Qing nobility

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) of China developed a complicated peerage system for royal and noble ranks.

Rule of inheritance

In principle, titles were downgraded one grade for each generation of inheritance.

* Direct imperial princes with the ''Eight Privileges'' were downgraded for four generations, after which the title can be inherited without further downgrades.
* Direct imperial princes without the ''Eight Privileges'' were downgraded until the rank of ''feng'en jiangjun'', which then became perpetual.
* Cadet line imperial princes and lords were downgraded until they reached ''feng'en jiangjun'', which could be further inherited three times before the title expired completely.
* For non-imperial peers, the title could be downgraded to ''en jiwei'' before becoming perpetually heritable.

Occasionally, a peer could be granted the privilege of ''shixi wangti'' ( zh, t=世襲罔替, p=shìxí wǎngtì, labels=no; "perpetual heritability"), which allowed the title to be passed down without downgrading. Throughout the Qing dynasty, there were 12 imperial princely families that had this privilege. They were known as the " iron-cap princes".

The noble titles were inherited through a system of loose primogeniture: The eldest son from the peer's first wife was usually the heir apparent, but inheritance by a younger son, a son of a concubine, or brother of the peer was not uncommon. According to their birth (by the chief consort, secondary consort or concubines) and their father's rank, non-heir sons of imperial princes were also entitled to petition for a lower title than the one they would have received had they been the heir. Non-heir sons of other peers were also occasionally granted a lower title.

Whether imperial or not, the inheritance or bestowal was never automatic, and had to be approved by the Emperor, the Ministry of Personnel, or the Imperial Clan Court. Imperial princes, upon reaching adulthood at the age of 20, had to pass tests in horse-riding, archery and the Manchu language before they were eligible for titles. Imperial princesses, other than the Emperor's daughters, were usually granted titles upon marriage, regardless of age. Princesses' titles were also usually fixed after they were granted, and were not affected by changes in their fathers' nobility ranks.

Grading system

''Yunjiwei'' ("sub-commander of the cloud cavalry") was originally a military rank created in the Sui dynasty, but it was later turned into a military honour in the Tang dynasty as part of the ''xun guan'' ( zh, t=勳官, p=xūn guān, labels=no) system. The Qing dynasty abolished the separate military honour system and merged it into the nobility rank system, using ''yunjiwei'' as the lowest grantable rank of nobility, and the basic unit of rank progression.

For example, a ''yunjiwei'' who received another grant of ''yunjiwei'' became a ''jiduwei''. A ''first-class duke plus yunjiwei'' was the equivalent of 23 grants of ''yunjiwei''.

Official rank (''pin'')

The Qing dynasty, much like previous dynasties, used an "official rank" system ( zh, c=品, p=pǐn, labels=no). This system had nine numbered ranks, each subdivided into upper and lower levels, in addition to the lowest "unranked" rank: from upper first ''pin'' ( zh, c=正一品, labels=no), to lower ninth ''pin'' ( zh, t=從九品, labels=no), to the unranked ( zh, c=未入流, labels=no), for a total of 19 ranks. All government personnel, from the highest chancellors to the lowest clerk, held an official rank ''ex officio'', which determined their salary, uniform, privileges and order of precedence.

This ''pin'' system existed in parallel to the noble ranks detailed in this article. Many higher noble titles ranked above this system ( zh, c=超品, p=chāopǐn, labels=no). And while some titles corresponded to a ''pin'', they were considered equivalents of convenience rather than actual official ranks.

Titular names

Historically, Chinese noble titles were usually created with a ''shiyi'' ( zh, c=食邑, p=shíyì, labels=no; fief) each, although the fief could be only nominal. The Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty enfeoffed cadet branch princes and other nobles in different regions of China. The Qing dynasty ended this tradition; with only a few exceptions, no fief was ever named. No Qing prince was enfeoffed with territory. Instead, noble titles were created without a name, or were bestowed a ''meihao'' ( zh, t=美號, p=meǐhào, labels=no; titular name). These names were usually descriptive of the peer's merit, virtue, or the circumstances leading to his ennoblement. The Dukes Yansheng kept their traditional fief in Shandong under Qing rule.

Titular names were unique for imperial princes, while non-imperial peers' titular names may overlap. Following Ming dynasty tradition, single-character names were reserved for ''qinwang''s, while ''junwang''s used two-character names. All other peers normally had two-character names, but could receive up to four characters.

Since noble titles were primarily awarded for military service, the titular names predominantly described martial virtues, e.g., ''zhongyong gong'' ( zh, c=忠勇公, p=zhōngyǒng gōng, labels=no; "loyal and brave duke"). However, a particularly common titular name was ''cheng'en gong'' ( zh, c=承恩公, p=chéng'ēn gōng, labels=no; "duke who receives grace"), which was frequently granted to the Empress's family members.

