavichakravarthy Kamban (1180 CE–1250 CE) was an Indian Tamil poet and the author of the Ramavataram, popularly known as ''Kambaramayanam'', the Tamil version of the epic Ramayana.The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and South ...

wrote

Ramavataram ''Ramavataram'', popularly referred to as ''Kamba Ramayanam'', is a Tamil epic that was written by the Tamil poet Kambar during the 12th century. Based on Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' (which is in Sanskrit), the story describes the life of Kin ...

, known popularly as

Kambaramayanam ''Ramavataram'', popularly referred to as ''Kamba Ramayanam'', is a Tamil epic that was written by the Tamil poet Kambar during the 12th century. Based on Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' (which is in Sanskrit), the story describes the life of King ...

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, nati ...

, but references to Ramayana story appear in Tamil literature as early as 3rd century CE. A

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode S ...

version,

Ranganatha Ramayanam ''Sri Ranganatha Ramayanamu'' (శ్రీ రంగనాథ రామాయణము) is one of the most famous adaptions of the Valmiki '' Ramayana'' in Telugu, a Dravidian language spoken by the people of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Tel ...

, was written by

Gona Budda Reddy Gona Budda Reddy, also known as Ranganatha (13th century CE), was a poet and ruler living in southern India. Written work His ''Ranganatha Ramayanam'' was a pioneering work in the Telugu language on the theme of the ''Ramayana'' epic. Most sc ...

in the 13th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century

Saptakanda Ramayana ''Saptakanda Ramayana'' (Assamese: সপ্তকাণ্ড ৰামায়ণ) is the 14th-15th century Assamese version of the ''Ramayana'' attributed to the famous assamese poet Madhava Kandali. It is considered to be the second translation ...

Assamese Assamese may refer to: * Assamese people, a socio-ethnolinguistic identity of north-eastern India * People of Assam, multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic and multi-religious people of Assam * Assamese language, one of the easternmost Indo-Aryan language ...

Madhava Kandali Kaviraja Madhava Kandali ( as, মাধৱ কন্দলি) (circa. 14th century) was an Indian poet from the state of Assam. He is one of the renowned poets pertaining to the Pre- Shankara era. His Saptakanda Ramayana is considered the earl ...

. Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' inspired

Sri Ramacharit Manas ''Ramcharitmanas'' ( deva, श्रीरामचरितमानस, Rāmacaritamānasa), is an Epic poetry, epic poem in the Awadhi language, based on the ''Ramayana'', and composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Tulsidas (c. 1532� ...

in 1576, an epic

Awadhi Awadhi (; ), also known as Audhi (), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern India and Nepal. It is primarily spoken in the Awadh region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. The name ''Awadh'' is connected to Ayodhya, the ancient city, w ...

(a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as ''Tulsi-krita Ramayana''.

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the nin ...

i poet Premanand wrote a version of the ''Ramayana'' in the 17th century.

Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, H ...

, the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother,

Hamida Banu Begum Hamida Banu Begum ( 1527 – 29 August 1604), was the queen consort of the second Mughal emperor Humayun and the mother of his successor, the third Mughal emperor Akbar.Krittivasi Ramayan ''Kṛttivāsī Rāmāyaṇ'',, .; also called ''Śrīrām Pãcālī'',, . composed by the fifteenth-century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha, from whom it takes its name, is a rendition of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'' into Bengali. Written in the traditional ...

, a

Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the ...

version by

Krittibas Ojha Mahakavi Krittibas Ojha (; 1381–1461) was a medieval Bengali poet. His major contribution to Bengali literature and culture was Indian epic ''Rāmāyaṇa'' in Bengali. His work, the ''Śrīrām Pā̃cālī'', is popularly known as the '' Krit ...

in the 15th century;

Vilanka Ramayana Bilanka Ramayana, (ବିଲଙ୍କା ରାମାୟଣ) (also Vilanka Ramayana) is a 15th-century retelling of the Indian epic poem, the ''Ramayana'', written by Sarala Dasa in Odia. The work is generally regarded as forming a supplementary ...

by 15th century poet

Sarala Dasa Sarala Dasa (born as Siddheswara Parida) was a 15th-century poet and scholar of Odia literature. Best known for three Odia books — ''Mahabharata'', '' Vilanka Ramayana'' and ''Chandi Purana'' — he was the first scholar to write in Odia and h ...

and ''

Jagamohana Ramayana Jagamohana Ramayana ( or, ଜଗମୋହନ ରାମାୟଣ) also known as Dandi Ramayana popularly across Odisha is an epic poem composed by the 15th-century poet Balarama Dasa. This work is a retelling of the Ramayana though not a direct tra ...

'' (also known as ''Dandi Ramayana'') by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both in

Odia Odia, also spelled Oriya or Odiya, may refer to: * Odia people in Odisha, India * Odia language, an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family * Odia alphabet, a writing system used for the Odia languag ...

; a Torave Ramayana in

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

by 16th-century poet Narahari;

Adhyathmaramayanam ''Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu'' is the most popular Malayalam version of the Sanskrit Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. It is believed to have been written by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the early 17th century, and is considered to be a classi ...

