The
prehistory of Ireland included a
protohistorical period, when the literate cultures of
Greece
Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
and
Rome
Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
began to take notice of it, and a further
proto-literate period of
ogham epigraphy
Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...
, before the
early historical period began in the 5th century. Attempts have been made to reconstruct the political developments of this period by reference to
early medieval
The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th to the 10th century. They marked the start of the Middle Ages of Europ ...
Irish genealogical texts.
Ireland in Classical literature
Early references
Classical writers occasionally refer to Ireland under a variety of names, but these references contain little reliable information. For example,
Diodorus Siculus claims that the ''Prettanoi'' of the island of ''Iris'' eat human flesh.
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...
, who calls the island ''Ierne'', repeats the accusation, adding that they consider it honourable to eat their dead fathers, and openly have sex with their mothers and sisters (although he is sceptical about his sources).
Pomponius Mela calls it ''Iuverna'' and says that, although the climate is unfavourable for grain, grass grows so richly that cattle burst if unrestrained from eating it.
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...
, in his ''
Commentarii de Bello Gallico'', is the first to call the island ''
Hibernia'', describes it as about half the size of Britain, and correctly places it to the west of Britain – unlike Strabo, who places it to the north.
Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
says that his father-in-law
Gnaeus Julius Agricola, while governor of Britain (AD 78–85), considered conquering Ireland, believing it could be held with one
legion plus
auxiliaries, and entertained an exiled Irish petty king with the intention of making him the pretext for conquest.
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
, '' Agricola'' 24 Parallels have been drawn with the Irish legend of
Túathal Techtmar, who is said to have been exiled to Britain as a child and returned with an army to claim the kingship of
Tara in the 1st century. Tacitus also says that most of the harbours and approaches to Ireland were known through commerce, but inaccurately locates the island between Britain and the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprisin ...
.
Juvenal
The 2nd-century poet
Juvenal
Decimus Junius Juvenalis (), known in English as Juvenal ( ; 55–128), was a Roman poet. He is the author of the '' Satires'', a collection of satirical poems. The details of Juvenal's life are unclear, but references in his works to people f ...
, in his second ''
Satire
Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of exposin ...
'', contrasting the victories of the Roman army with the low morals of the people at home in Rome, says that, as well as conquering Britain and the
Orkney
Orkney (), also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago off the north coast of mainland Scotland. The plural name the Orkneys is also sometimes used, but locals now consider it outdated. Part of the Northern Isles along with Shetland, ...
islands, "we have advanced arms beyond the shores of ''Iuverna''". Although Juvenal is not writing history, it is possible that he is referring to a genuine Roman military expedition to Ireland.
Ptolemy
The 2nd-century
Alexandria
Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
n Greek writer
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
, one of the most important geographers, mathematicians and astronomers in the ancient world, refers to Ireland in two of his works. In the astronomical treatise known as the ''
Almagest'' he gives the latitudes of an island he calls ''Mikra Brettania'' (Μικρὰ Βρεττανία) or "Little Britain" (the south of the island at 58 degrees, the north at 61 degrees). In his ''
Geography
Geography (from Ancient Greek ; combining 'Earth' and 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding o ...
'', at the same latitudes, he places the Prettanic island ''Iwernia'', next to its neighbour, the Prettanic island ''
Albion'' (
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland, and Wales. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European ...
). The ''Geography'' contains the most detailed account of Ireland in classical literature, giving the latitude and longitude of six promontories, fifteen river mouths, ten settlements and nine islands, and naming sixteen population groups.

Peoples of Ireland according to
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
's ''
Geography
Geography (from Ancient Greek ; combining 'Earth' and 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding o ...
''.
[Philip Freeman, ''Ireland and the Classical World'', University of Texas Press, 2001, pp. 64-84]
North coast
Ptolemy describes the northern coast of Ireland, from the Northern Promontory (possibly
Bloody Foreland or Rossan Point in
County Donegal
County Donegal ( ; ) is a Counties of Ireland, county of the Republic of Ireland. It is in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Ulster and is the northernmost county of Ireland. The county mostly borders Northern Ireland, sharing only a small b ...
) in the west, to the ''Wenniknion'' promontory (probably
Malin Head), the mouth of the river ''Widwa'' (probably the
Foyle), the mouth of the river ''Argita'' (perhaps the
Bann) and the ''Rhobogdion'' promontory (
Fair Head,
County Antrim
County Antrim (named after the town of Antrim, County Antrim, Antrim, ) is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland, located within the historic Provinces of Ireland, province of Ulster. Adjoined to the north-east shore of Lough Neagh, the c ...
) in the east. The peoples who inhabit the north coast are the ''Wenniknioi'' in the west and the ''Rhobogdioi'' in the east.
West coast
The west coast is poorly represented compared to the other three, and identification of the names Ptolemy gives is speculative. He begins with the Northern Promontory (see above), and working north to south names the river ''Rhawiu'' (possibly the
Erne); the town ''
Magnata'' (a settlement of the ''Magnatai'' people, possibly somewhere in
County Sligo
County Sligo ( , ) is a Counties of Ireland, county in Republic of Ireland, Ireland. It is in the Northern and Western Region and is part of the Provinces of Ireland, province of Connacht. Sligo is the administrative capital and largest town in ...
