''Pteropus pelagicus'' is a species of

fruit bat Megabats constitute the family Pteropodidae of the order Chiroptera (bats). They are also called fruit bats, Old World fruit bats, or—especially the genera ''Acerodon'' and ''Pteropus''—flying foxes. They are the only member of the sup ...

in the family Pteropodidae. It includes two subspecies that were formerly recognized as full species— ''Pteropus insularis'' (Chuuk flying fox) and ''Pteropus phaeocephalus'' (Mortlock flying fox). It is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...

Micronesia Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...

. It is threatened by

habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...

Etymology and taxonomy

The species was described by German naturalist

Heinrich von Kittlitz Friedrich Heinrich, Freiherr von Kittlitz (16 February 1799 – 10 April 1874) was a Prussian artist, naval officer, explorer and naturalist. He was a descendant of a family of old Prussian nobility ("Freiherr" meaning "independent lord" - ranking w ...

in 1836. He gave it the species name '' pelagicus'' .Kittlitz FH. (1836. eprinted 1971 Observation Zoologiques faites pendant l’expédition de la corvette Le Séniavine. In: Lütke F, Voyage autour du monde, 1826–1829, Volume 3 Bibliotheca Australiana No. 60. Da Capo Press, New York, 237–330 In 2013, a study was published that challenged the status of the Chuuk flying fox and the Mortlock flying fox as species. The study stated that the Chuuk flying fox was not significantly different from the Mortlock flying fox, and that they represent two subspecies of the same species, which should be called ''Pteropus pelagicus''. They proposed that the Chuuk flying fox be referred to as ''P. p. insularis'', and the Mortlock flying fox be referred to as ''P. p. pelagicus''. The study also concluded that the closest relative of ''P. pelagicus'' is the

Guam flying fox The Guam flying fox (''Pteropus tokudae''), also known as the little Marianas fruit bat, was a tiny megabat from Guam in the Marianas Islands in Micronesia that was confirmed extinct due to hunting or habitat changes. It was first recorded in 193 ...

, based on

morphology Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: Disciplines *Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts *Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, ...

.Buden, D. W., Helgen, K. M., & Wiles, G. J. (2013). Taxonomy, distribution, and natural history of flying foxes (Chiroptera, Pteropodidae) in the Mortlock Islands and Chuuk State, Caroline Islands. ZooKeys, (345), 97. A 2014 study that used genetics also concluded that the Guam flying fox was the

sister taxon In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. Definition The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and t ...

to ''P. pelagicus''. There are currently two recognized

subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...

of ''Pteropus pelagicus'', both of which were formerly recognized as distinct species. * ''P. p. pelagicus'' Kittlitz, 1836 (

Nomoi Islands The Nomoi Islands, also known as the Mortlock Islands, are a group of three atolls in the state of Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia. They are located about southeast of Chuuk Lagoon. Islands The Mortlock Islands are Ettal, Namoluk, Ta, N ...

) * ''P. p. insularis'' Hombron and Jacquinot, 1842 (Islands of Chuuk Lagoon and Namonuito Atoll) The authors of the 2013 study suggested that the common name of Chuuk flying fox be retained to refer to ''Pteropus pelagicus''. They recommended it over the name "Mortlock flying fox" because there is a tradition of using geographic-based common names for flying foxes of the Caroline Islands. According to traditional classification, ''P. pelagicus'' is in the ''P. pselaphon'' species group. However, more recent genetic analysis places it in the newly-described ''P. pelagicus'' species group, consisting of the following species: *''Pteropus pelagicus'' *

, ''Pteropus tokudae'' *

Big-eared flying fox The big-eared flying fox (''Pteropus macrotis'') is a species of bat in the family Pteropodidae, larger bats who subsist largely on fruits. The species is distributed across a range in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and islands nearing the Cape York ...

, ''Pteropus macrotis'' *

Dwarf flying fox The dwarf flying fox, least flying fox, or least fruit bat (''Pteropus woodfordi'') is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to the Solomon Islands. It is threatened by deforestation Deforestation or forest ...