, a

Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry ( Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam wa ...

version by

Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (, ) (Malayalam: തുഞ്ചത്ത് രാമാനുജൻ എഴുത്തച്ഛൻ) ( ''fl.'' 16th century) was a Malayalam devotional poet, translator and linguist from Kerala, south India. ...

in the 16th century; in

Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people *Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece See also * * ...

by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi

Kuvempu Kuppali Venkatappa Puttappa (29 December 1904 – 11 November 1994), popularly known by his pen name Kuvempu, was an Indian poet, playwright, novelist and critic. He is widely regarded as the greatest Kannada poet of the 20th century. He was ...

's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in

and Srimad Ramayana Kalpavrikshamu in Telugu by

Viswanatha Satyanarayana Viswanatha Satyanarayana (10 September 1885 – 18 October 1976) was a 20th-century Telugu writer. His works included poetry, novels, dramatic play, short stories and speeches, covering a wide range of subjects such as analysis of h ...

who received Jnanapeeth award for this work. There is a sub-plot to the ''Ramayana'', prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of

Ahiravan In some versions of the Ramayana such as the Krittivasi Ramayana, Ahiravan, also called Mahiravana, is a rakshasa (demon) ruler of Patala. He is variously described as either an ally or a brother of the rakshasa king Ravana. In Thai tradition ...

and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess

Kali Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In this trad ...

Adbhuta Ramayana ''Adbhuta Ramayana'' is a '' Śāktaḥ'' Sanskrit work traditionally attributed to the sage Valmiki. It is considerably more obscure than both the ''Valmiki Ramayana''—generally considered the original version—as well as Tulsidas’ Awadhi ve ...

is a version that is obscure but also attributed to

– intended as a supplementary to the original

Valmiki Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages e ...

. In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case to

's wife,

Mandodari Mandodari ( sa, मंदोदरी, , lit. "soft-bellied";) was the queen consort of Ravana, the king of Lanka, according to the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. The ''Ramayana'' describes Mandodari as beautiful, pious, and righteous. She is extol ...

as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in the

Mahakali Mahakali () is the Hindu goddess of time and death in the goddess-centric tradition of Shaktism. Similar to Kali, Mahakali is a fierce goddess associated with universal power, time, life, death, and both rebirth and liberation. She is the co ...

form. The

Gondi people The Gondi (Gōndi) or Gond or Koitur are a Dravidian ethno-linguistic group. They are one of the largest tribal groups in India. They are spread over the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra ...

have their own version of the Ramayana known as the ''Gond Ramayani'', derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride.

Early medieval recension from Bengal

Chance discovery of a 6th-century manuscript reveals insights into the evolution of the narrative. Importantly, the ‘Daśagrīvā Rākṣasa Charitrām Vadham’ (Slaying of the Ten-Headed Giant) manuscript contains only five kandas (chapters), and ends with the trio's triumphant return to Ayodhya. Missing from this particular recension are the ‘Balakanda’ dealing with Rama's childhood, and the ‘Uttarakanda’ – which narrates (a) Rama's divinity as an avatar of Vishnu, (b) the events leading up to the exile of Sita, (c) the death of Rama's devoted brother, Lakshmana. These are also the only two books where the Sage Valmiki appears as a character. The manuscript was discovered in 2015, from an archive compiled by the German Indologist Theodor Aufrecht.

Early references in Tamil literature

Even before Kambar wrote the

in Tamil in the 12th century AD, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in the

Sangam literature The Sangam literature ( Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' ( Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connote ...

Akanaṉūṟu The ''Akananuru'' (, literally "four hundred oemsin the akam genre"), sometimes called ''Nedunthokai'' (''lit.'' "anthology of long poems"), is a classical Tamil poetic work and one of the Eight Anthologies (''Ettuthokai'') in the Sangam lite ...

,(dated 1st century BCE) and

Purananuru The ''Purananuru'' (, literally "four hundred oemsin the genre puram"), sometimes called ''Puram'' or ''Purappattu'', is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the last of the Eight Anthologies (''Ettuthokai'') in the Sangam literat ...

(dated 300 BC), the twin epics of

Silappatikaram ''Cilappatikāram'' ( ta, சிலப்பதிகாரம் ml, ചിലപ്പതികാരം, IPA: ʧiləppət̪ikɑːrəm, ''lit.'' "the Tale of an Anklet"), also referred to as ''Silappathikaram'' or ''Silappatikaram'', is the ...

(dated 2nd Century CE) and

Manimekalai ''Maṇimēkalai'' ( ta, மணிமேகலை, ), also spelled ''Manimekhalai'' or ''Manimekalai'', is a Tamil-Buddhist epic composed by Kulavāṇikaṉ Seethalai Sataṉar probably around the 6th century. It is an "anti-love story", a s ...

(cantos 5, 17 and 18), and the

Alvar An alvar is a biological environment based on a limestone plain with thin or no soil and, as a result, sparse grassland vegetation. Often flooded in the spring, and affected by drought in midsummer, alvars support a distinctive group of prair ...

literature of

Kulasekhara Alvar Kulasekhara ( Tamil: ''குலசேகரர்'') (''fl.'' 9th century CE), one of the twelve Vaishnavite alvars, was a bhakti theologian and devotional poet from medieval south India (Kerala). He was the author of Perumal Tirumoli in Ta ...

