The Protocol of Corfu (, ), signed on 17 May 1914, was an agreement between the representatives of the Albanian Government and the
Provisional Government of Northern Epirus, which officially recognized the area of
Northern Epirus
Northern Epirus (, ; ) is a term used for specific parts of southern Albania which were first claimed by the Kingdom of Greece in the Balkan Wars and later were associated with the Greek minority in Albania and Greece-Albania diplomatic relation ...
as an
autonomous self-governing region under the sovereignty of the
prince
A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. The ...
of the newly established
Principality of Albania
The Principality of Albania () was a monarchy from 1914 to 1925. It was headed by Wilhelm, Prince of Albania, and located in modern Albania in the Balkans, Balkan region of Europe. The Ottoman Empire owned the land until the First Balkan Wa ...
.
[Miller, 1966, p. 519] The agreement granted the
Greeks
Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...
of the districts of Korytsa (
Korçë
Korçë (; sq-definite, Korça) is the List of cities and towns in Albania, eighth most populous city of Albania and the seat of Korçë County and Korçë Municipality. The total population of the city is 51,152 and 75,994 of Korçë municipal ...
) and Argyrokastro (
Gjirokastër
Gjirokastër (, sq-definite, Gjirokastra) is a List of cities and towns in Albania, city in Southern Albania, southern Albania and the seat of Gjirokastër County and Gjirokastër Municipality. It is located in a valley between the Gjerë moun ...
), which form Northern Epirus, wider religious, educational, cultural and political autonomy, inside the borders of the Albanian state.
After the end of the
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans, Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan states of Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg), Greece, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia, Kingdom of Montenegro, M ...
(1912–1913), the subsequent peace treaties ceded the region to Albania. This turn of events catalyzed an uprising among the local Greeks, which led to the
Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence
The Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence occurred on February 28, 1914, as a reaction to the incorporation of Northern Epirus into the newly established Principality of Albania. The region of Northern Epirus, which corresponds to modern-d ...
, on 28 February 1914. The
International Commission of Control, an organization responsible for securing peace and stability in the region, eventually intervened and the Protocol of Corfu was signed on 17 May 1914. However the protocol's terms were never fully implemented because of the politically unstable situation in Albania following the outbreak of
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, and it was eventually annulled in 1921 during the
Conference of Ambassadors
A conference is a meeting, often lasting a few days, which is organized on a particular subject, or to bring together people who have a common interest. Conferences can be used as a form of group decision-making, although discussion, not always d ...
.
[
]
Background
During the First Balkan War
The First Balkan War lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and involved actions of the Balkan League (the Kingdoms of Kingdom of Bulgaria, Bulgaria, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia, Kingdom of Greece, Greece and Kingdom of Montenegro, Montenegro) agai ...
, the Greek Army
The Hellenic Army (, sometimes abbreviated as ΕΣ), formed in 1828, is the land force of Greece. The term '' Hellenic'' is the endogenous synonym for ''Greek''. The Hellenic Army is the largest of the three branches of the Hellenic Armed F ...
defeated the Ottoman forces and pushed north through the region of Epirus
Epirus () is a Region#Geographical regions, geographical and historical region, historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay ...
, reaching a line from Himara on the Ionian coast east to Prespa Lake by February 1913. Pending the final adjudication of the Great Powers
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power ...
regarding the border between Greece and the newly established state of Albania
Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
, the region remained under Greek military control. On 17 December 1913, the Protocol of Florence ceded the northern part of this area, which became known as "Northern Epirus
Northern Epirus (, ; ) is a term used for specific parts of southern Albania which were first claimed by the Kingdom of Greece in the Balkan Wars and later were associated with the Greek minority in Albania and Greece-Albania diplomatic relation ...
", to Albania. This turn of events was highly unpopular among local Greeks, who decided to declare their independence and secure the region against any opposing threat. The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus
The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus () was a short-lived, self-governing entity founded in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars on 28 February 1914, by the local Greek population in southern Albania ( Northern Epirotes).
The area, known as ...
was thus proclaimed in Argyrokastro (Gjirokastër
Gjirokastër (, sq-definite, Gjirokastra) is a List of cities and towns in Albania, city in Southern Albania, southern Albania and the seat of Gjirokastër County and Gjirokastër Municipality. It is located in a valley between the Gjerë moun ...
) on 28 February 1914, with Georgios Christakis-Zografos
Georgios Christakis-Zografos (; 1863–1920) was a Greek politician, minister of foreign affairs and president of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1914).
Life
Studies and early career
He was the son of the entrepreneur and benefacto ...
, a distinguished Epirote politician from Lunxhëri, as its head.
Meanwhile, the Greek army evacuated from the region, and, on 1 March, Korytsa (Korçë
Korçë (; sq-definite, Korça) is the List of cities and towns in Albania, eighth most populous city of Albania and the seat of Korçë County and Korçë Municipality. The total population of the city is 51,152 and 75,994 of Korçë municipal ...
) was ceded to the newly formed Albanian gendarmerie. Serious disturbances broke out in a number of places between the Autonomist forces and Albanian gendarmerie units and irregulars. Meanwhile, an International Commission formed by the Great Powers to secure stability and peace in the region was unable to achieve an agreement between the two sides.