, ''Pteropus woodfordi'' *

Lesser flying fox The lesser flying fox or Sanborn's flying fox (''Pteropus mahaganus'') is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. It is found in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands Solomon Islands is an island country consisting of si ...

, ''Pteropus mahaganus'' *

Gilliard's flying fox Gilliard's flying fox (''Pteropus gilliardorum'') is a species of flying fox in the family Pteropodidae. In Spanish, the common name is ''zorro volador de Gilliard''. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea. It is known from only three specimens. Biol ...

, ''Pteropus gilliardorum'' *

Caroline flying fox The Caroline flying fox or Pohnpei flying fox (''Pteropus molossinus'') is a species of megabat in the genus ''Pteropus'', endemic to Micronesia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests. Prior to a ban on commercial exploitatio ...

, ''Pteropus molossinus''

Description

The heads of the adults are creamy white,

buff Buff or BUFF may refer to: People * Buff (surname), a list of people * Buff (nickname), a list of people * Johnny Buff, ring name of American world champion boxer John Lisky (1888–1955) * Buff Bagwell, a ring name of American professional wr ...

, or tawny in adults. The heads of the juveniles are grayish brown, lacking red or yellow highlights. The back and rump are dark brown, with lighter hairs interspersed throughout. Their faces are dark brown to almost black, while the tops of the heads are brown or grayish brown. Their throats and chests are light brown or reddish brown, while their lower abdomen is darker brown. Many individuals have a large white patch on their bellies. Individual hairs are long. ''P. p. pelagicus'' has more contrast in its coloration than ''P. p. insularis'', and they also tend to have larger abdominal white patches. Their forearms are long. They weigh .

Biology

''P. p. pelagicus'' roosts in small groups of 5-10 individuals, although gatherings as large as 27 have been observed. They eat

breadfruit Breadfruit (''Artocarpus altilis'') is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family (Moraceae) believed to be a domesticated descendant of ''Artocarpus camansi'' originating in New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippi ...

banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...

papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus ''Carica'' of the family Caricaceae. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within modern-day southern Mexico and ...

, and ''

Pandanus ''Pandanus'' is a genus of monocots with some 750 accepted species. They are palm-like, dioecious trees and shrubs native to the Old World tropics and subtropics. The greatest number of species are found in Madagascar and Malaysia. Common names ...

'' fruits. In July, many of the females have pups, though larger pups have also been observed in April.

Copulation Sexual intercourse (or coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion and thrusting of the penis into the vagina for sexual pleasure or reproduction.Sexual intercourse most commonly means penile–vaginal penetrat ...

has been observed in December. ''P. p. insularis'' roosts in larger groups of up to 100 individuals; they are considered a "strongly colonial" species. Individuals are sometimes found by themselves, though. It is considered at least somewhat diurnal, unlike most flying foxes which are mostly

nocturnal Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite. Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed sens ...

.Pierson, E. D., & Rainey, W. E. (1992, July). The biology of flying foxes of the genus Pteropus: a review. In Pacific island flying foxes: proceedings of an international conservation conference (Vol. 90, pp. 1-17). US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.

Range and habitat

''P. pelagicus'' is located on the

, Chuuk Lagoon, and Namonuito Atoll. All three locations are within the

Federated States of Micronesia The Federated States of Micronesia (; abbreviated FSM) is an island country in Oceania. It consists of four states from west to east, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosraethat are spread across the western Pacific. Together, the states comprise a ...