Thirumangai Alvar Thirumangai Alvar (IAST: ), also referred to as Thirumangai Mannan is the last of the 12 Alvar saints of south India, who are known for their affiliation to the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism. He is considered one of the most learned Alvars ...

Andal Andal ( ta, ஆண்டாள்), also known as Kothai, Nachiyar, and Godadevi, was the only female Alvar among the twelve Hindu poet-saints of South India. She was posthumously considered an avatar of the goddess Bhudevi. As with the A ...

and

Nammalvar Nammalvar ( Tamil: நம்மாழ்வார், lit. 'Our Alvar') was one of the twelve Alvar saints of Tamil Nadu, India, who are known for their affiliation to the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism. The verses of the Alvars are compiled ...

(dated between 5th and 10th Centuries CE). Even the songs of the Nayanmars have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva.

Buddhist version

In the Buddhist variant of the ''Ramayana'' (

Dasaratha Jataka Dasaratha Jataka ( pi, Dasaratha Jātaka; si, දසරථ ජාතකය) is a Jataka Tale found in Buddhist literature about the previous life of the Shakyamuni (Gautama) Buddha as a prince named Rama. It is found as 461th Jataka story i ...

), Dasharatha was king of

Benares Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world. * * * * The city has a syncretic t ...

and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for a twelve-year exile. After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned. Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā. There is no

in this version, or the Rama-Ravana war. However,

appears in other Buddhist literature, the Lankavatara Sutra.. In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous birth of the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in ...

, and Sita as previous birth of Yasodharā(Rahula-Mata).

Jain versions

versions of the ''Ramayana'' can be found in the various

Jain agama Jain literature ( Sanskrit: जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the ...

s like Saṅghadāsagaṇī Vāchaka's ''

Vasudevahiṇḍī ''Vasudeva-hindi'' (IAST: Vasudevahiṇḍī, "Vasudeva's wanderings") is a Jain literature, Jain text by Sangha-dasa, probably from 5th century India. The text narrates several stories in the form of nested narrative layers. The main story is bor ...

'' (circa 4th century CE), Ravisena's Padmapurana (story of Padmaja and

, Padmaja being the name of

Hemacandra Hemachandra was a 12th century () Indian Jain saint, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, grammarian, law theorist, historian, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and prosodist. Noted as a prodigy by his contemporaries, he ...

's Trisastisalakapurusa charitra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa's ''Vasudevahindi'' and ''Uttarapurana'' by Gunabhadara. According to

Jain cosmology Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (''loka'') and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity t ...

, every half time cycle has nine sets of

Balarama Balarama ( Sanskrit: बलराम, IAST: ''Balarāma'') is a Hindu god and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Ba ...

Vasudeva According to Hindu scriptures, Vasudeva (Sanskrit: वसुदेव, IAST: ''Vasudeva''), also called Anakadundubhi, (''anakas'' and ''dundubhis'' both refer to ''drums'', after the musicians who played these instruments at the time of his ...

and prativasudeva. Rama,

and

are the eighth Baldeva, Vasudeva and prativasudeva respectively.

Padmanabh Jaini Padmanabh Shrivarma Jaini (October 23, 1923 - May 25, 2021) was an Indian born scholar of Jainism and Buddhism, living in Berkeley, California, United States. He was from a Digambar Jain family; however he was equally familiar with both the ...

notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to

and

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...

in Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule half the earth as half-

chakravartin A ''chakravarti'' ( sa, चक्रवर्तिन्, ''cakravartin''; pi, cakkavatti; zh, 轉輪王, ''Zhuǎnlúnwáng'', "Wheel-Turning King"; , ''Zhuǎnlún Shèngwáng'', "Wheel-Turning Sacred King"; ja, 転輪王, ''Tenrin'ō'' ...

s. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the ''jinacharitra'' (lives of jinas) by

Acharya Bhadrabahu Ācārya Bhadrabāhu (c. 367 - c. 298 BC) was, according to the ''Digambara'' sect of Jainism, the last '' Shruta Kevalin'' (all knowing by hearsay, that is indirectly) in Jainism . He was the last ''acharya'' of the undivided Jain ''sangha''. ...

(3d–4th century BCE). In the Jain epic of ''Ramayana'', it is not Rama who kills Ravana as told in the Hindu version. Perhaps this is because Rama, a liberated Jain Self in his last life, is unwilling to kill. Instead, it is Lakshmana who kills Ravana (as Vasudeva killes Prativasudeva). In the end, Rama, who led an upright life, renounces his kingdom, becomes a

Jain monk Jain monasticism refers to the order of monks and nuns in the Jain community and can be divided into two major denominations: the ''Digambara'' and the ''Śvētāmbara''. The monastic practices of the two major sects vary greatly, but the maj ...

and attains

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologica ...

. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to Hell. However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to

Jain texts Jain literature (Sanskrit: जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the c ...

, Ravana will be the future

Tirthankara In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English language, English: literally a 'Ford (crossing), ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''Dharma (Jainism), dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the ...

(omniscient teacher) of Jainism. The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki's ''Ramayana''. Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain version, Rama had four chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven as Indra. Rama, after Lakshman's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in the fourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future Tirthankara of the next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be his

Ganadhara In Jainism, the term Ganadhara is used to refer the chief disciple of a ''Tirthankara''. In ''samavasarana'', the ''Tīrthankara'' sat on a throne without touching it (about two inches above it). Around, the ''Tīrthankara'' sits the ''Ganad ...