Negotiations
By early May, the Albanian authorities, being unable to suppress the revolt, became willing to start discussions with the intervention of the International Commission. Thus, Prince William of Wied of Albania asked the commission, which represented the Albanian government,[ to initiate negotiations. Subsequently, on 6 May, the members of the Commission informed Zografos that they were willing to discuss the demands of the Northern Epirote side.
Since incorporation into Greece was not an option after the recent political developments, Zografos proposed three main solutions to the representatives of the International Commission: complete autonomy under the sovereignty of the Albanian prince, administrative and canton type autonomy, and direct administration and control by the European Powers. The Northern Epirote side also demanded the extension of the area in which the Greek population would enjoy education in its native language to include the regions around ]Vlorë
Vlorë ( ; ; sq-definite, Vlora) is the List of cities and towns in Albania, third most populous city of Albania and seat of Vlorë County and Vlorë Municipality. Located in southwestern Albania, Vlorë sprawls on the Bay of Vlorë and is surr ...
and Durrës
Durrës ( , ; sq-definite, Durrësi) is the List of cities and towns in Albania#List, second most populous city of the Albania, Republic of Albania and county seat, seat of Durrës County and Durrës Municipality. It is one of Albania's oldest ...
(in central Albania, to the north of Northern Epirus), the appointment of Greek Orthodox
Greek Orthodox Church (, , ) is a term that can refer to any one of three classes of Christian Churches, each associated in some way with Greek Christianity, Levantine Arabic-speaking Christians or more broadly the rite used in the Eastern Rom ...
higher officials in the main towns of Northern Epirus and the exemption from military service of the local population, even in time of war.[
The representatives of both sides met for negotiations in Saranda, a coastal town in Northern Epirus, but the final negotiations took place in the nearby island of ]Corfu
Corfu ( , ) or Kerkyra (, ) is a Greece, Greek island in the Ionian Sea, of the Ionian Islands; including its Greek islands, small satellite islands, it forms the margin of Greece's northwestern frontier. The island is part of the Corfu (regio ...
, Greece
Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
. Finally, on 17 May 1914, the representatives of Northern Epirus and Albania signed an agreement that granted the chief demands of the Epirotes and became known as the Protocol of Corfu.[ The Protocol is prefaced by a signed agreement of the commission:
]
Terms
The Protocol fulfilled the main demands of the Northern Epirote side.[ According to its terms, the two provinces of Korytsa and Argyrokastron, which constituted Northern Epirus, would become autonomous under Albanian sovereignty and under the auspices of Prince William of Wied; he, however, was granted no effective power whatsoever.]
The Albanian government, in agreement with the commission, had the right to appoint and dismiss governors and upper rank officials, taking into account the demographic composition of the local religious communities.[Stickney, 1926: 49] Other terms included the proportional recruitment of natives into the local gendarmerie, and the prohibition of military levies from non-indigenous people of the region. In Orthodox schools, the Greek language would be the sole medium of instruction, except for grades one through three. However, religious education would be exclusively in Greek. Moreover, Greek was also made equal to Albanian in all public affairs, including courts and elective councils.[Stickney, 1926, p. 50]
As for the coastal area of Himara, the special autonomous status that it enjoyed during the Ottoman era was renewed, with the addition that a foreigner was to be appointed as its "captain" for 10 years. Moreover, the Protocol stated that the city of Korçë – which was under control of the Albanian gendarmerie – was to come under the Northern Epirote administration. The Great Powers would guarantee the implementation of the terms of the Protocol, while its execution and maintenance was entrusted to the International Control Commission.[
]
Reactions and approval
On 1 June the Great Powers (including Italy
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
and Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
) approved the results of the negotiations and on 23 June the terms of the Protocol were officially approved by the Albanian Government.[Boeckh, 1996, p. 116.] The Greek government, without being involved until then in the situation, was aware of the negotiations and the possibility of a final agreement. Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos
Eleftherios Kyriakou Venizelos (, ; – 18 March 1936) was a Cretan State, Cretan Greeks, Greek statesman and prominent leader of the Greek national liberation movement. As the leader of the Liberal Party (Greece), Liberal Party, Venizelos ser ...
advised Georgios Christakis-Zografos
Georgios Christakis-Zografos (; 1863–1920) was a Greek politician, minister of foreign affairs and president of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1914).
Life
Studies and early career
He was the son of the entrepreneur and benefacto ...
to approve the protocol's terms without asking for even wider autonomy.
The Northern Epirote representatives in the following Panepirotic Assembly of Delvino had to take the final decision on whether to accept the Protocol. The Protocol was eventually accepted after the intervention of Venizelos; however the representatives of Himara found the terms too humiliating, arguing that the only viable solution would be union with Greece and not autonomy inside the Albanian state.