Imperial clan

Eight Privileges

At the top of the imperial hierarchy, the highest six ranks enjoyed the "Eight Privileges" ( zh, c=八分, p=bafen, labels=no; ''jakūn ubu''). These privileges were:

# Promotional books inscribed on jade, set of seals for correspondence, red carriage wheels, purple horse reins, right for reported entry, red walls of the residence, use of corner lanterns, use of leopard tail guns.
# Precious stones on the mandarin hat crests, clothes with encircled dragon patterns, use of imperial porcelain tea sets, purple reins, red wheels, doornails on the gate, employment of guards.
# Finials on mandarin hats embellished with precious stones, use of two-eyed peacock feather, surcoats with encircled dragon patterns, purple reins, right to enter the imperial palace by horse, leopard tail guns, separate manor in the capital, employment of officials and eunuchs.

Peacock feathers, however, were prohibited for princes above the rank of ''beizi'' and direct imperial clansmen. The "Eight Privileges" entitled the prince to participate in state councils and share the spoils of war. However, the prince was also bound to reside in the capital and render service to the imperial court.
In 1816, the princes were forbidden from reporting matters via eunuchs. Thus, most of the princes employed officials as managers of domestic affairs. The range of tasks of those officials included conveyance of memorials on behalf of the prince. The supervisor of princely manor held lower 4 rank in 9-pin system.

Male members

* ''Heshuo qinwang'' ( ''hošo-i cin wang''; zh, t=和碩親王, s=和硕亲王, p=héshuò qīnwáng, labels=no; ), commonly simplified to ''qinwang'', translated as "Prince of the First Rank" or "Prince of the Blood". "Heshuo" ("hošo") means "four corners, four sides" in Manchu.
** ''Shizi'' ( zh, c=世子, p=Shìzǐ, labels=no; ''šidzi''), meaning "heir son", refers to the heir apparent to a ''qinwang''.
* ''Duoluo junwang'' ( ''doro-i giyūn wang''; zh, t=多羅郡王, s=多罗郡王, p=duōluó jùnwáng, labels=no; ), commonly simplified to ''junwang'', translated as "Prince of the Second Rank" or "Prince of a Commandery".
** ''Zhangzi'' ( zh, t=長子, s=长子, p=zhángzǐ, labels=no; ''jangdzi''), meaning "eldest son" or "chief son", refers to the heir apparent to a ''junwang''.
* ''Duoluo beile'' ( ''doro-i beile''; zh, t=多羅貝勒, s=多罗贝勒, p=duōluó bèilè, labels=no; ), means "lord", "prince" or "chief" in Manchu, commonly simplified to ''beile'', and translated as "Prince of the Third Rank", "Venerable Prince", or "Noble Lord". "Duoluo" ("doro") means "virtue, courtesy, propriety" in Manchu. It was usually granted to the son of a ''qinwang'' or ''junwang''. As ''beile'' is the best known Manchu, non-Chinese title, it is commonly used to refer to all Manchu princes.
* ''Gushan beizi'' ( ''gūsa-i beise''; zh, t=固山貝子, s=固山贝子, p=gùshān bèizǐ, labels=no; ), commonly simplified to ''beizi'', and translated as "Prince of the Fourth Rank", "Banner Prince" or "Banner Lord". "Gushan" ("gūsai") means "banner" in Manchu, a reference to any of the Eight Banners. "Beizi" ("beise") is the plural form of "beile", but since 1636, "beile" and "beizi" were used to refer to two different ranks of nobility.

The four ranks above were granted solely to direct male-line descendants of the Emperor. These titles below were granted to cadet lines of the imperial clan.

* ''Feng'en zhenguo gong'' ( ''kesi-be tuwakiyara gurun-be dalire gung''; zh, t=奉恩鎮國公, s=奉恩镇国公, p=fèng'ēn zhènguó gōng, labels=no; ), translated as "Duke Who Receives Grace and Guards the State", simplified to "Duke Who Guards the State", also translated as "Defender Duke by Grace" or "Duke of the First Rank".
* ''Feng'en fuguo gong'' ( ''kesi-be tuwakiyara gurun-de aisilara gung''; zh, t=奉恩輔國公, s=奉恩辅国公, p=fèng'ēn fǔguó gōng, labels=no; ), translated as "Duke Who Receives Grace and Assists the State", simplified to "Duke Who Assists the State", also translated as "Bulwark Duke by Grace" or "Duke of the Second Rank".