Sikh version

In the holiest

scripture the

Guru Granth Sahib The Guru Granth Sahib ( pa, ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬ, ) is the central holy religious scripture of Sikhism, regarded by Sikhs as the final, sovereign and eternal Guru following the lineage of the ten human gurus of the rel ...

, there is a description of two types of ''Ramayana''. One is a spiritual ''Ramayana'' which is the actual subject of Guru Granth Sahib, in which Ravana is ego, Sita is ''budhi'' (intellect), Rama is inner Self and Laxman is ''mann'' (attention, mind). Guru Granth Sahib also believes in the existence of

Dashavatara The Dashavatara ( sa, दशावतार, ) are the ten primary avatars of Vishnu, a principal Hindu god. Vishnu is said to descend in the form of an avatar to restore cosmic order. The word ''Dashavatara'' derives from , meaning "ten", a ...

who were kings of their times which tried their best to restore order to the world. King Rama (Ramchandra) was one of those who is not covered in Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib states: :ਹੁਕਮਿ ਉਪਾਏ ਦਸ ਅਉਤਾਰਾ॥ :हुकमि उपाए दस अउतारा॥ :By

hukam Hukam ( pa, ਹੁਕਮਿ) is a Punjabi word derived from the Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in c ...

(supreme command), he created his ten incarnations Rather there is no ''Ramayana'' written by any Guru. Guru Gobind Singh however is known to have written Ram Avatar in a text which is highly debated on its authenticity. Guru Gobind Singh clearly states that though all the 24 avatars incarnated for the betterment of the world, but fell prey to ego and therefore were destroyed by the supreme creator.. He also said that the almighty, invisible, all prevailing God created great numbers of Indras, Moons and Suns, Deities, Demons and sages, and also numerous saints and Brahmanas (enlightened people). But they too were caught in the noose of death (Kaal) (

transmigration of the soul Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a ...

Nepal

Besides being the site of discovery of the oldest surviving manuscript of the ''Ramayana'', Nepal gave rise to two regional variants in mid 19th – early 20th century. One, written by

Bhanubhakta Acharya Bhanubhakta Acharya () (1814—1868 CE) (1871—1925 BS) was a Nepali writer, poet, and translator. He is widely regarded as the first poet in the Nepali language, for which he was conferred with the title of "Aadikabi": literally, "the first po ...

, is considered the first epic of

Nepali language Nepali (; , ) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Himalayas region of South Asia. It is the official, and most widely spoken, language of Nepal, where it also serves as a '' lingua franca''. Nepali has official status in the Indian st ...

, while the other, written by

Siddhidas Mahaju Siddhidas Mahaju ( ne, सिद्धिदास महाजु) (alternative name: Siddhidas Amatya) (15 October 1867 – 29 December 1929) was a Nepalese poet and one of the Four Pillars of Nepal Bhasa. He was at the forefront in the end ...

Nepal Bhasa Newar (), or Newari and known officially in Nepal as Nepal Bhasa, is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken by the Newar people, the indigenous inhabitants of Nepal Mandala, which consists of the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding regions in Nep ...

was a foundational influence in the

Nepal Bhasa renaissance Nepal Bhasa renaissance (Nepal Bhasa: नेपालभाषा पुनर्जागरण) was the movement to revive and modernize the Nepal Bhasa language during the period 1909 to 1941. The movement was spontaneous and not orchestrated. ...

Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages e ...

written by

is one of the most popular verses in Nepal. The popularization of the ''Ramayana'' and its tale, originally written in

Sanskrit Language Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the lat ...

was greatly enhanced by the work of Bhanubhakta. Mainly because of his writing of Nepali Ramayana, Bhanubhakta is also called ''Aadi Kavi'' or ''The Pioneering Poet''.

Southeast Asian

Cambodia

The Cambodian version of the ''Ramayana'',

( km, រាមកេរ្ដិ៍ - ''Glory of Rama''), is the most famous story of Khmer literature since the

Kingdom of Funan Funan (; km, ហ៊្វូណន, ; vi, Phù Nam, Chữ Hán: ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''( Mandala)''—located in mai ...

era. It adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and shows the balance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker has several differences from the original ''Ramayana'', including scenes not included in the original and emphasis on

and Sovann Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, such as sculpture,

Khmer classical dance The Royal Ballet of Cambodia ( km, របាំព្រះរាជទ្រព្យ) is a dance company of Cambodia, famous for its luxury of costumes, accessories, gold and silver, accompanied by a beautiful soft dance. It is a dance th ...

theatre Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The perfor ...

known as (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and the mural and bas-reliefs seen at the

Silver Pagoda The Silver Pagoda is located on the south side of the Royal Palace in Chey Chumneas, Phnom Penh. The official name is Wat Ubaosoth Ratanaram ( km, វត្តឧបោសថរតនារាម), also known as Wat Preah Keo Morakot (Khmer: � ...

and

Angkor Wat Angkor Wat (; km, អង្គរវត្ត, "City/Capital of Temples") is a temple complex in Cambodia and is the largest religious monument in the world, on a site measuring . Originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the g ...