Aftermath
Political situation and outbreak of World War I
Soon after the outbreak of World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
(July 1914), the situation in Albania became unstable and political chaos ensued. When the country became split into a number of regional governments, Prince William departed the country in September 1914. On 27 October, after approval from the Great Powers, the Greek army re-entered Northern Epirus. The Provisional Government of Northern Epirus formally ceased to exist, declaring that it had accomplished its objectives. The region was ''de facto'' annexed to Greece until the second half of 1916, when Italian troops evicted the Greek army from the area.
Interwar Period and Annulment of the Protocol
In 1921 the Protocol of Corfu was annulled during the Conference of Ambassadors
A conference is a meeting, often lasting a few days, which is organized on a particular subject, or to bring together people who have a common interest. Conferences can be used as a form of group decision-making, although discussion, not always d ...
and Northern Epirus was definitively ceded to the Albanian state. However attempts to re-establish an autonomous Northern Epirus continued.[ In 1921 the Albanian government, during the country's entrance to the ]League of Nations
The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
, committed itself to protect the rights of minorities within its territory, which were ratified by the local Parliament next year. However, these rights were granted within a much more limited area compared to the Protocol, which included only some villages in the regions of Himara, Gjirokastër and Saranda, and none of the main towns.[Gregoric, 2009, p. 34] Moreover, Greek education was viewed as a potential threat to the territorial integrity of the Albanian state and Greek schools were either closed or converted to Albanian ones.[M. V. Sakellariou]
p. 388
/ref> As a result of this policy, education in Greek was limited and for a time virtually eliminated (1934–1935).[ Only after the intervention of the ]Permanent Court of International Justice
The Permanent Court of International Justice, often called the World Court, existed from 1922 to 1946. It was an international court attached to the League of Nations. Created in 1920 (although the idea of an international court was several cent ...
, in April 1935, did the Albanian side allow the reopening of Greek-language schools and waive its insistence on the use of Albanian in Greek schools.
The Albanian state also led efforts to establish an independent orthodox church, contrary to the provisions of the Protocol of Corfu and thereby reducing the influence of Greek language in the region. According to a 1923 law, priests who were not Albanian speakers, as well as not of Albanian origin, were excluded from this new autocephalous
Autocephaly (; ) is the status of a hierarchical Christian church whose head bishop does not report to any higher-ranking bishop. The term is primarily used in Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches. The status has been compared with t ...
church.
Legacy
The Protocol of Corfu is often mentioned by Northern Epirote and human rights organizations when referring to the discrimination against the Greek minority in Albania. On the other hand, in Albanian historiography this agreement is scarcely mentioned or its interpretation is often grounded on different positions: it is seen as an attempt to divide the Albanian state and as a proof of the Great Powers' disregard for the national integrity of Albania.
Notably, during the 1960s, the Soviet
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and the Premier of the Soviet Union, Chai ...
asked the communist leader of Albania Enver Hoxha
Enver Halil Hoxha ( , ; ; 16 October 190811 April 1985) was an Albanian communist revolutionary and politician who was the leader of People's Socialist Republic of Albania, Albania from 1944 until his death in 1985. He was the Secretary (titl ...
about giving autonomy to the minority, but this initiative was without any result.[Vickers, Pettifer, 1997: pp. 188–189] The autonomy question remains one of the main issues on the diplomatic agenda in Albanian-Greek relations, after the 1991 collapse of the communist regime in Albania. Moreover, a certain degree of autonomy, based on the terms of the Protocol of Corfu, is the main objective of the organization Omonoia, as well as the Unity for Human Rights Party
The Unity for Human Rights Party (, ) is a social-liberal political party in Albania supporting the Greek minority. Founded in 1992, it represents Albania's minorities and is mainly related to the Greek minority, and is the political continuat ...
, which represents the Greek minority in the Albanian government.[Heuberger, Suppan, Vyslonzil 1996, p. 73] Such proposals were rejected in 1991 by the Albanian government, thus spurring Omonoia's radical wing to call for union with Greece.[Lastaria-Cornhiel Sussana, Wheeler Rachel]
Working Paper. Albanian Series. Gender Ethnicity and Landed Property in Albania
September 1998, Land Tenure Center. University of Wisconsin. In another incident, in 1993, Omonoia's chairman was immediately arrested by the Albanian police, after explaining in public that the goal of the Greek minority was autonomy inside the Albanian borders, based on the terms of the protocol.
References
Sources
*
* Nataša Gregori�
''Contested Spaces and Negotiated Identities in Dhermi/Drimades of Himare/Himara area, Southern Albania.''
University of Nova Gorica 2008.
*
*
*
*
* Vickers Miranda, Pettifer James
''Albania: From Anarchy to a Balkan Identity''
C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1997,
Further reading
Full text of the Protocol:
Memorandum on Northern Epirus, 1919
on the Digital Library of Modern Greek Studies "Anemi"
Anemi is a digital library that aims to provide access to a collection of digitized material related to Modern Greek Studies. Apart from finding bibliographic information, the researcher can also browse the documents themselves in electronic for ...
Protocol of Corfu.
Greek version, pp. 72–76.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Protocol Of Corfu
History of Greece (1909–1924)
Modern history of Albania
History of Corfu (city)
Northern Epirus
Peace treaties
Treaties of the Principality of Albania
Treaties concluded in 1914
Albania–Greece border
May 1914