. ''P. p. pelagicus'' is found on the Nomoi islands, while ''P. p. insularis'' is located on the other two sites. The range of the two subspecies is separated by .Rainey WE, Pierson ED. (1992) Distribution of Pacific island flying foxes. In: Wilson DE, Graham GL. (Eds). Pacific island flying foxes: proceedings of an international conservation conference. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 90(23): 111-121Kepler AK. (1994) Report: Chuuk coastal resource inventory, terrestrial surveys, August 4–14, 1993.Administrative report to CORIAL (Coastal, Ocean, Reef, and Island Advisors, Ltd.), Federated States of Micronesia Government, The Nature Conservancy Hawaii, and East-West Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.Flannery TF. (1995) Mammals of the south-west Pacific & Moluccan Islands. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. The entire range of ''P. p. pelagicus'' is only , with 75% of the population occurring on

Satawan Satawan Atoll is an atoll located about southeast of Chuuk Lagoon proper. Geographically it is part of the Nomoi or Mortlock Islands in the Carolines and administratively it is part of Chuuk State in the Federated States of Micronesia. About ...

and Lukunor atolls.

Conservation

When they were still considered separate species, the

IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...

assessed that both the Chuuk flying fox and the Mortlock flying fox were critically endangered.Helgen, K. & Wiles, G. 2010. Pteropus insularis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010: e.T18730A8512587. http://www.iucnredlist.org/pdflink.8512587Duff, A., & Lawson, A. (2004). Mammals of the world: a checklist. Yale University Press. The IUCN has not yet assessed the status of ''Pteropus pelagicus'', however. ''P. p. pelagicus'' is threatened by climate change, as the atolls where they live are only above sea level. Climate change is also projected to increase the frequency and intensity of

typhoon A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops between 180° and 100°E in the Northern Hemisphere. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin, and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth, accounting for a ...

s, which negatively impact both subspecies. Based on censuses, the population of ''P. p. pelagicus'' was estimated at 925–1,200 individuals in 2004. Unlike other species of flying fox, there does not appear to be much of a

bushmeat Bushmeat is meat from wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption, most often referring to the meat of game in Africa. Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal protein and a cash-earning commodity for inhabitants of humid tropi ...

trade in this species.

Micronesians The Micronesians or Micronesian peoples are various closely related ethnic groups native to Micronesia, a region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. They are a part of the Austronesian ethnolinguistic group, which has an Urheimat in Taiwan. Ethno ...

reportedly disdain flying foxes as food because they

urinate Urination, also known as micturition, is the release of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. It is the urinary system's form of excretion. It is also known medically as micturition, voiding, uresis, ...

on themselves and Micronesians view them as rat-like

vermin Vermin (colloquially varmint(s) or varmit(s)) are pests or nuisance animals that spread diseases or destroy crops or livestock. Since the term is defined in relation to human activities, which species are included vary by region and enterpr ...

. Other threats potentially include introduced predators such as cats,

rat Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents. Species of rats are found throughout the order Rodentia, but stereotypical rats are found in the genus ''Rattus''. Other rat genera include ''Neotoma'' ( pack rats), ''Bandicota'' (bandicoot ...

s, and

mangrove monitor The mangrove monitor, mangrove goanna, or Western Pacific monitor lizard (''Varanus indicus'') is a member of the monitor lizard family with a large distribution from northern Australia and New Guinea to the Moluccas and Solomon Islands. It grows ...

s. In 1986, there were an estimated 5,628 ''P. p. insularis'', but a steep decline took place. In two years (1988-1989), 3,723 of them were exported to

Guam Guam (; ch, Guåhan ) is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. It is the westernmost point and territory of the United States (reckoned from the geographic cent ...

for human consumption. ''P. p. insularis'' is not as threatened by climate change as the ''pelagicus'' subspecies, because its range has greater elevation. ''P. pelagicus'' was protected under CITES Appendix II in 1987, which was criticized by bat conservationists for not taking strict enough measures to protect flying foxes. It was protected under CITES Appendix I in 1989, making commercial trade of it illegal. Brautigan, A. (1992, July). Conservation of Pacific island flying foxes and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora. In Pacific island flying foxes: proceedings of an international conservation conference (DE Wilson and GL Graham, eds.). United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC (pp. 155-159).

Sources

{{Taxonbar, from=Q2129846 Bats of Oceania Fauna of Micronesia Mammals described in 1836 Pteropus Taxa named by Heinrich von Kittlitz Taxonomy articles created by Polbot