Indonesia

There are several Indonesian adaptations of Ramayana, including the Javanese ''

Kakawin Ramayana ''Kakawin Ramayana'' is an Old Javanese poem rendering of the Sanskrit Ramayana in ''kakawin'' meter. ''Kakawin Rāmâyaṇa'' is a '' kakawin'', the Javanese form of ''kāvya'', a poem modeled on traditional Sanskrit meters.It is believed t ...

'' and Balinese ''Ramakavaca''. The first half of ''

'' is similar to the original Sanskrit version, while the latter half is very different. One of the recognizable modifications is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian demigod,

Semar Semar is a character in Javanese mythology who frequently appears in wayang shadow plays. He is one of the punokawan (clowns), but is in fact divine and very wise. He is the dhanyang (guardian spirit) of Java,Geertz, 23. and is regarded by som ...

, and his sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up the numerically significant four

Punokawan In Javanese ''wayang'' (shadow puppets), the ''panakawan'' or ''panakavan'' (''phanakavhan'') are the clown servants of the hero. There are four of them – '' Semar'' (also known as ''Ki Lurah Semar''), ''Petruk'', '' Gareng'' and '' Bagong''. ...

or "clown servants". ''Kakawin Ramayana'' is believed to have been written in

Central Java Central Java ( id, Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta ...

circa 870 AD during the reign of Mpu Sindok in the

Medang Kingdom The Mataram Kingdom (, jv, ꦩꦠꦫꦩ꧀, ) was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu–Buddhism, Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established b ...

. The Javanese ''Kakawin Ramayana'' is not based on Valmiki's epic, which was then the most famous version of Rama's story, but based on '' Ravanavadha'' or the "Ravana massacre", which is the sixth or seventh century poem by Indian poet Bhattikavya. ''

'' was further developed on the neighboring island of

Bali Bali () is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nu ...

becoming the Balinese ''Ramakavaca''. The bas-reliefs of ''Ramayana'' and ''Krishnayana'' scenes are carved on balustrades of the 9th century

Prambanan Prambanan ( id, Candi Prambanan, jv, ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦴꦁꦒꦿꦁ, Rara Jonggrang) is a 9th-century Hindu temple compound in Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimūrti, the expression of God as the Creator (Brahma), the P ...

temple in

Yogyakarta Yogyakarta (; jv, ꦔꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ ; pey, Jogjakarta) is the capital city of Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy, ...

, as well as in the 14th century

Penataran Penataran or Panataran ( id, Candi Penataran) is one of the largest Hindu temple ruins complex in East Java, Indonesia. It is located roughly 12 km northeast of Blitar, with the closest airport being farther away at Malang. Believed to hav ...

temple in

East Java East Java ( id, Jawa Timur) is a province of Indonesia located in the easternmost hemisphere of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean border its northern and so ...

. In

, the Ramayana is a deeply ingrained aspect of the culture, especially among Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese people, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and entertainment, for example in

wayang , also known as ( jv, ꦮꦪꦁ, translit=wayang), is a traditional form of puppet theatre play originating from the Indonesian island of Java. refers to the entire dramatic show. Sometimes the leather puppet itself is referred to as . Perfor ...

and traditional dances. The Balinese ''

kecak ''Kecak'' (pronounced ("kechak"), alternate spellings: ''kechak'' and ''ketjak''), known in Indonesian as ''tari kecakilolahhe'', is a form of Balinese Hindu dance and music drama that was developed in the 1930s in Bali, Indonesia. Since its ...

'' dance for example, retells the story of the Ramayana, with dancers playing the roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana, Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Indrajit surrounded by a troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the chorus chanting "cak". The performance also includes a fire show to describe the burning of Lanka by Hanuman. In

, the ''

Wayang Wong ''Wayang wong'', also known as ''wayang orang'' (literally "human ''wayang''"), is a type of classical Javanese and Balinese dance theatrical performance with themes taken from episodes of the '' Ramayāna'' or '' Mahabharāta''. Performances ...

Javanese dance Javanese dance ( id, Tarian Jawa; jv, ꧋ꦠꦫꦶꦗꦮ) is the dances and art forms that were created and influenced by Javanese culture in Indonesia. Javanese dance movement is controlled, deliberate and refined. Javanese art often displays ...

also retells the Ramayana. One example of a dance production of the Ramayana in Java is the

Ramayana Ballet The Ramayana Ballet ( id, Sendratari Ramayana) is a visualization and representation of the epic ''Ramayana'' saga, originally written by Valmiki in the Sanskrit language, in a highly stylized dance artform. Ramayana Ballet performance combines mu ...

performed on the Trimurti Prambanan open air stage, with dozens of actors and the three main prasad spires of the

Hindu temple as a backdrop.

Laos

Phra Lak Phra Lam Phra Lak Phra Ram (ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national novel of the Lao people, and is the Lao adaptation of the Dasaratha Jataka, a story narrating one of the previous life of Buddha as a Bodhisa ...

is a

Lao language Lao, sometimes referred to as Laotian (, 'Lao' or , 'Lao language'), is a Kra–Dai languages, Kra–Dai language of the Lao people. It is spoken in Laos, where it is the official language for around 7 million people, as well as in northeas ...

version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of

Gautama buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in ...