The above six ranks are titles that enjoy the "Eight Privileges". The titles below do not enjoy the "Eight Privileges" and have no imperial duties.

* ''Burubafen zhenguo gong'' ( ''jakūn ubu-de dosimbuhakū gurun-be dalire gung''; zh, t=不入八分鎮國公, s=不入八分镇国公, p=bùrùbāfēn zhènguó gōng, labels=no; ), translated as "Duke Without the Eight Privileges Who Guards the State", also translated as "Lesser Defender Duke" or "Duke of the Third Rank".
* ''Burubafen fuguo gong'' ( ''jakūn ubu-de dosimbuhakū gurun-be aisilara gung''; zh, t=不入八分輔國公, s=不入八分辅国公, p=bùrùbāfēn fǔguó gōng, labels=no; ), translated as "Duke Without the Eight Privileges Who Assists the State", also translated as "Lesser Bulwark Duke" or "Duke of the Fourth Rank".

All of the above titles are ''chaopin'' ( zh, c=超品, p=chāopǐn, labels=no), outranking official ranks. The ranks below are ranked first to fourth ''pin'' respectively. The first three ''jiangjun'' ranks are each further subdivided into four classes: ''first class plus yunjiwei'', ''first class'', ''second class'', and ''third class''.

* ''Zhenguo jiangjun'' (; ''gurun be dalire janggin''; zh, t=鎮國將軍, s=镇国将军, p=zhènguó jiāngjūn, labels=no; ), translated as "General Who Guards the State", "Defender General", or "(Hereditary) General of the First Rank".
* ''Fuguo jiangjun'' (; ''gurun de aisilara janggin''; zh, t=輔國將軍, s=辅国将军, p=fǔguó jiāngjūn, labels=no; ), translated as "General Who Assists the State", "Bulwark General", or "(Hereditary) General of the Second Rank".
* ''Fengguo jiangjun'' (; ''gurun be tuwakiyara janggin''; zh, t=奉國將軍, s=奉国将军, p=fèngguó jiāngjūn, labels=no), translated as "General Who Receives the State", "Supporter General", or "(Hereditary) General of the Third Rank".
* ''Feng'en jiangjun'' (; ''kesi-be tuwakiyara janggin''; zh, t=奉恩將軍, s=奉恩将军, p=fèng'ēn jiāngjūn, labels=no), translated as "General Who Receives Grace", "General by Grace", or "(Hereditary) General of the Fourth Rank". This rank has no sub-classes. This title is not granted ''per se'', but were given to heirs of ''fengguo jiangjun''s.

Regardless of title and rank, an imperial prince was addressed as "''A-ge''" (; ''age''; zh, c=阿哥, p=À-gē, labels=no), which means "lord" or "commander" in Manchu.
;Comparison of imperial ranks for male members

Female members

The following titles were granted to female members of the imperial clan:

* ''Gulun gongzhu'' ( zh, t=固倫公主, s=固伦公主, p=gùlún gōngzhǔ, labels=no; ''gurun-i gungju''), translated as "State Princess", "Gurun Princess" or "Princess of the First Rank". It was usually granted to a princess born to the Empress. "Gulun" means "all under Heaven" in Manchu.
* ''Heshuo gongzhu'' ( zh, t=和碩公主, s=和硕公主, p=héshuò gōngzhǔ, labels=no; ''hošo-i gungju''), translated as "Heshuo Princess" or "Princess of the Second Rank". It was usually granted to a princess born to a consort or concubine. "Heshuo" ("hošo") means "four corners, four sides" in Manchu.
* ''Junzhu'' ( zh, c=郡主, p=jùnzhǔ, labels=no; ''hošo-i gege''), translated as "Princess of a Commandery" or "Princess of the Third Rank". It was usually granted to the daughter of a ''qinwang''. Also called ''heshuo gege'' (和碩格格) or ''qinwang gege'' (親王格格), lit. "lady of a prince of the blood". Daughters of qinwang also could be promoted to ''heshuo gongzhu'' or ''gulun gongzhu'' if they were adopted as emperor's daughters''.''
* ''Xianzhu'' ( zh, t=縣主, s=县主, p=xiànzhǔ, labels=no; ''doro-i gege''), translated as "Princess of a County" or "Princess of the Fourth Rank". It was usually granted to the daughter of a ''junwang'' or ''shizi''. Also called ''duolun gege'' (多倫格格) or ''junwang gege'' (郡王格格), lit. "lady of a prince of a commandery". Could be promoted to ''junzhu'' in special circumstances.
* ''Junjun'' ( zh, c=郡君, p=jùnjūn, labels=no; ''beile-i jui doro-i gege''), translated as "Lady of a Commandery" or "Lady of the First Rank". It was usually granted to a daughter born to a secondary consort of a ''qinwang'' or to the daughter of a ''beile''. Also called ''duolun gege'' (多倫格格) or ''beile gege'' (貝勒格格), lit. "lady of a prince (of the third rank)". Could be promoted to ''xianzhu''.
* ''Xianjun'' ( zh, t=縣君, s=县君, p=xiànjūn, labels=no; ''gūsa-i gege''), translated as "Lady of a County" or "Lady of the Second Rank". It was usually granted to a daughter born to a secondary consort of a ''junwang'' or to the daughter of a ''beizi''. Also called ''gushan gege'' (固山格格), lit. "lady of a banner", or ''beizi gege'' (貝子格格), lit. "lady of a prince (of the fourth rank)".
* ''Xiangjun'' ( zh, t=鄉君, s=乡君, p=xiãngjũn, labels=no; ''gung-ni jui gege''), translated as "Lady of a Village" or "Lady of the Third Rank". It was usually granted to the daughters of dukes with eight privileges or daughters born to a secondary consort of ''beile''. Also called ''gong gege'' (公格格), lit. "lady of a duke".
* ''Zongnü'' ( zh, t=宗女, s=宗女, p=zõngnǚ, labels=no), translated as "Clanswoman". This is not a granted title, but the honorific given to all daughters of dukes without eight privileges and ''jiangjun''s, as well as all other untitled princesses. However,
** Daughters born to a secondary consort of a ''beizi'' are called ''wupinfeng zongnü'' (五品俸宗女), "clanswoman with stipend of the fifth ''pin''".
** Daughters born to a secondary consort of a ''feng'en zhenguo gong'' or ''feng'en fuguo gong'' are called ''liupinfeng zongnü'' (六品俸宗女), "clanswoman with stipend of the sixth ''pin''".
Comparison of titles for imperial princesses