); the mouth of the rivers ''Libniu'' (possibly
Clew Bay), ''Ausoba'' (perhaps
Galway Bay) ''Senu'' (probably the
Shannon, although placed too far to the north), ''Dur'' (possibly
Dingle Bay) and ''Iernu'' (possibly the
Kenmare), and the Southern Promontory (any one of
Slea Head,
Bray Head,
Dursey Head and
Mizen Head). Peoples of this coast are: the ''
Erdinoi'' near Donegal Bay; the ''
Magnatai'' or ''Nagnatai'' of County Mayo and Sligo; the ''Auteinoi'' between County Galway and the Shannon, identifiable with the early medieval
Uaithni; the ''
Ganganoi'', also known in north
Wales
Wales ( ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by the Irish Sea to the north and west, England to the England–Wales border, east, the Bristol Channel to the south, and the Celtic ...
, and the ''Wellaboroi'' in the far south-west.
[ T. F. O'Rahilly, ''Early Irish History and Mythology'', Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1946]
South coast
The south coast stretches from the Southern Promontory to the mouths of the rivers ''Dabrona'' (possibly the
Lee or the
Blackwater) and ''Birgu'' (probably the
Barrow) and the Sacred Promontory (
Carnsore Point,
County Wexford
County Wexford () is a Counties of Ireland, county in Republic of Ireland, Ireland. It is in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Leinster and is part of the Southern Region, Ireland, Southern Region. Named after the town of Wexford, it was ba ...
). Peoples of the south coast are the ''
Iwernoi'' in the west, who share their name with the island, ''Iwernia'', and can be identified with the early medieval Érainn; the ''Usdiai'', and the ''
Brigantes'' in the east, who share their name with a people of
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of ''Britannia'' after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caes ...
.
East coast
From the Sacred Promontory in the south to the ''Rhobogdion'' promontory in the north, Ptolemy names the river ''Modonnu'' (possibly the
Slaney, but more likely the
Avoca), the town of ''Manapia'' (a settlement of the ''Manapii''), the river ''Oboka'' (perhaps the
Liffey; the river Avoca takes its modern name from a misinterpretation of Ptolemy's ''Oboka''), the town of ''Eblana'' (a settlement of the ''Eblanoi'', formerly mistakenly identified with
Dublin
Dublin is the capital and largest city of Republic of Ireland, Ireland. Situated on Dublin Bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Leinster, and is bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, pa ...
), the river ''Buwinda'' (the
Boyne), the promontory ''Isamnion'', the river ''Winderios'' (possibly
Carlingford Lough,
Dundrum Bay or
Strangford Lough), and the river ''Logia'' (
Belfast Lough, ''Loch Laoigh'' in Irish). Peoples named, from south to north, are: the ''
Koriondoi''; the ''Manapioi'', possibly related to the
Menapii of Gaul; the ''
Kaukoi'', probably not related to the Germanic
Chauci of the Low Countries; the ''
Eblanoi''; the ''Woluntioi'', identifiable with the early medieval
Ulaid
(Old Irish, ) or (Irish language, Modern Irish, ) was a Gaelic Ireland, Gaelic Provinces of Ireland, over-kingdom in north-eastern Ireland during the Middle Ages made up of a confederation of dynastic groups. Alternative names include , which ...
; and the ''
Darinoi''.
Later references
Roman sources mention raids on Britain by
Saxons
The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
of north-west
Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
, by
Picts
The Picts were a group of peoples in what is now Scotland north of the Firth of Forth, in the Scotland in the early Middle Ages, Early Middle Ages. Where they lived and details of their culture can be gleaned from early medieval texts and Pic ...
from
Scotland
Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...
and by two groups of people usually associated with Ireland, the
Scotti and the
Atacotti. The origins and meanings of Scotti and Atacotti is uncertain. Atacotti disappears with the Romans. Scotti means
Gaels
The Gaels ( ; ; ; ) are an Insular Celts, Insular Celtic ethnolinguistic group native to Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. They are associated with the Goidelic languages, Gaelic languages: a branch of the Celtic languages comprising ...
to
Adomnán in the late seventh century, but not to Columbanus in the early sixth century, who uses the older term Iberi instead. The Scotti are perhaps a confederation of tribes in Ulster, and the Atacotti one in Leinster, but this is not certain.
[Charles-Edwards, pp. 158–160. Origins in the ]Hebrides
The Hebrides ( ; , ; ) are the largest archipelago in the United Kingdom, off the west coast of the Scotland, Scottish mainland. The islands fall into two main groups, based on their proximity to the mainland: the Inner Hebrides, Inner and Ou ...
have also been suggested for the Atacotti. The Late Roman army as recorded by the Notitia Dignitatum included auxilia palatina named for the Atacotti, the normal interpretation of such names being that they were recruited from prisoners of war.
See also
*
Ogham
*
Ogham inscription
Roughly 400 inscriptions in the ogham alphabet are known from stone monuments scattered around the Irish Sea, the bulk of them dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. The language of these inscriptions is predominantly Primitive Irish, but a ...
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Protohistory Of Ireland
Ancient Ireland
Protohistory