Malaysia

The

Hikayat Seri Rama Hikayat Seri Rama is the Malay literary adaptation of the Hindu Ramayana epic in the form of a hikayat. The main story remains the same as the original Sanskrit version but some aspects of it were slightly modified to a local context such as the ...

incorporated element of both Hindu and

Islamic mythology Islamic mythology is the body of myths associated with Islam and the Quran. Islam is a religion that is more concerned with social order and law than with religious ritual or myths. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'' identifies a nu ...

Myanmar

Yama Zatdaw is the Burmese version of ''Ramayana''. It is also considered the unofficial national epic of

Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...

. There are nine known pieces of the Yama Zatdaw in Myanmar. The Burmese name for the story itself is Yamayana, while zatdaw refers to the acted play or being part of the

jataka tales The Jātakas (meaning "Birth Story", "related to a birth") are a voluminous body of literature native to India which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. According to Peter Skilling, this genre is ...

of Theravada Buddhism. This Burmese version is also heavily influenced by

(Thai version of Ramayana) which resulted from various invasions by

Konbaung Dynasty The Konbaung dynasty ( my, ကုန်းဘောင်ခေတ်, ), also known as Third Burmese Empire (တတိယမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်) and formerly known as the Alompra dynasty (အလောင်းဘ ...

kings toward the

Ayutthaya Kingdom The Ayutthaya Kingdom (; th, อยุธยา, , IAST: or , ) was a Siamese kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. The Ayutthaya Kingdom is consi ...

Philippines

The ''

Maharadia Lawana The Maharadia Lawana (sometimes spelled Maharadya Lawana or Maharaja Rāvaṇa) is a Maranao epic which tells a local version of the Indian epic Ramayana. Its English translation is attributed to Filipino Indologist Juan R. Francisco, assisted by M ...

'', an epic poem of the

Maranao people The Maranao people (Maranao: mәranaw Filipino: ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to the southern indigenous people who are the "people of the lake", a predomin ...

of the

, has been regarded as an indigenized version of the Ramayana since it was documented and translated into English by Professor

Juan R. Francisco Juan R. Francisco is a Filipino Indologist who discovered the Maranao version of the ''Ramayana'', that is native to the Philippines. He then translated it into English. He is also a professor at the University of the Philippines in Manila. For s ...

and Nagasura Madale in 1968. The poem, which had not been written down before Francisco and Madale's translation, narrates the adventures of the monkey-king, Maharadia Lawana, to whom the Gods have granted immortality. Francisco, an indologist from the

University of the Philippines Manila The University of the Philippines Manila (UPM) is a state-funded medical and research university located in Ermita, Manila, Philippines. It is known for being the country's center of excellence in the health sciences, including health professio ...

, believed that the ''Ramayana'' narrative arrived in the Philippines some time between the 17th to 19th centuries, via interactions with Javanese and Malaysian cultures which traded extensively with India. By the time it was documented in the 1960s, the character names, place names, and the precise episodes and events in Maharadia Lawana's narrative already had some notable differences from those of the ''Ramayana''. Francisco believed that this was a sign of "indigenization", and suggested that some changes had already been introduced in Malaysia and Java even before the story was heard by the Maranao, and that upon reaching the Maranao homeland, the story was "further indigenized to suit Philippine cultural perspectives and orientations."

Thailand

Thailand's popular national epic ''

'' (, from , 'glory of Ram') is derived from the Hindu epic. In , Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari ( and ). Vibhishana (), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts the death of Ravana from Sita's horoscope. Ravana throws her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka (). While the main story is identical to that of ''Ramayana'', many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.

Critical edition

A critical edition of the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and 1970s, by the Oriental Institute at Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda#Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India, utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across India and the surrounding region. An English language translation of the critical edition was completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit scholar Robert P. Goldman of the University of California, Berkeley. Another English translation of Critical Edition of Valmiki Ramayana (in three volumes) with extensive footnotes was done by an Indian Scholar, economist and translator Bibek Debroy in October, 2017.

Commentaries

It is said that there are around thirty three commentaries for Ramayana. Some of the commentaries on Ramayana include Mahesvara Tirtha's ' (also known as '), Govindaraja's ' (also known as ), Sivasahaya's ', Mahadeva Yogi's ', Ramanuja's , Ahobala's and ' by Nagoji Bhatta or Ramavarma. The three commentaries ', ' and ' are known as ' (i.e. commentary trio) and are more popular.

Influence of Ramayana

One of the most important literary works of History of India, ancient India, the ''Ramayana'' has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably

by Tamils, Tamil poet Kambar of the 12th century, Telugu language ''Molla Ramayanam'' by poet Molla (poet), Molla and

by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th century

poet Narahari's Torave Ramayana and 15th century Bengali people, Bengali poet

Krittivasi Ramayan ''Kṛttivāsī Rāmāyaṇ'',, .; also called ''Śrīrām Pãcālī'',, . composed by the fifteenth-century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha, from whom it takes its name, is a rendition of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'' into Bengali. Written in the traditional ...