Princesses' consorts

''Efu'' ( zh, t=額駙, s=额驸, p=éfù, labels=no), also known ''Fuma'' ( zh, t=駙馬, s=驸马, p=fùmǎ, labels=no), translated as "Prince Consort". Its original meaning was "emperor's charioteer". It was usually granted to the spouse of a princess above the rank of ''zongnü''. The ''efu''s were separated into seven ranks corresponding to the rank of the princesses the ''efu'' married. ''Efu''s who married ''gulun gongzhu''s and ''heshuo gongzhu''s held ranks equivalent to the ''beizi''s and dukes respectively. The remaining ''efu''s had equivalent official rank from the first to fifth ''pin''.

An ''efu'' retained his title and privileges as long as the princess remained his primary spouse – even after her death. However, if an ''efu'' remarried or promoted a consort to be his primary spouse, he lost all rights obtained from his marriage to the princess.

Princess consorts

The following titles were granted to consorts of imperial princes:

* Primary consort (嫡福晋, dí fújìn) also called Great consort (大福晋, pinyin: dà fújìn, ''amba fujin''), was given to the main wives of imperial princes above the rank of junwang. Imperial dukes' wives were titled Madame ( 夫人; ''fū rén'')''.'' The main spouse of the Crown Prince was given the title “Crown Princess Consort" (皇太子妃). Primary consorts of the emperor's sons could also be entitled "Imperial Princess Consort" (皇子妃). The title “Crown Princess Consort" was equivalent to the Imperial Noble Consort, while "Imperial Princess Consort" was equivalent to Noble Consort. The title "great consort" was granted to primary consorts of Nurhaci and Hong Taiji and were equivalent to empress. Primary consorts were selected through receiving a ruyi scepter.
* Secondary consort (側福晉, pinyin: cè fújìn, ''ashan-i-fujin'') was granted to secondary wives of imperial princes above the ranks of junwang. Secondary consort of crown prince was given the title "Crown Prince's Side Consort" (皇太子侧妃). Secondary consorts of emperor's sons could also be entitled "Prince's Side Consort" (皇子侧妃). Secondary consort were selected by receiving an embroidered fragrant pouch.
* Mistress (格格, pinyin: gégé), little consort (小福晋, pinyin: xiǎo fújìn, ''ajige-i-fujin''), concubine (妾, qie) or (庶福晋, pinyin: shufujin) was granted to concubines of imperial princes, dukes and generals. A mistress of the crown prince was titled "Crown Prince's Concubine" (皇太子庶妃, pinyin: huáng tàizǐ shù fēi), while a mistress of imperial prince was honoured as "Imperial Prince's Concubine" (皇子庶妃, pinyin: huángzǐ shù fēi).If the prince had more than one mistress, they could be granted honorific names derived from their birth clans names. Mistress was selected by receiving 100 tael