, as well as the 16th century

version,

, written by

. Ramayanic scenes have also been depicted through terracottas, stone sculptures, bronzes and paintings. These include the stone panel at Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh depicting Bharata's meeting with

at Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh, Chitrakuta (3rd century CE). The ''Ramayana'' became popular in Southeast Asia during 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of the ''Ramayana'', known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin, Indian diaspora. Balinese Ramayan-Sita and Hanuman

, especially Java and

, ''Ramayana'' has become a popular source of artistic expression for dance drama and shadow puppet performances in the region. Ramayana Ballet, Sendratari Ramayana is the Javanese dance, Javanese traditional ballet in wayang orang style, routinely performed in the cultural center of

. Large casts were part of outdoor and indoor performances presented regularly at

Trimurti temple for many years. Balinese dance, Balinese dance dramas of ''Ramayana'' were also performed frequently in Balinese temples, Balinese Hindu temples in Ubud and Uluwatu Temple, Uluwatu, where scenes from Ramayana are an integral part of

dance performances. Javanese Wayang (''Wayang Kulit'' of ''purwa'' and ''Wayang Wong'') also draw from ''Ramayana'' or ''

''.

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De strijd tussen de apenvorsten Sugriwa en Subali TMnr 3525-25

''Ramayana'' has also been depicted in many paintings, notably by the

n (

nese) artists such as I Gusti Dohkar (before 1938), I Dewa Poetoe Soegih, I Dewa Gedé Raka Poedja, Ida Bagus Made Togog before 1948 period. Their paintings are currently in the National Museum of World Cultures collections of Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen also depicted ''Ramayana'' in 1972. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.

In popular culture

Multiple modern, English-language adaptations of the epic exist, namely Scion of Ikshvaku, Rama Chandra Series by Amish Tripathi, Ashok Banker#Ramayana Series, Ramayana Series by Ashok Banker and a mythopoetic novel, ''Asura: Tale of the Vanquished'' by Anand Neelakantan. Another Indian author, Devdutt Pattanaik, has published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana titled ''Sita'', ''The Book Of Ram'' and ''Hanuman's Ramayan''. A number of plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based upon the ''Ramayana''.

Stage

One of the best known ''Ramayana'' plays is Gopal Sharman's ''The Ramayana'', a contemporary interpretation in English, of the great epic based on the Valmiki ''Ramayana''. The play has had more than 3000 plus performances all over the world, mostly as a one-woman performance by actress Jalabala Vaidya, wife of the playwright Gopal Sharman. ''The Ramayana'' has been performed on Broadway, London's West End, United Nations Headquarters, the Smithsonian Institution among other international venue and in more than 35 cities and towns in India. Starting in 1978 and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass, ''Ramayana'' has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California. It takes the form of a colorful musical with custom costumes, sung and spoken dialog, jazz-rock orchestration and dance. This performance takes place in a large audience theater setting usually in June, in San Jose, CA. Dass has taught acting arts, costume-attire design, mask making and choreography to bring alive characters of

, Parvati, Vibhishan,

, Surpanakha,

and his rakshasa court, Meghnadha, Kumbhakarna and the army of monkeys and demons. In the Philippines, a jazz ballet production was produced in the 1970s entitled "Rama at Sita" (Rama and Sita). The production was a result of a collaboration of four National Artists, Bienvenido Lumbera's libretto (National Artist for Literature), production design by Salvador Bernal (National Artist for Stage Design), music by Ryan Cayabyab (National Artist for Music) and choreography by Alice Reyes (National Artist for Dance).

Plays

* ''Kanchana Sita (play), Kanchana Sita'', ''Saketham'' and ''Lankalakshmi'' – award-winning trilogy by Malayalam playwright C. N. Sreekantan Nair * ''R. S. Manohar#Dramatist, Lankeswaran'' – a play by the award-winning Tamil cinema actor R. S. Manohar * Kecak - a

nese traditional folk dance which plays and tells the story of ''Ramayana''

Exhibitions

* Gallery Nucleus: Ramayana Exhibition -Part of the art of the book Ramayana: Divine Loophole by Sanjay Patel. * The Rama epic: Hero. Heroine, Ally, Foe by The Asian Art Museum (San Francisco), Asian Art Museum.

Books

* ''Ramayana (Rajagopalachari book), Ramayana'' by C. Rajagopalachari * ''The Ramayana (Narayan book), The Ramayana'' by R. K. Narayan * ''The Song of Rama'' by Vanamali * ''Ramayana'' by William Buck (translator), William Buck and S Triest * ''Ramayana: Divine Loophole'' by Sanjay Patel * ''Ramayana series by Ashok Banker. A fictional retelling of the Ramayana. It has eight books — ''Prince of Ayodhya'', ''Siege of Mithila'', ''Demons of Chitrakut'', ''Armies of Hanuman'', ''Bridge of Rama'', ''King of Ayodhya'', ''Vengeance of Ravana'' and ''Sons of Sita''. * ''Sita: An Illustrated Retelling of the Ramayana'' By Devdutt Pattanaik * ''Hanuman's Ramayan'' By Devdutt Pattanaik * ''Rama Chandra Series'' by Amish Tripathi, a fictional retelling of the Ramayana. It has our books until now — ''Scion of Ikshvaku, Ram: Scion of Ikshvaku'', ''Sita: Warrior of Mithila'', ''Raavan: Enemy of Aryavarta and The War of Lanka'' *''Asura, Tale of the Vanquished'' by Anand Neelakantan, a novel. *''The Forest of Enchantments'' by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni. *''The Crystal Guardian series'' by Ravi Venugopal, a mythological fiction trilogy, written from Rama's point of view. Part 1 - ''The Exiled Prince''

Movies

* ''Lanka Dahan'' (1917) *''Ramayana'' (1942) * ''Ram Rajya (1943 film), Ram Rajya'' (1943) * ''Rambaan'' (1948) * ''Ramayan (1954 film), Ramayan'' (1954) * ''Sampoorna Ramayanam (1958 film), Sampoorna Ramayanam'' (1958) * ''Sampoorna Ramayana'' (1961) * ''Lava Kusha'' (1963) * ''Sampoorna Ramayanamu'' (1971) * ''Seeta Kalyanam (1976 film), Sita Kalyanam'' (1976) * ''Kanchana Sita'' (1977) * ''Ramayana: The Legend of Prince Rama'' (1992) * ''Ramayanam (1996 film), Ramayanam'' (1996) * ''Lav Kush'' (1997) * ''Opera Jawa'' (2008) * ''Sita Sings the Blues'' (2008) * ''Ramayana: The Epic'' (2010) * ''Lava Kusa: The Warrior Twins'' (2010) * ''Raavanan (2010 film), Raavanan'' (2010) * ''Raavan (2010 Hindi film), Raavan '' (2010) * ''Sri Rama Rajyam'' (2011) * ''Yak: The Giant King'' (2012) * ''Monkey Enters Lanka'' (2020) * ''Adipurush ''(2023), upcoming film

TV series

* ''Ramayan (1987 TV series), Ramayan'' – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced by Ramanand Sagar in 1987 * ''Luv Kush'' – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced by Ramanand Sagar in 1988 * ''Jai Hanuman (1997 TV series), Jai Hanuman'' – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced and directed by Sanjay Khan *Vishnu Puran (TV series) - originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced by B. R. Chopra in 2000 * ''Ramayan (2002), Ramayan'' (2002) – originally broadcast on Zee TV, produced by B. R. Chopra, B.R. Chopra * ''Ramayan (2008 TV series), Ramayan'' (2008) – originally broadcast on Imagine TV, produced by Sagar Films, Sagar Enterprise * ''Ramayan (2012 TV Series), Ramayan'' (2012) – a remake of the 1987 series and aired on Zee TV * ''Antariksh'' (2004) – a sci-fi version of ''Ramayan''. Originally broadcast on Star Plus * ''Raavan (TV series), Raavan'' – series on life of Ravana based on ''Ramayana''. Originally broadcast on Zee TV * ''Sankatmochan Mahabali Hanuman'' – 2015 series based on the life of Hanuman presently broadcasting on Sony TV * ''Siya Ke Ram'' – a series on Star Plus, originally broadcast from 16 November 2015 to 4 November 2016 series based on "Ramayan", showing Ramayan from Sita's prospective * ''Ravana (TV Derana), Ravana'' - a series on TV Derana from Sri Lanka, originally broadcast on 2019. * ''Ram Siya Ke Luv Kush, Rama Siya Ke Luv Kush'' – 2019 series based on Uttar ''Ramayan'', showing the life of children of Rama Sita, Kush and Luv broadcasting on Colors TV *''The Legend of Hanuman'' – A 2021 OTT animated version of the ''Ramayana'' from Hanuman's point of perspective. It depicts the 2^nd-5^th ''Kandas'' of the Mahabharata aired on Disney+ Hotstar.

Nomenclatures

Ramayana has had a profound influence on India and Indians across the geographical and historical space. Rampur is the most common name for villages and towns across the nation particularly UP, Bihar and West Bengal. It is so common that people have been using Ram Ram as a greeting to each other.

Notes

References

Sources

* Arya, Ravi Prakash (ed.).''Ramayana of Valmiki: Sanskrit Text and English Translation.'' (English translation according to M. N. Dutt, introduction by Dr. Ramashraya Sharma, 4-volume set) Parimal Publications: Delhi, 1998, * * * * * * * * * * * * * Mahulikar, Dr. Gauri. ''Effect Of Ramayana On Various Cultures And Civilisations'', Ramayan Institute * Kate Milner Rabb, Rabb, Kate Milner, ''National Epics'', 1896 �
see eText
in Project Gutenberg * * (Spiritual Heritage of India (book), see also Wikipedia article on book) * Raghunathan, N. (transl.), ''Srimad Valmiki Ramayanam'', Vighneswara Publishing House, Madras (1981) * * * * * ''A different Song'' – Article from "The Hindu" 12 August 2005 – *
Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' illustrated with Indian miniatures from the 16th to the 19th century
', 2012, Editions Diane de Selliers,

External links

*
''The Ramayana of Valmiki''
English translation by Hari Prasad Shastri, 1952 (revised edition with interwoven glossary)
A condensed verse translation
by

sponsored by the Liberty Fund *
Absolute dating of RamayanaCollection: Art of the Ramayana
from the University of Michigan Museum of Art {{DEFAULTSORT:r1 Ramayana, 7th-century BC poems 6th-century BC poems Epic poems in Sanskrit Hindu texts Hindu poetry Rama, *